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Module 7A
CATEGORY B1 B2
HAND TOOLS
Licence By Post
Licence By Post
Copyright
Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.
Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY
It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training
purposes only.
When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST
always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturers handbook.
You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.
For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS
Page
Machine tools
Hand tools
Hammers
Punches
Pliers
Screwdrivers
Spanners
Hacksaws
Hand files
Vices
Chisels
Scrapers
Drill bits
Taps
Dies
Reamers
Rules measuring
Dividers
Trammels
Scribers
The fitters square
The combination set
Callipers
Surface plates
Marking-off table
Vee blocks
Scribing block
Key seat rule
Marking out
Precision measuring equipment
The micrometer
The vernier
The dial test indicator (DTI)
Bore gauge
Feeler gauges
Radius gauges
Screw pitch gauges
Wire gauge
Slip gauges
Sine bars
Limit gauges
The spirit level
Adjustable level
Clinometer
Powered hand tools
Torque loading
Torque wrenches
Tensiometers
The dead weight tester
1
5
5
6
7
8
9
12
13
16
19
20
21
23
26
28
30
30
30
31
31
32
33
33
33
34
34
35
36
38
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45
54
55
56
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56
57
57
58
60
61
61
62
63
66
69
74
76
This book is reasonably straight forward and with some students will be revision from
their days on basic training. However, the contents should be studied and learnt
particularly the subject of precision instruments. Ideally check out each
tool/instrument using your own tool kit or tools from the tool store. This is
important when dealing with precision instruments.
Practice as often as you can on micrometers (English and metric non-digital) and
verniers (English and metric 24/25 and 49/50 systems non-digital). Make sure
you can read the various instruments and name the parts. When checking the
readings get some one to verify your readings and if necessary take practice readings
on components several times using both micrometers and verniers for the same
reading. You can always check your readings using a digital instrument.
There should be no need to commit to memory much detail concerning Machine Tools
but a good understanding is required for all other tools including Power Tools.
Refer to book 3 in this series on the care, use and calibration of tools and equipment.
MACHINE TOOLS
The Lathe
Used for turning, facing, drilling and thread cutting. On modern production lines they
are automatic and controlled by computers.
The part to be worked on is placed in the chuck and when turned is shaped using a
variety of lathe cutting tools. Operated by qualified machine tool setters and operators
the lathe can be used on a variety of materials including wood, composites and
metals.
Guards should be fitted when in operation.
-1-
Milling Machine
Requires a skilled person to operate and may be a horizontal or vertical milling
machine. A horizontal mill is shown and is used for milling down metal to a close
tolerance and good surface finish.
The part to be milled in clamped to the moving table which moves back and forth
under the cutting head with a height adjustment after each pass.
-2-
Tools being sharpened can be ruined if allowed to lose their temper by overheating.
The item being sharpened must be dipped in water or oil to keep the tip cool
(depending on the type of wheel).
When grinding, move the item being ground from side to side to avoid forming ridges
on the wheel, never use the side of the wheel.
From time to time the wheel will have to be dressed. That is, cleaned up and made
flat. This is carried out using a special dressing wheel and must be performed by a
qualified person.
Safety Precautions
*
*
*
*
The Guillotine
Used for cutting sheet steel, aluminium, rigid composites, etc. Some machines may be
small enough to be fitted to a bench, others are self standing.
The guard allows only thin gauge metal to be cut and helps to prevent fingers from
being caught by the blade. Some machines have a double safety device fitted in the
form of two levers. These are placed so that both hands must be used to operate them
whilst one foot is used to operate the blade. If the levers are not operated the foot
pedal is locked.
Folding Machine
Folds metals ductile/malleable enough to be bent. Great care is needed to ensure that
the metal being folded is not cracked in the process. The counterbalance weights on
the machine allow for the considerable weight of the folding blade.
-3-
Fig. 5 GUILLOTINE
-4-
Fly Press
Used to stamp out small sheet metal parts by a downward force of the stamping head.
When the handle is pulled round the masses give the system momentum and the
male die can be wound down quickly into the female die so pressing out a shape in
sheet metal.
HAND TOOLS
There is a vast range of hand tools and following is a description of the most of those
in common use.
HAMMERS
Classified by weight and type of head. Conventional hammerheads are forged from
high carbon steels with faces hardened and tempered. Shafts are made from straightgrained ash or plastic.
Some hammerheads are made from copper, plastic, rubber or leather. These heads
are designed to allow a part to be hit without causing any damage to the part.
When using a hammer always ensure that the correct hammer is used and that the
head is secure. Hold the handle at the position farthest away from the head.
The main types are:
Ball Pein - The flat surface is used for most general work - the ball pain being used
for peening.
Cross Pein - The pein is at right angles to the shaft. Used for general work, the
cross pein being suitable for use where access to the working area is limited
(knocking in a small nails held by the fingers, for example).
Straight Pein The pein is inline with shaft and usage similar to the cross pein.
Nylon Faced - Used to deliver blows to the work without damaging the
surface.
Copper or Lead - Similar to the nylon faced hammer in terms of application.
-5-
PUNCHES
Centre Punch. Made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. Used for making
pop marks for indentation to locate the point of a drill at the start of the drilling
operation. A sharp point should be maintained by grinding, the angel should be 90
for general work and for light work such as marking out etc should be reduced to 60.
Remember that titanium should not be centre punched as it sets up high internal
stresses.
Pin Punches Parallel and Tapered. Are both made of high carbon steel- hardened
and tempered. Punches are used with a hammer to localise hammer blows.
The parallel pin punch is used to drive out rivets, (after head removal), bolts, split
pins, shackle pins etc. Always use the correct size punch and never use a tapered
punch, as this will tend to enlarge the hole.
The tapered punch is used to deliver a blow to a part where access to a hammerhead
would be difficult.
Hollow Punch. Sometimes called a Hole Punch and is used to make small holes in soft
materials such as leather etc. The slot in the side of the punch allows for removal of
the hole centres.
Rivet Punches. Usually called Set-ups, Snaps etc.
Set-ups, Dollies and Snaps are used in the forming of snap-head rivets. These are
covered in more detail in the books on riveting.
Drifts. These are flat ended punches either solid or tubular, which are used for
localising the effect of hammer blows and preventing damage to finished surfaces.
Also used for dismantling and assembling tight fitting parts. Drifts are made from
copper, brass, steel or aluminium alloy. Steel drifts only should be used to drive ball
or roller bearings as softer drifts may break and fragments from the drift could lodge
in the bearing. Ends must be clean and any damage/burrs removed.
-6-
Fig. 10 PUNCHES
PLIERS
There are various types of pliers, each designed for a specific use, eg
Combination. Can be used to hold round or flat material and have cutting edges
for cutting split pins, locking wire etc.
