546402

research-article2014

ISCXXX10.1177/1053451214546402Intervention in School and ClinicMcCrimmon

Global Perspectives
Vanessa Green, Associate Editor
Intervention in School and Clinic 2015, Vol. 50(4) 234237
Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2014
Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1053451214546402
isc.sagepub.com

Inclusive Education in Canada: Issues in Teacher

Preparation
Adam W. McCrimmon, PhD1

Abstract
Inclusive education (IE) is widely adopted in Canadian educational systems. However, few Canadian universities require
students in undergraduate teacher preparation programs to complete coursework on the topic of IE, and the few courses
on this topic do not adequately prepare future teachers to work in inclusive classrooms with students with diverse
exceptional learning needs. One potential solution to this issue of lack of adequate teacher preparation is specialized
postgraduate certificate programs that offer highly specialized training on childhood disorders and the application of this
knowledge to classroom-based interventions to enhance the learning experiences of children with exceptional learning
needs in inclusive classrooms. Suggestions for enhancement of teacher preparation programs are provided.
Keywords
inclusive education, Canada, teacher preparation, autism
Canadian educators experience multiple challenges in their
classrooms, including increasing class sizes, longer work
ing hours, reduction of funding to support learning initia
tives, and demands by administration and/or parents to meet
or exceed curricular demands (Council of Ministers of
Education of Canada, 2008). In addition, teachers must
adapt their educational practices to meet the needs of an
increasingly diverse student population, particularly stu
dents with exceptional learning needs (Forlin, 2004, 2005).
In Canada, inclusive education (IE) has been imple
mented in an effort to meet the needs of many students. IE is
the process of educating children with disabilities in the
regular education classrooms of their neighbourhood
schoolsthe schools they would attend if they did not have
a disabilityand providing them with the necessary ser
vices and support (Rafferty, Boettcher, & Griffin, 2001,
p. 266). In effect, IE recognizes that many children have been
disadvantaged through a process of placement in separate
(i.e., specialized or segregated) educational settings that
emphasized their challenges and/or deficits rather than their
abilities (Andrews, Drefs, Lupart, & Loreman, 2015). This
process of separation was predicated on the belief that educa
tional systems were not meeting the learning requirements of
children with exceptional learning needs, necessitating place
ment with specially trained personnel who were considered

better able to support the childrens educational experi

ences. Such specialized educational placements have been
shown to be beneficial to students with various learning
challenges. For example, past research has shown that
separate educational placements have resulted in improved
expressive language and cognitive outcomes for children
with moderate to severe learning needs (Buysse & Bailey,
1993; Cole, Mills, Dale, & Jenkins, 1991) and that stu
dents with learning disabilities demonstrated greater
improvement of academic skills in specialized educational
settings (Carlberg & Kavale, 1980; Sindelar and Deno,
1978). However, the limitations of separate education
were recognized by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (1994) when it called
for reform to educational practices away from specialized
education and toward an emphasis on IE. Specifically, the
reduction of discriminatory attitudes, enhanced opportuni
ties for social and behavioral growth for students with

University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada

Corresponding Author:
Adam W. McCrimmon, University of Calgary, Werklund School of
Education, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
Email: a.mccrimmon@ucalgary.ca

McCrimmon
diverse severity of special needs, and the efficiency of the
educational system were all highlighted as positive attri
butes of IE classrooms.

The Canadian Context

Each of the 10 Canadian provinces and 3 territories has the
power to enact and enforce laws regarding education and the
responsibility to organize, deliver, and assess educational
policies and practices. Despite the potential for discrepancy
regarding primary educational approaches, all provincial
and territorial ministries of education have either formally
adopted and implemented IE frameworks or include
practices in alignment with inclusive frameworks (Alberta
Education, 2011; BC Ministry of Education, 2011; Govern
ment of New Brunswick, 2006; Government of Nova
Scotia, 2008; Government of Prince Edward Island, 2011;
Manitoba Education, 2011; Newfoundland and Labrador
Department of Education, 2012; Northwest Territories
Department of Education Culture, and Employment, 2006;
Nunavut Department of Education, 2012; Ontario Ministry
of Education, 2009; Quebec Ministre de lducation, du
Loisir, et du Sport, 2008; Saskatchewan Ministry of
Education, 2012; Yukon Education, n.d.). However, the
implementation of inclusion after years of separated educa
tion has brought challenges to Canadian classrooms, par
ticularly regarding teacher competencies and capabilities to
meet the learning needs of a broader student population.

