Basics of Metal-Casting

Casting methods
Metal casting process begins by creating a mold, which is the reverse shape of the part we need. The mold is
made from a refractory material, for example, sand. The metal is heated in an oven until it melts, and the molten
metal is poured into the mould cavity. The liquid takes the shape of cavity, which is the shape of the part. It is
cooled until it solidifies. Finally, the solidified metal part is removed from the mould.
A large number of metal components in designs we use every day are made by casting. The reasons for this
include:
(a) Casting can produce very complex geometry parts with internal cavities and hollow sections.
(b) It can be used to make small (few hundred grams) to very large size parts (thousands of kilograms)
(c) It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is re-melted and re-used
(d) Cast metal is isotropic it has the same physical/mechanical properties along any direction.
Common examples: door handles, locks, the outer casing or housing for motors, pumps, etc., wheels
of many cars. Casting is also heavily used in the toy industry to make parts, e.g. toy cars, planes, and
so on.
Table 1 summarizes different types of castings, their advantages, disadvantages and examples

Sand casting

Figure 1. Work flow in typical sand-casting foundries

Sand casting uses natural or synthetic sand (lake sand) which is mostly a refractory material called
silica (SiO2). The sand grains must be small enough so that it can be packed densely; however, the
grains must be large enough to allow gasses formed during the metal pouring to escape through the
pores. Larger sized molds use green sand (mixture of sand, clay and some water). Sand can be reused, and excess metal poured is cut-off and re-used also.
Typical sand molds have the following parts (see Figure 2)
The mold is made of two parts, the top half is called the cope, and bottom part is the drag.
The liquid flows into the gap between the two parts, called the mold cavity. The geometry of the
cavity is created by the use of a wooden shape, called the pattern. The shape of the patterns is
(almost) identical to the shape of the part we need to make.
A funnel shaped cavity; the top of the funnel is the pouring cup; the pipe-shaped neck of the funnel
is the sprue the liquid metal is poured into the pouring cup, and flows down the sprue.
The runners are the horizontal hollow channels that connect the bottom of the sprue to the mould
cavity. The region where any runner joins with the cavity is called the gate.

Figure 2. Schematic showing steps of the sand casting process

Some extra cavities are made connecting to the top surface of the mold. Excess metal poured into the
mould flows into these cavities, called risers. They act as reservoirs; as the metal solidifies inside the
cavity, it shrinks, and the extra metal from the risers flows back down to avoid holes in the cast part.
Vents are narrow holes connecting the cavity to the atmosphere to allow gasses and the air in the
cavity to escape.
Cores: Many cast parts have interior holes (hollow parts), or other cavities in their shape that are not
directly accessible from either piece of the mold. Such interior surfaces are generated by inserts called
cores. Cores are made by baking sand with some binder so that they can retain their shape when
handled. The mold is assembled by placing the core into the cavity of the drag, and then placing the

cope on top, and locking the mold. After the casting is done, the sand is shaken off, and the core is
pulled away and usually broken off.
Important considerations for casting:
(a) How do we make the pattern?
Usually craftsmen will carve the part shape by hand and machines to the exact size.
(b) Why is the pattern not exactly identical to the part shape?
- you only need to make the outer surfaces with the pattern; the inner surfaces are made by the core
- you need to allow for the shrinkage of the casting after the metal solidifies
(c) If you intersect the plane formed by the mating surfaces of the drag and cope with the cast part,
you will get a cross-section of the part. The outer part of the outline of this cross section is called the
parting line. The design of the mold is done by first determining the parting line (why ?)
(d) In order to avoid damaging the surface of the mould when removing the pattern and the woodpieces for the vents, pouring cup and sprue, risers etc., it is important to incline the vertical surfaces of
the part geometry. This (slight) inclination is called a taper. If you know that your part will be made
by casting, you should taper the surfaces in the original part design.

Figure 3. Taper in design

(e) The core is held in position by supporting geometry called core prints (see figure below). If the
design is such that there is insufficient support to hold the core in position, then metal supports called
chaplets are used. The chaplets will be embedded inside the final part.
(f) After the casting is obtained, it must be cleaned using air-jet or sand blasting
(g) Finally, the extra metal near the gate, risers and vents must be cut off, and critical surfaces are
machined to achieve proper surface finish and tolerance.