Flat Nose. Used to hold items where access is limited.
Snip or Round Nose. For twisting locking wire.
Diagonal or Side Cutting. Used for cutting soft wire and split pins.
Cable Stripping. For removing the insulation from electrical cables.
-7-
SCREW DRIVERS
Common or flat bladed. Blade made of high carbon or alloy steel the end being ground
flat to fit the slot cut in the head of the screw. The handle is made of wood or plastic.
Classified by length of blade.
Ratchet. Usually flat bladed. Has a selector to allow for the ratchet to be locked or set
for screw removal or screw fitment.
Watchmakers. Has a long thin blade with a flat plastic handle. Used for smaller
screws such as in electrical work.
Fig. 12 SCREWDRIVERS
-8-
All screw slots or recess should be cleared of paint or dirt before applying the
screwdriver head and the shaft of the screwdriver should be aligned with the screw
during use. Blade fit in the screw is most important otherwise the screw head will be
damaged making removal or tightening difficult. Use correct size screwdriver and
never grind the flat blade to a chisel head.
SPANNERS
These are supplied in a variety of forms and have the size marking stamped on them.
This size relates to the size of nut or bolt to which it fits, eg
BSF
BSW
0 BA etc.
or, which is common, the spanner is marked with the across flats size, eg
32mm
etc
This size relates to the distance across the flats of the nut or bolt.
Open-Ended Spanners . Made of high carbon steel with a different size at each end.
The length of the spanner is indicative of the torque to be applied to the nut/bolt
(based on the strength of the average person). The greater the size, the longer the
spanner. This rule also applies to ring spanners.
Ring Spanners. These give full enclosure to the bolt head or nut. Each corner fits
snugly with an angle in the aperture of the spanner and is usually bi-hexagonal to
facilitate its use when angular movement is restricted. Supplied in double-ended form
to fit nuts of consecutive sizes, the ends are generally off set but straight shank types
are available.
-9-
Box Spanners. These also fully enclose the nut or bolt head and are particularly
useful where access to the nut or bolt head is restricted to the centre line of the screw
axis automobile spark plugs for example.
Socket Spanners. These are used with various types of attachments and again this
type of spanner fully encloses the nut or bolt head. The socket aperture is bihexagonal at one end and at the other end the aperture is square to take the various
attachments. Attachments can include: extension bar; drive bar; T bar; universal
joint; flexible extension bar and reversible ratchet. Socket spanners are usually
supplied in sets complete with the requisite attachments.
C Spanners. Used on ring nuts with recesses cut round the circumference to
accommodate the lug on the spanner.
Peg Spanners. Two round pegs protruding from the flat surface engage in
corresponding holes in special nut or screw plates.
Splined Spanners. For use on circular splined nuts.
Adjustable Spanners. These are supplied in various forms and should not be used if
the correct size ordinary spanner is available.
- 10 -
Fig. 18 C SPANNER
- 11 -
Torque Spanners. These will be dealt with in more detail under the heading Torque
Loading. In most instances a socket is used to fit the square drive of the torque
spanner.
HACKSAWS
These are designed to cut most types of metals and other hard materials. They
usually consist of a frame, handle and removable blade.
The frame is made of mild steel and may be of fixed length or adjustable length to suit
various lengths of blades. The blade is usually located on two pins one at each end
of the frame.
There are two main types of blade:
(i)
(ii)
Blades are classified by their length, material and number of teeth per inch (pitch).
The number of teeth per inch varies from 14 (coarse) to 32 (fine). Normal blade
lengths are 8 inches (203mm), 10 inches (254mm) and 12 inches (305mm) but other
lengths are available.
The choice of blade depends on the type of material to be cut. Soft metals (eg
brass, aluminium etc) require coarse pitch blades. Hard metals (eg iron and steel)
require fine pitch blades.
The shape and thickness of the material must also be considered. At least three
teeth must be in contact with the material at any time, therefore, fine blades must
always be used for tubing and thin metals.
- 12 -
QUESTION
List the checks and precautions to take when using a hacksaw? (10
mins)
ANSWER
Fine
Medium
Coarse
HAND FILES
Used for the removal of metal to an accuracy of plus or minus about 0.001
(0.025mm) with skill.
Files are made from High Carbon Steel and consist of the body, which is hardened
and tempered, and a tang which is left relatively soft. A handle is fitted, usually made
from wood (Beech or Ash) and a ferrule made from steel or brass. The ferrule prevents
the wooden handle from splitting. Some files are supplied already fitted with a plastic
handle.
- 13 -
Classification
Files are classified by length, cut, section and grade.
Length
Section
(a)
Flat Usually a double cut file and is used for general work.
Sometimes one edge is left without teeth to permit working
against a finished surface.
(b)
Half Round This file tapers towards the tip. One surface is flat
and the other is curved. It is a general purpose file which can also
be used for filing concave surfaces. It is double cut on both sides.
(c)
(d)
- 14 -
(e)
Round Used for filing out concave surfaces and holes. Usually
double cut and tapering towards the end. Small round files are
sometimes called rat tails.
Cut
This denotes the type of teeth.
(a)
Single Cut Used mainly on hard metals. The teeth are formed by a
series of cuts parallel to each other but at a small angle.
(b)
Double Cut Are the most widely used. They have two series of cuts
which cross each other, one series being coarser than the other. The
teeth of these files tend to clog more easily than single cut files.
(c)
Dreadnought Suitable for heavy cutting of soft metals. They are single
cut files but with teeth curved in an arc.
(d)
Rasp These files are used for coarse work on soft materials (eg lead,
wood etc). Each tooth is cut separately by a single pointed tool.
Grade
This defines the depth and spacing of the teeth. The grades are (in decreasing order of
coarseness:
(a)
- 15 -
(b)
Second Cut A finer grade which gives a better finish but is slower
cutting. The most common grade.
(c)
Smooth The teeth are shallow and closely set enabling a good finish to
be obtained. Cuts comparatively slowly and should be used for finishing
work only.
(d)
Filing Method
Cross filing (holding the file at both ends and using the file at right angles to the work)
is used for general-purpose work and for squaring and roughing down. Draw filing
(holding the file in line with the work) is used for finishing and for most filing work.
Once the cross filing has been completed, the surfaces can be draw finished until all
the cross filing marks have disappeared.
QUESTION
ANSWER
5.
6.
7.
Never use a file without a handle. Most files are supplied with a
handle attached.
Always use the length, type and grade of file appropriate for the
job.
Secure the work in the vice (if possible) so that it is rigid and
positioned to enable filing to be done horizontally.
Whenever possible use the full length of the file for each stroke.
Do no rush, and as the file only cuts on the forward stroke relieve
the pressure on the return.