Challenges With IE
One of the most commonly investigated challenges in IE is
teacher willingness and preparedness to adopt the tenets of IE
in the classroom. Research has indicated that female teachers
are generally more accepting of students with exceptional
learning needs than are male teachers (Avramidis, Bayliss, &
Burden, 2000). The degree and severity of a childs disability
has also been reported to influence acceptance of inclusive
practices (Hastings & Oakford, 2003). As well, length of time
on the job has been found to influence attitudes toward inclu
sion, with newly graduated teachers being more open to and
accepting of inclusion than experienced teachers (de Boer,
Pijl, & Minnaert, 2011). Overarching these barriers to the
implementation of an inclusive framework in classrooms is
teachers personal expectations of effectiveness when work
ing with students with exceptional learning needs (Palmer,
2006). Indeed, research has indicated that number of years of
training is positively related to improved attitudes toward
inclusion (Avramidis & Kalyva, 2007) and that teacher
knowledge and experience with childhood disabilities has
been shown to dramatically enhance teacher self-efficacy and
effectiveness in inclusive classrooms (Batsiou, Bebetos,
Panteli, & Antoniou, 2008).
Despite the awareness that teacher knowledge and expe
rience have a dramatic facilitative effect on inclusive

235
classrooms, the majority of teacher preparation programs in
Canadian universities fail to provide such experience as
part of their bachelor of education (BEd) or equivalent
undergraduate degrees. Indeed, a review of the required
courses as posted on the websites of the faculties of educa
tion of the four largest Canadian universities, including a
review of the individual course descriptions and/or outlines,
indicated a paucity of required courses on the topic of IE
within their BEd programs. Specifically, the University of
Alberta (2013) has a single course on the topic of the appli
cation of psychological principles to the classroom, includ
ing an aspect of individual and group differences in student
abilities (EDPY 200), and a single course on the broad topic
of IE curriculum and practices (EDPY 301). The University
of British Columbia (2013) has only a single course on
diverse learners, with no focus on IE (EPSE 308). The
University of Toronto (Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education, 2013) requires a single course on the broad topic
of IE curriculum and practices (EDU320). Finally, McGill
University (2011) requires students to complete a course on
teachers roles in IE classrooms (EDPI341). However, none
of these programs appears to require teachers in training to
be systematically exposed to definitions and/or descriptions
of childhood disabilities in conjunction with mentored
experience with research-informed effective classroombased intervention practices, a process that would seem to
best meet the needs of future teachers working in inclusive
classroom environments.
Given teachers reported lack of training and understand
ing of childhood disabilities, including how to modify or
adapt the classroom and/or curriculum to meet students
learning needs (Jacquet, 2008), it is surprising that Canadian
BEd programs lack effective preparatory coursework for
inclusive classrooms. Indeed, current Canadian BEd pro
grams focus more on preparing future teachers to work with
typically developing students, resulting in a discrepancy
between current policies and practices regarding IE and
teacher performance within this environment. Although
many academic institutions do house academic faculty
members with expertise in children with exceptional learn
ing needs (e.g., special education), Canadian BEd programs
do not appear to use this expertise in the required course
work for teachers in training, with the result being that the
majority of nascent teachers are underprepared for teaching
in modern classrooms containing diverse learners without
additional training or experience.
Within the Canadian context, recent research indicates
that teachers do not feel that they possess the required
expertise to effectively instruct students in an inclusive
environment, and professional training and development
opportunities are seen as fundamental to ensuring that stu
dents with exceptional learning needs in IE classrooms
receive appropriate instruction (Loreman, 2010; Loreman,
Sharma, & Forlin, 2013). Indeed, underpreparation of
teachers to work in IE classrooms has been shown to be an

236
indicator of teacher stress and burnout, which can nega
tively affect student outcome (Forlin, 2001).