Figure 4. Design components of a mold showing chaplets

Investment casting (lost wax process)

Investment casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dating back thousands of
years, in which molten metal is poured into an expendable ceramic mold. The mold is formed
by using a wax pattern - a disposable piece in the shape of the desired part. The pattern is
surrounded, or "invested", into ceramic slurry that hardens into the mold. Investment casting
is often referred to as "lost-wax casting" because the wax pattern is melted out of the mold
after it has been formed. Lox-wax processes are one-to-one (one pattern creates one part),
which increases production time and costs relative to other casting processes. However, since
the mold is destroyed during the process, parts with complex geometries and intricate details
can be created.
Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using aluminium alloys,
bronze alloys, magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool steel. This process is
beneficial for casting metals with high melting temperatures that cannot be molded in plaster
or metal. Parts that are typically made by investment casting include those with complex
geometry such as turbine blades or firearm components. High temperature applications are
also common, which includes parts for the automotive, aircraft, and military industries.

Investment casting requires the use of a metal die, wax, ceramic slurry, furnace, molten
metal, and any machines needed for sandblasting, cutting, or grinding. The process steps
include the following:
1. Pattern creation - The wax patterns are typically injection molded into a metal die
and are formed as one piece. Cores may be used to form any internal features on the
pattern. Several of these patterns are attached to a central wax gating system (sprue,
runners, and risers), to form a tree-like assembly. The gating system forms the
channels through which the molten metal will flow to the mold cavity.
2. Mold creation - This "pattern tree" is dipped into a slurry of fine ceramic particles,
coated with more coarse particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell around the
patterns and gating system. This process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to
withstand the molten metal it will encounter. The shell is then placed into an oven and
the wax is melted out leaving a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a one-piece mold,
hence the name "lost wax" casting.
3. Pouring - The mold is preheated in a furnace to approximately 1000C (1832F) and
the molten metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system of the mold, filling the
mold cavity. Pouring is typically achieved manually under the force of gravity, but
other methods such as vacuum or pressure are sometimes used.
4. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and
solidify into the shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of
the part, thickness of the mold, and the material used.
5. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the
casting removed. The ceramic mold is typically broken using water jets, but several
other methods exist. Once removed, the parts are separated from the gating system by
either sawing or cold breaking (using liquid nitrogen).
6. Finishing - Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting are used
to smooth the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the
final part.

Investment Casting

Advantages:
Can form complex shapes and fine details
Many material options
High strength parts
Very good surface finish and accuracy
Little need for secondary machining
Disadvantages:
Time-consuming process
High labour cost
High tooling cost
Long lead time possible
Applications: Turbine blades, armament parts, pipe fittings, lock parts, hand-tools, jewellery

Permanent Mold Casting

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that shares similarities to both sand casting
and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is poured into a mold which is clamped shut
until the material cools and solidifies into the desired part shape. However, sand casting uses
an expendable mold which is destroyed after each cycle. Permanent mold casting, like die
casting, uses a metal mold (die) that is typically made from steel or cast iron and can be
reused for several thousand cycles. Because the molten metal is poured into the die and not
forcibly injected, permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting.
Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume production of small, simple metal
parts with uniform wall thickness. Non-ferrous metals are typically used in this process, such
as aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys, and copper alloys. However, irons and steels can
also be cast using graphite molds. Common permanent mold parts include gears and gear
housings, pipe fittings, and other automotive and aircraft components such as pistons,
impellers, and wheels.
The permanent mold casting process consists of the following steps:
1. Mold preparation - First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500F (150-260C) to
allow better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a ceramic coating is applied to the
mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the mold lifetime.
2. Mold assembly - The mold consists of at least two parts - the two mold halves and any
cores used to form complex features. Such cores are typically made from iron or steel,
but expendable sand cores are sometimes used. In this step, the cores are inserted and
the mold halves are clamped together.
3. Pouring - The molten metal is poured at a slow rate from a ladle into the mold
through a sprue at the top of the mold. The metal flows through a runner system and
enters the mold cavity.
4. Cooling - The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the mold.
5. Mold opening - After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves are opened and the
casting is removed.

6. Trimming - During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue solidify attached
to the casting. This excess material is now cut away.