Keep the file teeth clean using a scratch card. Where clogging
material cannot be removed by this method, pick it out with a
sharp point (ice pick). Chalk rubbed on the teeth during the final
finish helps prevent clogging and produces a finer finish.
New files should, if possible, be used first on brass, cast iron or
similar metals before using on steel. This helps to harden them
off.
Files are brittle. To prevent breakage or dulling of teeth, store
them separately after use and do not strike them with, or on, any
other hard material.
VICES
The Bench Vice - provides rigid support for work at the bench. It allows both hands to
be used when sawing, filing, drilling, bending etc.
The body of the vice is normally manufactured from cast iron and has detachable
hardened steel jaws. It is made in two parts:
(a)
The main body, which contains a fixed nut or half nut and is bolted to
the workbench.
- 16 -
(b)
The sliding part which fits into the main body and is moved backwards
and forwards by means of a screw thread. This screw thread engages
with the nut in the main body. Turning the screw thread, by means of a
tommy bar, in a clockwise direction closes the jaws and in an anticlockwise direction opens the jaws.
Some vices have a quick release mechanism, which allows the sliding part to be
positioned quickly. With a quick release mechanism, a half nut is used and operation
of a lever disengages the half nut from the screw thread. The screw thread is usually a
single start square or buttress type.
Objects with machined or smooth surfaces can be protected, when held in a vice, by
using clams. These can be made from copper, lead or aluminium. Tubing can be
protected by the use of hardwood V blocks.
Vices are classified by the width of their jaws, common size being 100mm (4 inches).
- 17 -
The Machine Vice used on drilling and shaping machines to hold the work piece.
The body of the vice is manufactured from cast iron or steel and the base is slotted so
that it can be bolted down to hold the work steady. For light drilling using a pillar
drill, the vice can be held by hand.
The design of machine vices varies, but they all give a parallel grip. As with the Bench
Vice, one jaw is fixed and the other is sliding. The sliding jaw is moved by a screw
thread, which is turned either by a knurled handle, a tommy bar or a cranked handle.
No quick release mechanism is fitted to this type of vice.
Take care, when drilling, not to drill into the base of the vice. If possible, position a
piece of wood under the work to be drilled.
Toolmakers Clamp - used for holding small pieces of work together for assembling,
riveting or screwing.
They are made of case-hardened mild steel. A clip screwed to the top jaw locates
screw A and thus prevents the jaws falling together when being adjusted. This type of
clamp gives a parallel grip in all positions. The jaws are adjusted to approximately the
correct position and the final tightening is done by first adjusting screw A and then
screw B.
The clamp is classified by the length of the jaws (normally 50 to 150mm).
Hand Vice - used for holding work for drilling, riveting etc. The body is made from
steel and the jaws hardened and tempered. The spring is to keep the jaws apart with
the wing nut providing the clamping action.
- 18 -
CHISELS
Chisels are made from high carbon steel, hardened and tempered or nickel alloy steel
specially heat-treated to give a lasting cutting edge. The chamfered head is left soft
otherwise it would crack under repeated hammer blows.
Types of Chisels and Their Uses
1.
2.
3.
4.
Flat Used for general chipping work such as parting metal sheet or
cutting flat surfaces prior to filing.
Crosscut Used for cutting grooves in a flat surface.
Diamond Point Used for cleaning out corners and rectifying incorrect
drill starts.
Half Round Used for cutting half round bottomed grooves and may
also be used for rectifying incorrect drill starts.
- 19 -
Care of Chisels
A damaged chisel edge is sharpened on a grindstone and finished on an oilstone.
During grinding, the cutting edge must be kept cool by frequent dipping in water. The
end of the chisel struck by the hammer should be kept free from ragged ends and
burrs by grinding.
Fig. 34 CHISELS
SCRAPERS
These are made of high carbon steel hardened or tempered. They are used to produce
a very accurate finish on the surface that has already been as accurately finished as
possible by filing or machining.
Used mostly on steel. It is essential for scrapers to have a sharp cutting edge and this
is obtained by grinding on a grind stone followed by sharpening on an oil stone. When
not in use, scrapers should be stored with their cutting edges suitably protected.
The types of scraper in general use are:
1.
2.
3.
To produce a flat surface, it is necessary to use a surface plate and Engineers Blue (a
blue marking ink). Make sure that the surface plate and the work are clean.
Smear a thin layer if Engineers Blue on to the surface plate, then place the work on
the surface plate and move it backwards and forwards. Remove the work, and the
high spots will be coloured blue. Remove the high spots using a scraper and then rub
the work on the surface plate again. Keep repeating the above procedure until the
work is as flat as possible. For some work a dead smooth file can be used in place of a
scraper.
- 20 -
The same procedure can be used with journal bearings by applying engineers blue to
the journal.
Fig. 35 SCRAPERS
DRILL BITS
Used for drilling holes and are available in various forms to meet different
requirements. Are manufactured from high carbon steel or alloy steel. Alloy steel drills
are sometimes referred to as high-speed drills as they can be used at much higher
cutting rates than high carbon steel drills. High-speed drills contain 14% tungsten,
which allows them to run hotter without affecting the temper (heat treatment).
The following types of drills are in general use:
Flat Drills Simple to manufacturer but tend to drill inaccurate holes. They are slow
cutting, power wasting and do not clear the swarf produced. This leads to clogging
and overheating. The cutting angle varies for 5 for hard material, to 20 for soft
material such as brass. The point angle is 45.
Bottoming Drills Used to finish the bottom of a blind hole. A standard twist drill
could be modified for the same purpose.
Arboring or Peg Drills Used for counter-boring holes to provide a good seating for a
Bolt head or nut. It is also used to drill holes to receive a cheese head screw. The
projecting pin on this type of drill must be the same diameter as the hole to be
counter-bored.
Twist Drills The most common type of drill bit in general use. The shank is the plain
portion of the drill that provides the drive. The flutes allow for swarf clearance and
provide a means to allow coolant and lubricant access. The land provides for
clearance to reduce friction.
- 21 -
The web of the drill increases in thickness from the tip to the shank to provide extra
strength. At the tip of the drill, the web forms a chisel edge.
The cutting angel is normally 59, (from the centre line), the cutting edges being of
equal angle and length. The angle between the web and the cutting edge is 130 and
the clearance angle is 12. On large drills the web may be thinned by local grinding to
reduce the size of this non-cutting edge.
NOTE. The cutting angel may be altered to suit specific drilling operations, eg
aluminium 90, brass 118, cast iron 118, copper 90, hard steel 130, mild steel
118, plastics 90.
Cutting Speeds
This depends on size, type of drill and the material being drilled, eg
twist
twist
twist
twist
drill
drill
drill
drill
- 22 -
In general, speeds depend on the peripheral speed of the drill so the larger the drill
the slower the rpm and the harder the material the slower the rpm.