A Potential Solution: Specialized Certificate

Courses
One potential solution to this issue would be to alter or aug
ment the BEd curriculum to include curricula on childhood
disabilities. However, Canadian BEd programs are typi
cally either concurrent, whereby students complete the
BEd program simultaneously with an undergraduate degree
in another discipline, or consecutive, whereby the BEd
coursework is completed in an abbreviated 2-year time
frame subsequent to the completion of an undergraduate
degree. In either circumstance, the quantity of BEd course
work is substantial, and additional classes would likely
prove too challenging for many students. Alternatively, spe
cialized programs can be developed that would serve to pro
vide the precise training necessary for teachers to effectively
operate in an inclusive environment. Specifically, programs
that provide teachers with targeted knowledge and training
regarding the primary features of childhood disorders, the
impact of those features on childrens learning, and best
practices regarding educating children with specific excep
tional learning needs would be beneficial.
Currently, only one Canadian university provides such
specialized programming in the form of postgraduate cer
tificate programs. Included in the many options for graduate
certificates in education at this institution are programs spe
cifically designed to develop teacher expertise regarding
education of children with special education needs, such as
autism spectrum disorder (ASD), within an IE classroom.
Designed with a developmental framework, this program
provides targeted instruction on the primary and associated
features of these clinical conditions, the developmental
challenges of these conditions across childhood and adoles
cence, exposure to best-practice intervention approaches
for children with ASD, and application of all of these topics
to the classroom environment to enhance teachers capacity
to work with and educate students with ASD. Instructors are
experts from the field with specialized knowledge and
experience in each topic area. Similar certificate programs
for working with children with attention-deficit/hyperactiv
ity disorder or mental health concerns are also available.
Although these programs are graduate certificates, mean
ing that students must have completed BEd or equivalent
degrees to apply to the programs, they are a step toward
ensuring that Canadian teachers receive specific and special
ized training in working with a diverse student population
within an IE environment. Furthermore, they are offered in
an online format, meaning that students from around the
world are able to apply for and complete the courses from
their own locales. Operated in conjunction with current
live on-campus coursework, the online format follows the
same structure and format of typical on-campus course

Intervention in School and Clinic 50(4)

offerings through a web-based virtual classroom program
whereby students at a distance can view and interact with the
course instructor and other students to achieve the learning
goals of each course. Rigorous standards of instruction and
student evaluation are adhered to, ensuring the quality of the
online (compared with the on-campus) format. As such,
these certificate programs provide a pivotal source of train
ing for teachers wanting to enhance their ability to educate
children with exceptional learning needs.

Summary
Inclusive education is widely adopted in Canada; however,
Canadian BEd programs do not provide adequate training
regarding the specifics of childhood disabilities. As a result,
many Canadian teachers struggle with the application of
inclusive principles in their classrooms and find the educa
tion of children with exceptional learning needs challeng
ing. One potential solution to this issue is the provision of
focused certificate programs that provide highly specialized
training and experience with specific childhood disabilities
to enhance teachers knowledge and capacity in their class
rooms. Currently, one Canadian university does provide
such training to complement current classroom practices.
However, although these programs provide important train
ing opportunities to teachers, integration of the curricula
from these programs into BEd programs may further
enhance teacher capacity within IE classrooms.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References
Alberta Education. (2011). About an inclusive education system.
Retrieved from http://education.alberta.ca/department/ipr/
inclusion/about.aspx
Andrews, J. W., Drefs, M., Lupart, J., & Loreman, T. (2015).
Foundations, principles, and student diversity. In J.
W. Andrews & J. Lupart (Eds.), Diversity education:
Understanding and addressing student diversity (pp. 2473).
Toronto, Canada: Nelson.
Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P., & Burden, R. (2000). Student teachers
attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special edu
cational needs in the ordinary school. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 16, 277293.
Avramidis, E., & Kalyva, E. (2007). The influence of teaching
experience and professional development on Greek teach
ers attitudes towards inclusion. European Journal of Special
Needs Education, 22(4), 367389.
Batsiou, S., Bebetos, E., Panteli, P., & Antoniou, P. (2008). Attitudes
and intention of Greek and Cypriot primary education teachers

