Tr Tu Nhn To

Nguyn Nht Quang

quangnn-fit@mail.hut.edu.vn
Vin Cng ngh Thng tin v Truyn thng
Trng i hc Bch Khoa H Ni
Nm hc 2009-2010

Ni dung mn hc:

Gii thiu v Tr tu nhn to

T t
Tc

Gii quyt vn : Tm kim, Tha mn rng buc

Logic v suy din

Biu din tri thc

Suy din
vi tri thc khng chc
chn

L thuyt xc sut

Logic m

Hc my

Lp k hoch
Tr tu nhn to

S khngg chc chn (1)

Gi s hnh ng At = Ri (khi hnh) t nh i n sn bay

trc t pht so vi gi khi hnh ca chuyn bay

Hnh ng At cho php ti n sn bay ng gi hay khng?

Cc vn c th xy ra:

kh nng
gq
quan st khng
g y
y ((v d:
v tnh hnh g
giao thng
g trn
ng, )
li v nhiu ca cc b cm bin (gip cp nht thng tin v tnh hnh
giao thng)
s
khng
g chc chn trong
g cc kt qu
q ca cc hnh ng
g ((v d:
lp
p b
ht hi, )
s phc tp ca vic m hnh ha v d on tnh hnh giao thng

Hnh ng A25 (xut pht trc 25 pht) s cho php ti n sn

b k
bay
kp gi
i chuyn
h b
bay, nu:

khng c tai nn trn cu (m ti s i qua), v

tri khng ma, v
lp
p xe ti vn cng,
g, v

Tr tu nhn to

S khngg chc chn (2)

Cc phng php x l thng tin khng chc chn

(
(uncertainty)
t i t )

L thuyt xc sut (probability theory)

Logic m (fuzzy logic)

Tr tu nhn to

Cc khi nim c bn v xc sut

Gi s chng ta c mt th nghim (v d: mt qun xc sc) m

kt qu ca n mang tnh ngu nhin (ph thuc vo kh nng c th
xy ra)

Khng gian cc kh nng S. Tp hp tt c cc kt qu c th xy ra

V d: S=
S {1
{1,2,3,4,5,6}
2 3 4 5 6} i vi th nghim qun xc sc

S kin E. Mt tp con ca khng gian cc kh nng

V d: E= {1}: kt qu qun sc xc ra l 1
V d:
d E= {1,3,5}: kt qu
qun
sc
xc
ra l mt
t s
l

Khng gian cc s kin W. Khng gian (th gii) m cc kt qu ca

s kin c th xy ra
V d: W bao gm
tt
c cc ln

sc xc

Bin ngu nhin A. Mt bin ngu nhin biu din (din t) mt s

kin, v c mt mc v kh nng xy ra s kin ny
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Biu din xc sut

P(A): Phn ca khng gian (th gii) m trong A l ng
Khng gian s kin
ca ((khng
g ggian ca
tt c cc gi tr c
th xy ra ca A)

Khng gian m
trong A l
ng
Khng gian m
trong A l sai

[http://www cs cmu edu/~awm/tutorials]

[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awm/tutorials]
Tr tu nhn to

Cc bin ngu
g nhin Bool

Mt bin ngu nhin Bool c th nhn mt trong 2 gi tr

ng (true) hoc sai (false)

Cc tin
0 P(A) 1
P(true)= 1
P(false)= 0
P(false)
P(A V B)= P(A) + P(B) - P(A B)

Cc h qu
P(not A) P(~A)= 1 - P(A)
P(A)= P(A B) + P(A ~B)
B)
P(A)
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Cc bin ngu
g nhin nhiu ggi tr
Mt bin ngu nhin nhiu gi tr c th nhn mt trong s
k ((>2)
2) gi tr {v1,v2,,vk}