Most smaller drill bits are placed in a self centring chuck on the drilling machine and
the grip exerted by the chuck is adequate, but a stronger grip is required with larger
drills so they usually have a Morse Taper terminating in a flat tang. The Morse Taper
(1 in 20) engages directly with the tapered adapter of the drilling machine. A slot is
provided in the adapter to remove the drill by inserting a wedge on top of the drill
tang and tapping the wedge with a hammer to free the drill.
QUESTION
ANSWER
Taper pins 1 in 48
Taper keys 1 in 100
Lubrication
Prevents excessive heat by reducing friction, and helps preserves the temper of the
drill. It also helps reduce the heat at the cutting edge by transferring it away.
Suitable Lubricants:
Mild Steel
High Carbon Steel
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Brass & Cast Iron
TAPS
Taps are used for cutting internal (female) screw threads. They are manufactured
from high carbon or alloy steel hardened and tempered. They are fluted to provide
cutting edges, the shank is tough with the end squared to allow it to be turned with a
hand wrench. Taps are supplied in sets of three except for BA sizes where the second
tap is omitted. Markings on the shank include, type of thread, the size and the
number of tpi.
- 23 -
Types of Tap
1.
Taper Tap Used for starting the thread and is tapered from the tip to
the sixth thread. The tip diameter is equal to the root diameter of the
threads. It will cut a full thread in a through hole.
2.
Second Tap Used to deepen the thread cut by the taper tap in a blind
hole or a hole through thick material. It is less tapered than the taper
tap.
3.
Plug Tap Used to finish the thread cutting at the bottom of a blind hole
or a hole through thick material. It is not tapered at all.
QUESTION
ANSWER
The first step in producing a well-cut internal screw thread is to drill a hole of
the correct size. This should be the core diameter of the thread, but practically,
the hole needs to be slightly larger to prevent the tap from binding and possibly
breaking.
- 24 -
To find the correct drill to use, consult an Engineers Pocket Book, which will
give tapping drill sizes. If the book is not available, the correct drill size may be
obtained by:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Measuring the core diameter and taking the nearest size drill which is
slightly larger than the core diameter.
Select a drill which will just pass through a nut of the correct size.
The drill size may be specified on the shank of the tap.
Having drilled a hole to the correct dimensions fit the tap with a hand wrench
and enter the tap into the hole perpendicular to the face. Turn in the cutting
direction until the tap just starts to cut.
Check the tap is sat in the hole square by using a square.
Continue turning in the cutting direction for half a turn, then reverse the
direction for a quarter turn. Continue the process turn forward back until the tap bottoms in the hole or protrudes from the other side of the hole.
This continuous action will break the cuttings into chips and prevent straining
the tap.
Continue cutting the thread as described until either the bottom of a blind hole
has been reached or the full cutting length of the tap has been used.
Change to the second or plug tap as required and continue until the thread has
been properly cut.
Lubricate the work using the same lubricant as for drilling.
QUESTION Sometimes the tap may break in the hole usually through poor
engineering practices. Can you think of any reasons why it might break?
(3 or 4 reasons 5 mins)
ANSWER
My list is as follows:
(a)
Using an incorrect tap size.
(b)
Hole too small.
(c)
Trying to force a tap too far down a blind hole.
(d)
Turning tap clockwise all the time.
(e)
Lack of lubrication.
(c)
(d)
- 25 -
(e)
Broken taps are notoriously difficult to remove. It is best not to break them in the first
place.
DIES
These are for cutting male threads. There are two types of die:
Circular This type is generally used for cutting smaller threads. Slight adjustment
can be effected by the screws in the side of the stock. The die thread is tapered to
allow an easier start to be made. When fitting the die to the stock, the tapered side
must always be away from the shoulder of the stock.
Rectangular This is a two-piece die which is adjustable and is used for cutting larger
diameter threads. Two or three cuts may be required to cut the full thread, the die
being closed up after each cut. The die has tapered threads to allow easier starting.
The engraved numbers on the two halves must be fitted on the same side.
- 26 -
Die Nuts
These are similar in shape to a hexagon or square nut and are used to clean or
restore a thread that has become damaged. They are turned using a spanner.
Precautions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
- 27 -
7.
8.
Tap breakage.
9.
Note. All thread cutting is done by hand unless you are a Machine Tool Setter and
Operator.
QUESTION
If you had to cut a male and female mating thread, which one would you
cut first and why? (5 mins)
ANSWER:
The female thread should be cut first (taps). When the male thread is cut
the die is set to its largest setting on the first cut and is adjusted on
subsequent cuts so as to obtain a good fit between the male and female
thread, (occasionally trying the male thread in the female).
REAMERS
Reamers are used to finish drilled holes to accurate dimensions and give a smooth
internal finish. They are manufactured from high carbon or alloy steel and the flutes
provide a series of cutting edges. The amount of metal than can be removed by a
parallel reamer depends on its size and the type of material being used. As a rough
guide, the amount of metal that can be removed from a inch (13mm) diameter hole
by a parallel reamer is about 0.005 inch (0.127mm). With larger holes, a
correspondingly larger amount of metal can be removed.
Type of reamers include:
Parallel These only cut to one size and may have straight or spiral flutes. The size is
marked on the reamer.
Expanding These have separate blades that slide in slots which taper in depth. The
blades are held in position by two nuts. Alteration to the cutting size is made by
loosening one nut and tightening the other. They are parallel reamers.
The reamer has 5 blades and therefore cannot be checked for size by a micrometer or
vernier calliper. It has to be checked using a Ring Gauge. (For information on
micrometers, verniers and ring gauges see the section Precision Measuring
Instruments in this book).
Shell These are hollow fixed size reamers used on close fitting mandrels or boring
bars, which pass through the hollow centre. Used to ream long or deep holes such as
gun barrels.
- 28 -
Taper These are used to prepare holes for taper pins. They are supplied in sets
numbered from 0 to 10, the taper being the same as the standard for taper pins (ie 1
in 48).
Piloted These ensure that the reamer cuts centrally in the hole and is easier to use.
The tapered end makes the reamer cut progressively and also ensures a neater hole at
the entry end.
Machine Reamers Have a tapered drive (Morse Taper) to fit directly into a drilling
machine or lathe.
Select a drill 0.005 inch (0.127mm) smaller than the reamer for a
parallel reamer or 0.005 inch smaller than the small end of the reamer
for taper reaming.
Always ream by hand using the correct wrench except for machine
reaming and that should be carried out by a qualified person.
When taper reaming for a taper pin, ream the hole so that the pin is a
hand push fit with the small end flush with the bottom of the work. The
taper pin is then hammered in (gently) so that inch (6.35mm)
protrudes from the bottom with inch (3.17mm) showing at the top.
The taper pin is then locked into position by either:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Peening.