McCrimmon
towards pupils with special educational needs in mainstream
schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12(2),
201219.
British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2011). Special education services: A manual of policies, procedures and guidelines. Retrieved from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/specialed/
ppandg.htm
Buysse, V., & Bailey, D. B. (1993). Behavioral and developmental
outcomes in young children with disabilities in integrated and
segregated settings: A review of comparative studies. Journal
of Special Education, 26(4), 434461.
Carlberg, C., & Kavale, K. (1980). The efficacy of special ver
sus regular class placement for exceptional children: A metaanalysis. Journal of Special Education, 14, 295309.
Cole, K. N, Mills, P. E, Dale, P. S., & Jenkins, J. R. (1991).
Effects of preschool integration for children with disabilities.
Exceptional Children, 58, 3645.
Council of Ministers of Education of Canada. (2008). Inclusive
education in Canada: The way of the future. Retrieved from
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_2008/can
ada_NR08_en.pdf
de Boer, A., Pijl, S. J., & Minnaert, A. (2011). Regular primary
schoolteachers attitudes towards inclusive education: A
review of the literature. International Journal of Inclusive
Education, 15(3), 331353.
Forlin, C. (2001). Inclusion: Identifying potential stressors for
regular class teachers. Educational Research, 43(3), 235245.
Forlin, C. (2004). Promoting inclusivity in western Australian
schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 8,
185202.
Forlin, C. (2005). Sustaining inclusive practices in primary
school communities. In C. Newell (Ed.) Disability in education: Context, curriculum and culture (pp. 1321). Canberra:
Australian College of Educators.
Government of New Brunswick. (2006). Supporting the SEP
process: A teachers guide. Retrieved from http://www.gnb.
ca/0000/publications/ss/SupportingtheSEPProcess.pdf
Government of Nova Scotia. (2008). Special education policy. Halifax, Canada: Department of Education, Student
Services.
Government of Prince Edward Island. (2011). Special education needs. Retrieved from http://www.gov.pe.ca/eecd/
SpecialEducationalNeeds
Hastings, R., & Oakford, S. (2003). Student teachers atti
tudes towards the inclusion of children with special needs.
Educational Psychology, 23(1), 8794.
Jacquet, M. (2008). The discourse on diversity in British Columbia
public schools: From difference to in/difference. In D. GrinLajoie (Ed.), Educators discourses on student diversity in
Canada: Context, policy, and practice (pp. 5180). Toronto:
Canadian Scholars Press.
Loreman, T. (2010). Essential inclusive education-related out
comes for Alberta preservice teachers. Alberta Journal of
Educational Research, 56(2), 124142.
Loreman, T., Sharma, U., & Forlin, C. (2013). Do pre-service
teachers feel ready to teach in inclusive classrooms? A four
country study of teaching self-efficacy. Australian Journal of
Teacher Education, 38(1), 2744.
Manitoba Education. (2011). Towards inclusion: Supporting positive behaviour in Manitoba classrooms. Retrieved from http://

237
www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/specedu/behaviour/behaviour_
document.pdf
McGill University. (2011). One hundred-twenty credit bachelor of
education secondary 4-year program overview. Retrieved from
http://www.mcgill.ca/dise/sites/mcgill.ca.dise/files/sec2010
fouryr_overview_0.pdf
Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Education. (2012).
Inclusive school culture. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov.
nl.ca/edu/k12/inclusion.html
Northwest Territories Department of Education Culture, and
Employment. (2006). Ministerial directive on inclusive
schooling. Retrieved from http://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/files/
Early-Childhood/Ministerial%20Directive%20on%20
Inclusive%20Schooling%202006.pdf
Nunavut Department of Education. (2012). Nunavut approved curriculum and teaching resources. Retrieved from http://www.
edu.gov.nu.ca/apps/UPLOADS/fck/file/NU%20CUR%20
GUIDE%2020122013.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Education. (2009). Ontarios equity and
inclusive education strategy: Realizing the promise of diversity. Retrieved from http://cal2.edu.gov.on.ca/april2009/
EquityEducationStrategy.pdf
Palmer, D. (2006). Durability of changes in self-efficacy of pre
service primary teachers. International Journal of Science
Education, 28(6), 655671.
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. (2013). Program
components. Retrieved from http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/
BEdConcurrent/Program_Components/index.html
Quebec Ministre de lducation, du Loisir, et du Sport.
(2008). Conditions for greater success Action plan
to promote success for students with handicaps, social
maladjustments or learning disabilities. Retrieved from
http://www.mels.gouv.qc.ca/sections/publications/publi
cations/EPEPS/Formation_jeunes/Adaptation_scolaire/
PlanActionEHDAA_a.pdf
Rafferty, Y., Boettcher, C., & Griffin, K. W. (2001). Benefits
and risks of reverse inclusion for preschoolers with and
without disabilities: Parents perspectives. Journal of Early
Intervention, 24(4), 266286.
Saskatchewan Ministry of Education. (2012). Student support services: Service delivery model rubrics. Retrieved from http://
www.education.gov.sk.ca/Service-Delivery-Model-RubricEnglish
Sindelar, P. T., & Deno, S. L. (1978). The effectiveness of resource
programming. Journal of Special Education, 12, 1728.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
(1994). The Salamanca statement and framework for action
on special needs education. Salamanca, Spain: UNESCO/
Ministry of Education and Science.
University of Alberta. (2013). Course listings. Retrieved from
http://www.registrarsoffice.ualberta.ca/Registrationand-Courses/~/media/registrar/pdfcal/1314calendarpdf/
CourseListings.pdf
University of British Columbia. (2013). 2013/14 elementary
course schedule. Retrieved from teach.educ.ubc.ca/currentstudents/course-schedules/elementary/2013-14.html
University of Calgary. (n.d.). Educating children with an autism
spectrum disorder. Retrieved from http://www.ucalgary.ca/
gpe/content/understanding-and-educating-children-autismspectrum-disorder