P ( A = vi A = v j ) = 0 if i j
P(A=v1 V A=v2 V ... V A=vk) = 1
i

P( A = v1 A = v2 ... A = vi ) = P( A = v j )
k

P( A = v ) = 1
j =1

j =1

P(B [A = v1 A = v2 ... A = vi ]) = P( B A = v j )
[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awm/tutorials]
Tr tu nhn to

j =1

Xc sut c iu kin (1)

P(A|B) l phn ca khng gian (th gii) m trong A

l ng, vi iu
kin ( bit)
l B ng

V d
A: Ti s i bng vo ngy mai
B: Tri s khng ma vo ngy mai
P(A|B): Xc sut ca vic ti s i bng vo ngy mai nu
( bit rng) tri s khng ma (vo ngy mai)

Tr tu nhn to

Xc sut c iu kin (2)

nh ngha:

P( A | B) =

P( A, B)
P( B)

Cc h
q
qu:
P(A,B)=P(A|B).P(B)
P(A|B)+P(~A|B)=1
k

P( A = v | B) = 1
i =1

Khng
gian
m
trong
B

ng
Khng gian m
trong
g A ng
g

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Cc bin c lp
p v xc sut (1)

Hai s kin A v B c gi l c lp v xc sut nu

xc sut ca s kin A l nh nhau i vi cc trng
hp:
Khi s kin B xy ra, hoc
Khi s kin
ki B khng
kh xy
ra, hoc
h
Khng c thng tin (khng bit g) v vic xy ra ca s kin B

V d
d
A: Ti s i bng vo ngy mai
B: Tun s tham gia trn bng ngy mai
B:
P(A|B) = P(A)
D Tun c tham gia trn bng ngy mai hay khng cng khng
nh hng ti quyt
nh ca ti v
vic i bng ngy mai.
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Cc bin c lp
p v xc sut (2)
T nh ngha ca cc bin c lp v xc sut
P(A|B)=P(A),
( | ) ( ) chng
h tta th
thu c

cc
llut
t nh
h sau
P(~A|B) = P(~A)
P(B|A) = P(B)
P(A,B) = P(A). P(B)
P(~A,B) = P(~A). P(B)
P(A,
P(A ~B)
B) = P(A).
P(A) P(~B)
P( B)
P(~A,~B) = P(~A). P(~B)

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Xc sut c iu kin vi >2 bin

P(A|B,C) l xc sut ca A i vi (
bit) B v
C

V d
A: Ti s i do b sng vo sng mai

B: Thi tit sng mai rt p

C:
C Ti s
d
dy sm
vo
sng
maii

P(A|B C)
P(A|B,C)

P(A|B,C): Xc sut ca vic ti s i do

b sng
g vo sng
g mai,, nu (( bit rng)
g)
dc
thi tit sng mai rt p v ti s dy sm
vo sng mai

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c lp
p c iu kin

Hai bin A v C c gi l c lp c iu kin i vi

bin B,
B nu xc sut ca A i vi B bng xc sut ca A
i vi B v C

Cng thc nh ngha: P(A|B,C) = P(A|B)

V d
A: Ti s i bng
g vo ngy
g y mai
B: Trn bng ngy mai s din ra trong nh
C: Ngy mai tri s khng ma
P(A|B,C)=P(A|B)
P(A|B C) P(A|B)
Nu bit rng trn u ngy mai s din ra trong nh, th xc
sut ca vic ti s i bng ngy mai khng ph thuc
vo thi tit
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Cc qquy tc qquan trngg ca xc sut

Quy tc chui (chain rule)

P(A,B)
P(A B) = P(A|B).P(B)
P(A|B) P(B) = P(B|A).P(A)
P(B|A) P(A)
P(A|B) = P(A,B)/P(B) = P(B|A).P(A)/P(B)
P(A,B|C) = P(A,B,C)/P(C) = P(A|B,C).P(B,C)/P(C)