Bending the legs out (split taper pin).
A nut (threaded taper pin).
- 29 -
RULES - MEASURING
The Steel Rule. Made from high carbon steel hardened and tempered, usually
graduated in Imperial and metric units. Classified by length. Rules must be kept free
from rust and must not be subjected to rough usage. After use clean and lightly oil.
Measuring Tapes. Can be obtained in various lengths usually marked off with both
metric and Imperial scales. Tapes are made of linen, plastic or flexible steel. When
storing steel tapes clean and lightly oil. Remember that linen and plastic tapes can be
made to stretch if pulled and this can affect the indicated measurement.
DIVIDERS
Used to set out distances, scribe arcs and circles. The legs are made of high carbon
steel hardened and tempered; the spring of spring steel and the adjusting screw mild
steel. Classified by length of legs. The points should be kept sharp and the legs of
equal length by stoning on the outside. When not in use the points should be
protected by sticking them into a cork.
TRAMMELS
These consist of a bar with up to 3 adjustable trammel points attached. Using two of
the points the trammel can be used to scribe large circles. Using 3 points the trammel
can be used to check bow in a member. The points may be adjusted for both height
and position on the bar.
- 30 -
SCRIBERS
Used for marking lines on the surfaces of work. They are made of high carbon steel
hardened and tempered. Classified by length, like the points of dividers must be kept
sharp and protected when not in use.
Note. Materials such as aluminium alloy are notch sensitive ie will soon start to
develop
a crack at a notch or scriber mark when under stress. Therefore never scribe a line on
aluminium and its alloys unless it is a cutting line.
- 31 -
Square Head This is provided with two working faces one at 90, the other at
45 to the blade thus enabling it to be used as a square and as a mitre. A
spirit level is incorporated in the head and a scriber is also fitted.
(b)
Centre Head This is used in conjunction with the blade to locate the centre of
round bars, etc.
(c)
Protractor Head This is used in conjunction with the blade for checking or
setting any angle up to 180. A spirit level is often incorporated. The accuracy
is 1.
- 32 -
CALLIPERS
Inside and outside - are used in conjunction with a rule or other measuring
instrument for measuring distances between or over surfaces or for comparing
measurements. To set the callipers set them close to size, by hand, then adjust to the
correct size by tapping one leg (not at the point) against a rigid object. Odd leg
callipers are used for finding the centre of a round bar and for scribing lines parallel
to an edge or surface. Sometimes referred to as Jenny Callipers.
SURFACE PLATES
Made of cast iron and accurately machined and hand finished to provide a dead flat
surface. Provided with three feet to prevent rock; the undersides are ribbed to prevent
warping and twisting of the top face. Always keep clean and lightly oiled. When not in
use keep covered with a wooden cover preferably felt lined soaked with oil. Avoid
damaging surface. Do not drop tools or work onto the surface.
MARKING-OFF TABLE
Used to support work for marking-out and form a base from which measurements can
be taken. Made of close-grained cast iron and are strongly ribbed on the underside for
rigidity. They are free standing usually with 3 legs to prevent wobble.
- 33 -
The working surface is accurately machined to give a true flat surface and the edges
are square. To preserve the surface no work other than marking out or measurement
should be done on the table. After use the surface should be lightly oiled and then
covered with a wooden cover.
VEE BLOCKS
Used on the marking-off table or a surface plate to support round work, they are
made of cast iron or mild steel case hardened and are supplied in matching pairs,
each one of the pair being stamped with the same identification number. All surfaces
are accurately machined and the Vee angle is 90. Vee blocks are classified by the
maximum diameter of the work which can be held. Can also support square work at
45.
SCRIBING BLOCK
Used to mark out lines parallel to a true surface, such as the marking off table or
surface plate. The accurately machined base is made of cast iron or case hardened
mild steel. The scriber is made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. The pillar
angel and scriber height and angle are adjustable. A fine adjustment is provided for
the pillar angle. Dowels in the base can be pushed down to serve as guides against
the edge of the marking off table so that lines can be scribed parallel to the edge. Are
classified by the height of the pillar.
- 34 -
- 35 -
MARKING OUT
To Find Centre of Round Bar
Fit bar in Vee blocks on the surface table; with the scribing block set approximately
one third diameter scribe a line across the end of the bar; rotate bat 90; check with
fitters square for verticality; with scriber set at the same height scribe a second line;
rotate bar 90; check line is vertical and scribe third line; rotate bar 90; check line
again with square; scribe fourth line with the square. Join corners diagonally and
where diagonals intersect this is the centre of the bar.
- 36 -
- 37 -
Set the tube in Vee blocks. Set the scriber by eye to the centre height and make a
small mark at each side. Rotate the tube approximately 180 till the mark on the far
side comes to the scriber point where the second mark was made, move the scriber to
the other side and make another small mark which will be near but unlikely to be on
the original mark.
Reset scriber towards original mark of the distance between, repeat the marking
process disregarding the original marks. This time the marks should nearly coincide
with the other mark.
Repeat the operation until the marks agree. The scriber is now set at the centre
height.
The user.
The temperature of the instrument/work place.
The type and quality of the instrument.
The best quality instruments are made from a steel with a low co-efficient of linier
expansion sometimes called INVAR steel, which contains 36% nickel.
Some instruments have a temperature marked on them and this is the temperature at
which they are most accurate. It is usually 68F or 20C.
Modern micrometers and verniers can be electronic. In other words there is an
electronic display on the frame of the micrometer or sliding jaw of the vernier to
display the reading that the instrument is set to. The value is simply read straight
from the display. We will concentrate on the non-electronic type sometimes called a
non-digital instrument.
In general the accuracy of each instrument is:
English micrometer
English vernier micrometer
Metric micrometer
Metric vernier micrometer
English vernier calliper
Metric vernier calliper
Vernier Bevel protractor
0.001in (0.001).
0.0001in (0.0001).
0.01mm
0.001mm
0.001in (0.001).
0.02mm
5min (60 mins in one degree)
THE MICROMETER
The micrometer principle can be applied to:
*
*
*
Outside micrometers
Inside micrometers
Depth gauges, etc
- 38 -
The principle of the micrometer is the same in all cases. If we know the numbers of
threads per inch (tpi) and we know that it is a single start thread, then we know that
the lead equals the pitch.
QUESTION
ANSWER
A single start thread is a thread which only has one helix, ie one single
thread only cut as a helix on the surface of a round bar or on the inside
of a hole.
The pitch of a thread is the distance between two adjacent threads.
The lead of a screw thread is the amount of axial movement the nut or
bolt makes in one revolution.
So if we know the lead then we can divide the rotating part into a number of equal
divisions (say N), so each division will represent an Nth of the lead when rotated. This
is the principle of all micrometers.