Permanent Mold Casting

Advantages:
Can form complex shapes
Good mechanical properties
Many material options
Low porosity
Low labour cost
Scrap can be recycled
Disadvantages:
High tooling cost
Long lead time possible
Applications: Gears, wheels, housings, engine components

Pressure Die Casting

Conventional die casting (CDC) is a net-shape manufacturing process using a permanent
metal die that produces components ranging in weight from a few ounces to nearly 25 kg
quickly and economically. Traditionally, die casting is not used to produce large products;
past studies, however, have shown that very large products, such as a car door frame or
transmission housing, can be produced using die casting technologies. Conventional die cast
components can be produced in a wide range of alloy systems, including aluminium, zinc,
magnesium, lead, and brass. Two basic conventional die casting processes exist: the hot
chamber process and the cold-chamber process. These descriptions stem from the design of
the metal injection systems utilized.
Hot-chamber die casting
A schematic of a hot-chamber die casting machine is shown in the following figure A
significant portion of the metal injection system is immersed in the molten metal at all times.
This helps keep cycle times to a minimum, as molten metal needs to travel only a very short
distance for each cycle. Hot-chamber machines are rapid in operation with cycle times
varying from less than 1 sec for small components weighing less than a few grams to 30 sec
for castings of several kilograms. Dies are normally filled between 5 and 40 msec. Hotchamber die casting is traditionally used for low melting point metals, such as lead or zinc
alloys. Higher melting point metals, including aluminium alloys, cause rapid degradation of
the metal injection system.

Graphical illustration of a hot-chamber die casting machine.

Die casting hot chamber machine overview

Cold-chamber die casting

Cold-chamber die casting machines are typically used to conventionally die cast components
using brass and aluminium alloys. An illustration of a cold-chamber die casting machine is
presented in the following figure. Unlike the hot-chamber machine, the metal injection
system is only in contact with the molten metal for a short period of time. Liquid metal is
ladled (or metered by some other method) into the shot sleeve for each cycle. To provide
further protection, the die cavity and plunger tip normally are sprayed with an oil or lubricant.
This increases die material life and reduces the adhesion of the solidified component.

Graphical illustration of a hot-chamber die casting machine.

Die casting cold chamber machine overview

All die casting processes follow a similar production cycle. Following figure is an illustration
of the cycle using the cold-chamber die casting process as a model. Initially, liquid metal is
metered into an injection system (a), which is then immediately pushed (b) through a runner
system (c) into a die cavity (d) under high pressure. High pressures are maintained on the
alloy during solidification. After complete solidification, the die opens (e) and the component
is ejected ().

Casting cycle for cold-chamber die casting.

Advantages:
Can produce large parts
Can form complex shapes
High strength parts
Very good surface finish and accuracy
High production rate
Low labour cost
Scrap can be recycled
Disadvantages:
Trimming is required.
High tooling and equipment cost.
Limited die life.
Long lead time.
Applications: Engine components, pump components, appliance housing
Casting Defects
Various defects can develop in manufacturing process depending on factors such as
materials, part design and processing techniques. While some defects may affect only the
appearance of parts, others can have major adverse effects on the structural integrity of the
parts made. The international committee for foundry technical associations has developed a
standardised nomenclature consisting of seven basic categories of casting defects.
1. Metallic projections: consisting of fins, flash or massive projections such as swells
and rough surfaces.
2. Cavities: consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities, including
blowholes, pinholes and shrinkage cavities.
3. Discontinuities: such as cracks, cold or hot tearing and cold shuts. If solidifying
metal is constrained from shrinking freely, cracking and tearing can occur. Cold shut
is an interface in casting that lacks complete fusion because of meeting of two streams
of liquid metal from different gates.
4. Defective surfaces: such as surface folds, laps scars, adhering sand layers and oxide
scale.

5. Incomplete casting: such as misruns (due to premature solidification), insufficient

volume of liquid metal poured and runout (due to loss of metal from mold after
poring). Incomplete castings can result from molten metal being at too low a
temperature or from pouring the metal too slowly.
6. Incorrect dimensions or shape: owing to factors such as improper shrinkage
allowances, pattern mounting error, irregular contraction, deformed pattern or warped
casting.
7. Inclusions: which form during melting, solidification and molding. Generally nonmetallic, they are regarded as harmful because they act as stress raisers and reduce the
strength of the casting. Particles as small as 30m can be filtered during processing
molten metal. Inclusions may form during melting when molten metal reacts with the
environment (usually oxygen) or with the crucible or mold material. Chemical
reactions among components in the molten metal may produce inclusions which
decrease the strength of the casting.