= P(A|B,C).P(B|C)

c lp v xc sut v c lp c iu kin
P(A|B) = P(A); nu A v B l c lp v xc sut
P(A,B|C) = P(A|C).P(B|C); nu A v B l c lp c iu
kin i vi C
P(A1,,An|C) = P(A1|C)P(An|C); nu A1,,An l c lp
c iu kin i vi C
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Quy tc Bayes
P( B | A).P( A)
P( A | B) =
P( B)
P(A):
( ) Xc sut ca s
kin
A xyy ra
P(B): Xc sut ca s kin B xy ra
P(B|A): Xc sut (c iu kin) ca s kin B xy ra,
nu bit rng s kin A xy ra
P(A|B): Xc sut (c iu kin) ca s kin A xy ra,
nu
bit
rng
s kin B xy ra
Cc phng php suy din da trn xc sut s s
d
dng
xc
sut
t c
iu
i kin
ki (posterior
(
t i probability)
b bilit ) ny!
!
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Quy tc Bayes V d (1)

Gi s chng ta c tp d liu sau (d on 1 ngi c chi tennis)?
Ngy

Ngoi tri

Nhit

Gi

Chi tennis

N1

Nng

Nng

Cao

Yu

Khng

N2

Nng

Nng

Cao

Mnh

Khng

N3

u
m

N
Nng

C
Cao

Y
Yu

N4

Ma

Bnh thng

Cao

Yu

N5

Ma

Mt m

Bnh thng

Yu

N6

Ma

Mt m

Bnh thng

Mnh

Khng

N7

m u

Mt m

Bnh thng

Mnh

N8

Nng

Bnh thng

Cao

Yu

Khng

N9

Nng

Mt m

Bnh thng

Yu

N10

Ma

Bnh thng

Bnh thng

Yu

N11

Nng

Bnh thng

Bnh thng

Mnh

N12

m u

Bnh thng

Cao

Mnh

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L thuyt Bayes V d (2)

S kin A: Anh ta chi tennis

S kin B: Ngoi tri l nng v Gi l mnh

Xc sut P(A): Xc sut rng anh ta chi tennis (bt k

Ngoi
g
tri nh th no v Gi ra sao))

Xc sut P(B): Xc sut rng Ngoi tri l nng v Gi l

mnh

P(B|A): Xc sut rng Ngoi tri l nng v Gi l mnh,

nu bit rng anh ta chi tennis

P(A|B): Xc sut rng anh ta chi tennis

tennis, nu bit rng
Ngoi tri l nng v Gi l mnh

Gi tr xc sut c iu kin nyy s c dng

g d on xem anh ta c
chi tennis hay khng?
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Logic
g m

Logic m da trn tng rng nhiu thng tin c th

c nh gi,
gi nhng mc khng r rng

Nhit trong phng hi nng

Cu b kh cao so vi tui
Tc ca xe my rt nhanh
Khong cch t y n y l xa
C gi kia trng p
...

Lm sao biu din cc tri thc s dng cc khi nim

kh r
khng
rng
((m)
) h
hoc
kh
khng chnh
h h xc?
?
Logic m (fuzzy logic) cho php biu din (din t) cc
thng tin khng r rng
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Tp
p m (1)

Khi nim tp hp l mt khi nim c bn ca ton hc

Logic m (fuzzy logic) da trn tng mi phn t thuc

vo mt tp hp mt mc (degree) no

Mi phn t ch c th thuc hoc khng thuc vo tp hp

V d v tp m: Tp Nhng ngi n ng cao. Cc thnh

phn ca tp m Nhng ngi n ng cao l tt c n ng,
nhng mc ph thuc (degree of membership) ca cc
thnh phn
vo tp hp th ty vo chiu
cao ca
h

Logic m s dng cc quy tc (cng thc) ton hc cho php

biu din tri thc da trn mc ph thuc

Hon ton thuc vo (hon ton ng) 1 (True)

Hon ton khng thuc vo (hon ton sai) 0 (False)

Thuc vo mt mc (ng mt mc ) x (0,1)