- 39 -
1
25
1
1000
0.001in.
1
40
- 40 -
First read off the number of inches on the frame (assume a 0 to 1 inch mic).
=
2.
3.
0.400
4.
0.000
0.025 x 3
0.075
Now find the coinciding line on the thimble with the datum line (8).
=
0.008
0.000
0.400
0.075
0.008
------0.483
With no graduation on the thimble coincides with the barrel scale line, the graduation
to be read is that nearest to the datum.
- 41 -
The micrometer is read the same as a normal micrometer for the inches, tenths,
fortieths and thousandths of an inch. For the ten thousandths of an inch reading the
coinciding line is found on the vernier scale. In figure 60, assuming that the third
vernier division coincides with a sleeve graduation then the reading is:
Barrel Scale
Thimble Scale
Vernier Scale
=
=
=
0.4500
0.0195 (Note the thimble scale thous and half thous)
0.0003
--------0.4698
- 42 -
Checking Always check for correct zero setting. To do this, screw the spindle
down on to the anvil till the ratchet slips (0 to 1in and 0 to 25mm size only).
The reading should be 0.000 in. If incorrect the micrometer must be re-set.
For larger micrometers, test pieces are provided, exactly 1in, 2in, 3in, (or
25mm, 50mm, 75mm) etc, which are measured between anvil and spindle.
The micrometer scale should again read zero.
(b)
- 43 -
Checking
To check an internal micrometer, set it to read any figure, eg 3 in and measure it with
an accurate external micrometer; the readings should coincide.
- 44 -
Recess Micrometer Supplied with a long anvil to get into deep recesses.
Deep Frame Micrometer Has a deep frame for access around sheet
metal plates, etc. May need two people to handle it.
Tube Micrometer The anvil has a convex face and the micrometer is
used for checking the thicknesses of curved surfaces.
Screw Thread Micrometer The anvil has a Vee slot cut in it and the
spindle is ground to a point. It is used for the accurate measurement of
Vee threads.
THE VERNIER
The vernier system consists of a fixed Main Scale and a moving Vernier Scale.
Assuming the two scales are of equal length and that the total number of divisions in
one scale is greater by one division than the number of divisions in the other scale.
The difference between the length of one division on one of the scales and one division
on the other scale will give the accuracy of the instrument.
- 45 -
= 0.049in
- 46 -
Note the accuracy of the two systems is the same though some say the
49/50 system is easier to read. Im not so sure.
Read
Then
Then
Then
scale
*
*
*
*
- 47 -
1.000
0.200 (0.100 x 2)
0.075 (0.025 x 3)
0.009
1.284in
*
*
=
=
*
*
=
=
TOTAL
5.000
0.200 (reading up to the zero on
the vernier scale)
0.050
0.026
------5.276
Note. Try the readings of the verniers shown in figures 64 and 65. The author gets
them to be 1.230in (assuming the 30th vernier division lines up) and 5.148in
(assuming the 48th division lines up) respectively.
- 48 -
*
*
- 49 -
32.00mm
0.62mm
0.6mm
0.02mm
32.62mm
*
*
*
Read
Read
Read
scale
=
=
11.00mm
00.50mm
00.24mm
------11.74mm
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The zero reading must be checked by cleaning the gauging faces and
closing the jaws using firm finger pressure, securing the frame with the
locking screw. The zero lines of the main scale and vernier scale should
line up.
Hold the instrument to a good source of light; dirt, wear or strain
causing poor contact will be indicated by light between the faces.
Check the vernier scale locating screws for security and check the zero
reading. If the zero marks are not aligned note the error. Adjustment
can be made by loosening the vernier scale securing screws and repositioning the vernier scale to read zero, then tightening the securing
screws and re-checking. A magnifying glass will help.
Check a known dimension toward the limit of the instruments
measuring capacity, this checks any distortion or bowing of the beam.
Ideally use the instrument at its calibrated temperature (marked on one
of the jaws). Keep the instrument at this temperature for an hour or so
to allow it to acclimatise.
Precautions
It is essential that the base of the instrument is at all times in contact with the
surface table. It is advisable not to pre-set the instrument, otherwise the scriber may
override the work piece. The scriber should be lowered/raised slowly using the fine
adjustment until the required feel is obtained.
The instrument is not particularly stable when standing on its base, so when not in
use it is advisable to lay it on its side
- 50 -
When checking the instrument, since the main scale does not start at zero, it is
necessary to use an accurately ground distance piece, which is usually supplied with
the instrument. Adjustment of the vernier scale is similar to that used for the vernier
calliper.
DEPTH GAUGES
The depth gauge is used for measuring the depth of holes and recesses or the height
of spigots and shoulders from some reference plane. In its simplest form the gauge
consists of a graduated blade or rod, fitted with a moveable head or stock, which can
be locked in any position. Some gauges use a vernier scale or a micrometer head to
measure with the same accuracies as the ordinary verniers or micrometers. Examples
of the three main types are shown in figure 67.
blank
- 51 -
1 55
The accuracy is obtained by comparing one vernier scale division (1 55) to two main
scale divisions (2). The difference is 5 (5 mins).
- 52 -
Read from the zero on the main scale to the zero on the vernier scale to
find the degrees.
Continue to read in the same direction to find the coinciding line on the
vernier scale. This will give the number of minutes.
Reading Angle B
*
*
63
00 15
------6315
blank
- 53 -
*
*
42
30
-------4230
137
30
--------13730
----------
TOTAL
*
- 54 -
BORE GAUGE
Similar to the DTI but used to measure the ovality of a bore. The contact face of the
gauge is operated by a lightly spring loaded plunger fitted to a T shaped head, the
plunger movement being transmitted by a small curved rod retained in a slide and a
long rod housed in the hollow handle. The curved rod limits the plunger movement,
so sets of distance pieces and extension rods are supplied to increase the range
generally 2in to 6in. The spring-loaded anvil centralises the tool in the bore to ensure
that the spindle and plunger make contact with the wall of the bore across its
diameter.
- 55 -
FEELER GAUGES
Feelers are used to measure small clearances or gaps. The flexible steel blades are
graduated in thickness in most cases from 1 to 15 thousandths of an inch. The
blades are secured in a stock when not in use. Classified by length of blades, After
use should be lightly oiled and kept in the stock to prevent distortion. Metric sets are
also available.
- 56 -
WIRE GAUGE
This is used to determine the thickness of wire and sheet metal. It is made of sheet
steel with accurately ground slots round the edges, each slot being numbered
according to the specification. This could be British Standard Institute (British
Standard Wire Gauge), or American Wire Gauge for example. To use the gauge try the
metal sheet or wire into the slots until the nearest fit is obtained, then read off the
number at the side of that slot.
The gauge may be rectangular or circular in shape.
SLIP GAUGES
Slip Gauges or Johannson blocks are mainly used as standards for checking the
accuracy of working gauges. They are simply rectangular blocks of hardened and
polished steel, but they are ground to extremely high standards of accuracy in length,
flatness and parallelism. The full set of slips comprises 81 pieces, graduated in size,
to enable any length from 0.05in to over 10 inches to be built up in steps of 0.0001in.
The slips are used in conjunction with a set of accessories to produce fixed
gauges/angles for a wide variety of purposes. Figure 75 shows three examples of
check gauges built-up from slips to give accurate linier measurements and figure 77
shows how they can be used, in conjunction with a Sine Bar, to produce accurate
angles.
- 57 -
SINE BARS
The sine bar is an accurately machined bar which is used on a surface table or
surface plate. It is used in conjunction with slip gauges and rollers to produce
accurate angles (to an accuracy of 1 minute) (60 minutes = 1 degree).
Machined angles can be checked against it as can other instruments such as the
vernier bevel protractor, the clinometer etc.
- 58 -
To use the sine bar a knowledge of trigonometry is required in particular the Sine
Ratio. (Refer to the books in this series entitled Mathematics).
QUESTION As a quick bit of revision, can you state what the sine of an angle is? (5
mins)
ANSWER
The sine of an angle (of a right angel triangle) is the ratio of the Opposite
side over the Hypotenuse.
SINE = O (SOH)
H
If we know the length of the sides O and H then we can divide O by H
and then find the angle by using Sine tables or a scientific calculator.
Example
In figure 77, a sine bar (H = 100mm) is set up and the height O of the slip gauges is
26.15mm. From the angle theta the opposite side (O) is 26.15mm and H = 100mm.
The angle is:
Sine
O
H
26.15
100
- 59 -
1510
0.2615
Another way the sine bar may be used is to calculate the height of the slip gauges to
produce a given angle.
Given an angle of 1811, if a 200mm sine bar is used, the height of the slip gauges
would be:
O
H
Sine
O = H x Sine
or
200 x 0.3120
62.40mm
LIMIT GAUGES
Sometimes called GO/NO GO gauges and are used to check that components are
within wear limits. Used mostly in component bays with the plug gauge used for
checking holes and the gap gauge used for checking shafts.
The ends of the gauges are indicated which is the GO and which is the NOT GO end
with sometimes actual dimensions given as well.
When using a plug gauge the GO end (small end) should go into the hole if it does
not the hole is too small, and the NOT GO end should not if it does go in it indicates
the hole is too big (warn beyond limits). The difference between the sizes indicates the
maximum permissible wear. The flats on the side of the plugs allow for the checking
of ovality.
For the gap gauge the GO side is the larger (if it doesnt fit, the shaft is too big) and
the smaller end is the NOT GO end indicating the shaft has worn to it's lowest limit.
- 60 -
ADJUSTABLE LEVEL
These vary in design but may be used to measure angles up to 10 from the
horizontal. The vertical scale reads in degrees and one complete turn of the adjusting
micrometer knob will alter this scale by one degree. The adjusting knob has a scale of
it's own which is divided into 60 equal divisions. Each division represents one sixtieth
of a degree which is equal to one minute.
The instrument is placed on the surface to be measured and the knob turned until
the bubble reads zero - the degrees are read from the vertical scale and the minutes
from the rotating scale.
To check for accuracy set both scales to zero and then proceed as for the spirit level.
- 61 -
CLINOMETER
Used for checking angles from 0 to 90. The mechanical clino shown has a
mechanism which consists of a worm gear and quadrant. Rotation of the quick
release knob rotates the worm which moves the quadrant. The spirit level and degree
scale are attached to the quadrant. One revolution of the quick release knob moves
the spirit level and degree scale through one degree.
The quick release knob has it's diameter divided into 60 equal divisions so that
movement of one of these is equal to one minute of ark. The quick release knob may
be moved down against a spring to release the quadrant, thus allowing quick
approximate adjustments of the degree scale. To check the instrument, set both
scales to zero and proceed as for the spirit level.
- 62 -
Electronic Clinometer
Sometimes called a Digital Clinometer and can be used to measure angles for 0 to
90. When switched on and placed on a surface the angle in degrees and minutes is
shown in the window. This can be locked, to be read later if visual access to the
instrument is limited.
Torches
Lead lamps
Electric mains operated drills
Battery operated drills
Riveting guns
Pneumatic hammers
Pneumatic millers
Pneumatic nibblers
Torches
These are supplied in a variety of forms and may be battery operated or re-chargeable.
The important point to note is that they should be of the spark proof type, ie approved
for use on aircraft.
Lead Lamps
These also should be of the safety type with the glass cover protected with a wire
frame. Leads should be so arranged that they are not is a position so that people can
trip on them and they do not pass over liquids of any kind, or over sharp edges.
Lead lamps and the lead should be inspected before used checking for security of the
plug and drill. Check for damage and contamination of the lamp and plug, and check
the cable for contamination and fraying. If in doubt about its serviceability change it
for another.
- 63 -
When provided with a variable speed control the drill may be used (with the
appropriate bit) as a screwdriver. To place a screwdriver bit or a drill bit, the bit is
locked in the chuck using a chuck key.
Cordless Drill
Similar in operation to the drill described above except that it is powered by rechargeable batteries. Generally not so powerful but can be used in remote locations
away from a power source. Should be kept fully charged and the same precautions
and inspections apply except for the lead of course.
- 64 -
- 65 -
Before use check the hammer for damage and check that the correct rivet snap is
securely fitted by its retaining spring onto the body. Before actually riveting it is
advisable to try the hammer out first to ascertain how strong the hammer action is.
This should be done by placing the snap against a firm wooden block (held in a vice
for example) and operating the push button.
Never operate the hammer without the snap being supported if the spring was to
loosen and come off the snap would fly and could injure someone.
TORQUE LOADING
QUESTION
Can you define torque and state the units it is measured in?
(5 mins)
ANSWER
There are several ways of torque loading a nut and bolt assembly without the use of a
torque spanner, eg
*
Using a spring balance to get the required force pulling at right angles
at the end of an open-ended or ring spanner.
- 66 -
Torque loading, therefore, is a measure of how far the bolt has been stretched and
how tight the joint is being held together.
If a nut/bolt assembly is over-torqued then the bolt material might be stretched
beyond its elastic limit and therefore it will be weakened. If the assembly is undertorqued then the joint is not held tight enough and movement and failure could occur.
The majority of bolts, nuts or screws on aircraft are subject to a standard torqueloading dependant on material, thread size, type and lubrication. Different
applications may require a particular torque loading, this will be specified in the
appropriate manual. The normal method of applying a specified torque loading is by
means of a Torque Wrench.