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Cc tp
p m (2)
Tn

Chiu cao
(cm)

Ch h xc
Chnh

Tun

208

1,00

Linh

205

1,00

Tng

198

0,98

Hi

181

0,82

Ha

179

,
0,78

Trung

172

0,24

Quang

167

0,15

Thi

158

0 06
0,06

Sn

155

0,01

152

0,00

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Mc ph thuc

21

Tp
p chnh xc v Tp
p m
Muc do
phu thuoc
1,0

Chiu
Chi ta
t ngang

(X) biu din cc gi

tr (c th) ca chiu
cao ca mt ngi
n ng

Tap chinh xac

0,8

Tall
ll Men

0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
150

160

170

180

190

200

210
Chieu cao

Chiu ta dc (Y)

biu din mc ph
thuc ca tp m

V d:
d Tp
T m

Nhng ngi n
ng cao

Muc do
phu thuoc
1,0

Tap mo

0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
150
50

60
160

170
70

(Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002)

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180
80

190
90

200
00

2100
Chieu cao
22

Cc ggii hn m

Trong l thuyt m, mt tp m A ca min gi tr X c nh ngha

((c xc nh)) bi hm A((x))

A(x) c gi l hm ph thuc (membership function) ca tp

m A

A = {A(x1)/x1, A(x2)/x2, ..., A(xn)/xn}

A(x) : X {0, 1}, vi: A(x) = 1,

A(x) = 0,
0 < A(x) < 1,

nu x hon ton thuc trong A

nu x khng thuc trong A
nu x thuc mt phn trong A

i vi
i mi
i phn
h t (gi
( i tr)
t ) x ca
min
i gi
i tr
t X,
X hm
h ph
h thuc
th A(x)
ch ra mc tng ng m x l mt thnh phn ca A

Mc
ny
y ((l mt
g
gi tr trong
g khong
g t 0 n 1)) biu din mc
ph thuc ca phn t x trong tp A
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Biu din tp
p chnh xc v tp
p m
Muc do
phu thuoc
1,0

Trung binh

Thap

0,8

Nhng
ngi
n
ng
thp,
trung
bnh,
cao

Tap chinh xac

Short
Cao
Tall Men

0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
150

160

170

180

190

200

210
Chieu cao

Muc do
phu thuoc
1,0

Tapp mo

0,8
Trung binh

Thap

0,6

Cao

0,4
0,2
0,0
150

160

170

Tr tu nhn to

180

190

200

210

(Negnevitsky, Pearson Education, 2002)

24

Phn b (Complement)
p

Tp chnh xc (crisp set): Phn t no khng thuc vo

tp hp?

Tp m (fuzzy set): Mc mt phn t khng thuc

vo
tp
t hp?
h ?

Nu A l mt tp m, th phn b ca A (k hiu l A)
c nh ngha nh sau:
A(x) = 1 - A(x);
vi mi phn t x

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Tp
p bao hm (Container)

Tp chnh xc: Nhng tp no l

tp con (subset) ca cc tp khc
Trong l thuyt tp m, nu tp A
l mt tp
p con ca B, th:

A(x) B(x), x
Mi thnh phn s c mc ph
thuc (membership value) vo tp A
nh hn hoc bngmc ph vo tp
B
V d: A l tp Nhng
Nhng ngi n ng
rt cao, B l tp Nhng ngi n
ng cao

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Giao (Intersection)

Tp chnh xc: Nhng phn t no thuc vo c 2 tp?

Tp m: Mc mi phn t thuc vo c 2 tp?