The Technique
This may vary depending on application, but in general the following points apply:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
NOTE. If several nut bolts/studs are used for joining the same part (such as a
cylinder head), they are usually tightened in sequence.
If they are located in a circle, for example, the first one to be tightened is usually the
one at the 12 oc position followed by the one at 6 oc position then:
1
7
2
8
oc
oc
oc
oc
then,
then,
then,
then .
Several clock circles may have to be completed before the correct reading is
obtained on each nut/stud.
- 67 -
When using sealants in a joint the torque loading of fasteners should be carried out
within the sealant setting time. After ten minutes but within twice the application life
of the sealant, the loading should be checked and re-applied as necessary.
Stiffnuts
In order to check the effectiveness of the friction element of a stiffnut it is general
practice to turn the nut onto its mating thread by hand. If it is possible to pass the
thread through the friction element by hand, then the nut should be discarded.
However, certain manufacturers specify limits of frictional torque for various thread
types and sizes and in these instances each stiffnut should be checked with a torque
wrench before re-use. Usually the stiffnut torque value is then added to the specified
torque value for the nut/bolt assembly, and this value is set on the torque wrench.
Torque Tables
Tables of standard torque values for difference thread types and sizes and for special
applications should be found in the AMM. Manuals for older types of aircraft may be
found to contain only special torque loading requirements and a single table
applicable to non self-locking nuts. In these cases the frictional torque of a stiffnut
must be added to the torque quoted for the type and size of thread. Tables usually
specify the upper and lower limits of torque, but if a single figure is quoted, it is
generally accepted that this may be exceeded for the purpose of lining up a split pin
hole, tab washer or locking plate. However, an upper torque limit should not be
exceeded and nuts should not be slackened to line up locking devices.
- 68 -
Tension
Shear
10-32
1/4-28
5/16-24
3/8-24
7/16-20
1/2-20
9/16-18
5/8-18
3/4-16
7/8-14
1-12
20 to 25
60 to 70
115 to 125
200 to 215
335 to 355
500 to 530
720 to 760
980 to 1020
1650 to 1790
2500 to 2700
3500 to 3700
12 to 15
30 to 40
60 to 85
95 to 110
270 to 300
290 to 410
480 to 600
660 to 780
1300 to 1500
1500 to 1800
2200 to 3300
The table shows typical torque loading figures for steel non self-locking lubricated
Unified threads. It is applicable to British Standards A102 to A217 or American AN3
to AN20 bolts and nuts, and should not be used when different values are specified by
the equipment manufacturers. If applied to self-locking fasteners, the frictional torque
of the nut should be added to the figures shown.
There should be no need to commit the table to memory.
TORQUE WRENCHES
In general can be classified as Dial Type or Break Type. Dial type wrenches have some
form of indicator on them to indicate how much torque is being applied. They may
have an actual dial on the handle or may have an indicator bar attached to the socket
drive.
The break type wrench is set to a particular value either by checking it against a
master rig (eg an Acratork test rig) or by setting the torque value on a micrometer type
scale on the handle of the wrench.
Dial Wrench
Figure 87 shows a typical dial wrench. When under torque loading the drive shaft
tends to twist (a very small amount) against a spring beam within the unit. This twist
is transmitted to a lever, which moves a pointer on the dial indicated in
lb in or Nm.
The dial should be checked for zero prior to use.
- 69 -
- 70 -
When the preset torque loading is reached, an audible click is produced and an
indicator bar moves out to give a visual indication. Feel is also momentarily relieved.
The wrench does not loose drive so it must never be operated past the position when
the click is heard. The wrench is reset automatically on release of the hand pressure.
For very accurate torque loadings the wrench should be checked on a test rig prior to
use to confirm the barrel readings.
- 71 -
Extension Spanners
In some cases an extension spanner can be fitted onto the end of a torque wrench.
When this happens the reading on the torque wrench will be less than the actual
torque felt by the nut/bolt.
When an extension spanner is used the reading on the torque wrench can be found
from the equation:
Reading
Specified Torque x L
D
If the extension spanner has to be placed at an angle (for access) then all lengths
must be measured perpendicular to the force as shown in figure 88.
Example
Set specified torque
L
D
=
=
=
200 lb in
12in
14in
Specified Torque x
200 x 12
14
171 lb in
- 72 -
L
D
Precautions
Verify that the specified torque and the wrench scale are in the same units, if not the
specified torque should be converted by calculation to the scale units. When torque
loading the wrench, the handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly
at 90 to the axis of the wrench.
Values of torque within the first quarter of the wrench scale may be difficult to read
accurately and some manufacturers specify that the torque wrench selected for a
particular use should have a range where the specified torque falls in the upper range
of the scale.
When using a torque wrench with a floating driving tang so that the direction of
rotation can be reversed, ensure that the driving tang is correctly positioned otherwise
damage to the fasteners may occur before it is noticed. Indicator type torque
wrenches should be checked before use to ensure that the scale reading is zero.
All torque wrenches should be frequently checked for accuracy and a record kept of
the checks the wrench should have an indication attached as to when the last check
was carried out.
One method of checking is by attaching a spring balance to the centre of the wrench
handle and force applied in the arc of movement. The scale reading on the torque
wrench should be the same as the spring balance reading multiplied by the length of
the wrench. Checks should be carried out at several values on the torque wrench
scale range.
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TENSIOMETERS
Used to check the tension of control cables for flying controls, engine controls etc.
There are several types available. Two are described below.
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Before use, the position of the spring anchorage pin should be checked to see that it
has not moved outside its engraved circle. If movement has occurred the pin should
be restored to its original position. The tensiometer should be checked at regular
intervals by the manufacturer or at an approved standards room.
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From the chart supplied find the correct riser to use for the size of cable.
Fit the riser.
Check that the brake is off. Move trigger away from the case - this lowers
the riser.
Over the longest free length of cable possible (or as specified in the AMM)
place the cable under the two sectors and over the riser.
Close the trigger - this raises the riser.
Note the reading on the gauge. (If the reading is to be held operate the
brake lever).
Open the trigger and remove the tensiometer from the cable.
Convert the dial reading to lb tension by reference to a chart.
NOTE. Each tensiometer has its own calibration chart. Make sure the calibration
chart bears the same serial number as the tensiometer.
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For the imperial type tester the piston area = 0.125in2 and the piston mass = 0.125lb.
The calculated pressure is compared with the indicated pressure they should both
be the same for a serviceable gauge. The process would be repeated with several
different masses to cover the full operating range of the gauge.
These testers tend to be messy affairs and are usually bolted to a liquid proof metal
tray with turned up edges so as to keep spillages to a minimum. The tray is labelled
with the type of fluid used in the tester. In hydraulic test bays there is usually several
dead weight testers each labelled with the type of fluid used eg DTD585, Skydrol
etc.
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