Phn giao m (fuzzy intersection) c xc nh bi gi

tr ph thuc thp nht i vi 2 tp m

Giao ca
Gi
2 tp
t m
cng
l mt
t tp
t m,
c

h ngha
nh
h
nh sau:
AB(x) = min{A(x), B(x)}, x

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Hp
p (Union)

Tp chnh xc: Nhng phn t no thuc vo mt trong

hai tp?
Tp m: Mc mi phn t thuc vo mt trong hai
tp?
p

Phn hp m (fuzzy union) c xc nh bi gi tr

ph thuc cao nht i vi 2 tp m

Hp ca 2 tp m cng l mt tp m, c nh ngha
nh sau:
AB(x) = max{A(x), B(x)}, x

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Cc thao tc trn tp
p m
(x)

(x)
1

B
A

1
A

0
1

Complement

(x)
(x)

0
Containment

(x)
A

0
1

B
A

Not A

x
AB

0
Intersection

1
x

AB
Union

Tr tu nhn to

x
(Bogdan L. Vrusias, CS 289, 2006)
29

Cc thuc tnh ca tp
p m

S tng ng ca 2 tp m

S bao hm gia 2 tp m

Kch thc ca mt
tp
p m

Mt tp m rng

-cutt (alpha-cut)
( l h
t)

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S tngg ngg ca 2 tp
p m

Mt tp m A c gi l tng ng (equal) vi tp
m B,
B nu v ch nu:
A(x) = B(x), x

V d

A = {0,3/x, 0,5/y, 1/z}

B = {0,3/x,
{0 3/x 0,5/y,
0 5/y 1/z}

A v B l 2 tp m tng ng

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S bao hm ggia 2 tp
p hp
p

Mt tp m A c gi l bao hm (includes) mt tp
m B,
B nu v ch nu:
A(x) B(x), x

V d

A = {0,37/x, 0,72/y, 1/z}

B = {0,3/x,
{0 3/x 0,5/y,
0 5/y 1/z}

A bao hm B

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Kch thc ca mt tp
p m

Kch thc (cardinality) ca mt tp chnh xc l s phn

t ca tp

Kch thc ca mt tp m l tng cc gi tr mc

ph
h thuc
th ca
cc
thnh
th h phn
h
cardA = A(x1) + A(x2) + ... + A(xn) = i=1..n A(xi)

V d

A = {0,3/x, 0,5/y, 1/z}

cardA = 0,3 + 0,5 + 1 = 1,8

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Tp
p m rngg

Mt tp m A c gi l rng (empty), nu:

A(x)
( ) = 0,
0 x

V d:

A = {0/x, 0/y, 0/z}

A l mt tp m rng

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Alpha-cut

Mt -ct (mt tp mc ) ca mt tp m A l mt tp
chnh xc (crisp set) A sao cho:
A = {xX: A(x) }
V d:

A = {0,3/x, 0.5/y, 1/z}

A0,5
0 5 = {y, z}
A0,2 = {x, y, z}
A1 = {z}

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Cc khi nim vi tp
p m

Mt tp m A c gi l tp m chun (normal), nu tn ti
t nht mt phn t x sao cho A(x) =1

cao (height) ca mt tp m A l gi tr ph thuc ln

nht ca cc thnh phn
heightA = maxx{A(x)}

Tp h tr (support) ca A l mt tp chnh xc, cha cc

phn
h t c
mc
ph
h thuc
th (vo
( A) >0
support(A) = {xX: A(x) > 0}

Tp c s (core) ca A l mt tp chnh xc,

xc cha cc phn
t c mc ph thuc (vo A) =1
core(A) = {xX: A(x)=1}
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Cc p
php
p ton trn tp
p m

Nhn vi mt gi tr s hc

aA = {aA(x),
( ) xX}
X}
V d

A = {0,5/x, 0,3/y, 0,2/z, 1/w}

a = 0,5
aA = {0,25/x, 0,15/y, 0,1/z, 0,5/w}

Ph t
Php
tnh
h m
(l
(ly th
tha))

Aa = {A(x)a, xX}
V d

A = {0,5/x, 0,3/y, 0,2/z, 1/w}

a = 2
Aa = {0,25/x,
{0 25/x 0
0,09/y,
09/y 0
0.04/z,
04/z 1/w}
Tr tu nhn to

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