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QuantumHalleffectWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

QuantumHalleffect
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

ThequantumHalleffect(orintegerquantumHalleffect)isaquantummechanicalversionofthe
Halleffect,observedintwodimensionalelectronsystemssubjectedtolowtemperaturesandstrong
magneticfields,inwhichtheHallconductanceundergoescertainquantumHalltransitionstotakeon
thequantizedvalues

where
isthechannelcurrent,
istheHallvoltage,eistheelementarychargeandhis
Planck'sconstant.Theprefactorisknownasthe"fillingfactor",andcantakeoneitherinteger(=1,
2,3,...)orfractional(=1/3,2/5,3/7,2/3,3/5,1/5,2/9,3/13,5/2,12/5,...)values.ThequantumHall
effectisreferredtoastheintegerorfractionalquantumHalleffectdependingonwhetherisaninteger
orfraction,respectively.TheintegerquantumHalleffectisverywellunderstood,andcanbesimply
explainedintermsofsingleparticleorbitalsofanelectroninamagneticfield(seeLandauquantization).
ThefractionalquantumHalleffectismorecomplicated,asitsexistencereliesfundamentallyon
electronelectroninteractions.AlthoughthemicroscopicoriginsofthefractionalquantumHalleffect
areunknown,thereareseveralphenomenologicalapproachesthatprovideaccurateapproximations.For
exampletheeffectcanbethoughtofasanintegerquantumHalleffect,notofelectronsbutofcharge
fluxcompositesknownascompositefermions.In1988,itwasproposedthattherewasquantumHall
effectwithoutLandaulevels.ThisquantumHalleffectisreferredtoasthequantumanomalousHall
(QAH)effect.ThereisalsoanewconceptofthequantumspinHalleffectwhichisananalogueofthe
quantumHalleffect,wherespincurrentsflowinsteadofchargecurrents.[1]

Contents
1Applications
2History
3IntegerquantumHalleffectLandaulevels
4Mathematics
5Seealso
6References
7Furtherreading

Applications
ThequantizationoftheHallconductancehastheimportantpropertyofbeingincrediblyprecise.Actual
measurementsoftheHallconductancehavebeenfoundtobeintegerorfractionalmultiplesofe2/hto
nearlyonepartinabillion.Thisphenomenon,referredtoas"exactquantization",hasbeenshowntobe
asubtlemanifestationoftheprincipleofgaugeinvariance.[2]Ithasallowedforthedefinitionofanew
practicalstandardforelectricalresistance,basedontheresistancequantumgivenbythevonKlitzing
constantRK=h/e2=25812.807557(18).[3]ThisisnamedafterKlausvonKlitzing,thediscovererof

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exactquantization.Since1990,afixedconventionalvalueRK90isusedinresistancecalibrations
worldwide.[4]ThequantumHalleffectalsoprovidesanextremelypreciseindependentdeterminationof
thefinestructureconstant,aquantityoffundamentalimportanceinquantumelectrodynamics.

History
TheintegerquantizationoftheHallconductancewasoriginallypredictedbyAndo,Matsumoto,and
Uemurain1975,onthebasisofanapproximatecalculationwhichtheythemselvesdidnotbelievetobe
true.Severalworkerssubsequentlyobservedtheeffectinexperimentscarriedoutontheinversionlayer
ofMOSFETs.Itwasonlyin1980thatKlausvonKlitzing,workingatthehighmagneticfieldlaboratory
inGrenoblewithsiliconbasedsamplesdevelopedbyMichaelPepperandGerhardDorda,madethe
unexpecteddiscoverythattheHallconductivitywasexactlyquantized.Forthisfinding,vonKlitzing
wasawardedthe1985NobelPrizeinPhysics.Thelinkbetweenexactquantizationandgaugeinvariance
wassubsequentlyfoundbyRobertLaughlin.MostintegerquantumHallexperimentsarenowperformed
ongalliumarsenideheterostructures,althoughmanyothersemiconductormaterialscanbeused.In
2007,theintegerquantumHalleffectwasreportedingrapheneattemperaturesashighasroom
temperature,[5]andintheoxideZnOMgxZn1xO.[6]

IntegerquantumHalleffectLandaulevels

Intwodimensions,whenclassicalelectronsaresubjectedtoamagneticfieldtheyfollowcircular
cyclotronorbits.Whenthesystemistreatedquantummechanically,theseorbitsarequantized.The
energylevelsofthesequantizedorbitalstakeondiscretevalues:

wherec=eB/misthecyclotronfrequency.TheseorbitalsareknownasLandaulevels,andatweak
magneticfields,theirexistencegivesrisetomanyinteresting"quantumoscillations"suchasthe
ShubnikovdeHaasoscillationsandthedeHaasvanAlpheneffect(whichisoftenusedtomapthe
Fermisurfaceofmetals).Forstrongmagneticfields,eachLandaulevelishighlydegenerate(i.e.there
aremanysingleparticlestateswhichhavethesameenergyEn).Specifically,forasampleofareaA,in
magneticfieldB,thedegeneracyofeachLandaulevelis

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wheregsrepresentsafactorof2forspindegeneracy,and0=21015Wbisthemagneticflux
quantum.ForsufficientlystrongBfields,eachLandaulevelmayhavesomanystatesthatallofthefree
electronsinthesystemsitinonlyafewLandaulevelsitisinthisregimewhereoneobservesthe
quantumHalleffect.

Mathematics
TheintegersthatappearintheHalleffectareexamplesof
topologicalquantumnumbers.Theyareknowninmathematics
asthefirstChernnumbersandarecloselyrelatedtoBerry's
phase.Astrikingmodelofmuchinterestinthiscontextisthe
AzbelHarperHofstadtermodelwhosequantumphasediagram
istheHofstadterbutterflyshowninthefigure.Theverticalaxis
isthestrengthofthemagneticfieldandthehorizontalaxisisthe
chemicalpotential,whichfixestheelectrondensity.Thecolors
representtheintegerHallconductances.Warmcolorsrepresent
positiveintegersandcoldcolorsnegativeintegers.Thephase
diagramisfractalandhasstructureonallscales.Inthefigure
thereisanobviousselfsimilarity.

Hofstadter'sbutterfly

Concerningphysicalmechanisms,impuritiesand/orparticularstates(e.g.,edgecurrents)areimportant
forboththe'integer'and'fractional'effects.Inaddition,Coulombinteractionisalsoessentialinthe
fractionalquantumHalleffect.Theobservedstrongsimilaritybetweenintegerandfractionalquantum
Halleffectsisexplainedbythetendencyofelectronstoformboundstateswithanevennumberof
magneticfluxquanta,calledcompositefermions.

Seealso
QuantumHalltransitions
FractionalquantumHalleffect
Compositefermions
Halleffect
Hallprobe
Graphene
QuantumspinHalleffect
Coulombpotentialbetweentwocurrentloopsembeddedinamagneticfield

References
1. Ezawa,ZyunF.(2013).QuantumHallEffects:RecentTheoreticalandExperimentalDevelopments(3rded.).
WorldScientific.ISBN9789814360753.
2. Laughlin,R.(1981)."QuantizedHallconductivityintwodimensions"
(http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v23/i10/p5632_1).PhysicalReviewB23(10):56325633.
Bibcode:1981PhRvB..23.5632L(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PhRvB..23.5632L).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.23.5632(https://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.23.5632).Retrieved8May2012.
3. Tzalenchuk,AlexanderLaraAvila,SamuelKalaboukhov,AlexeiPaolillo,SaraSyvjrvi,Mikael
Yakimova,RositzaKazakova,OlgaJanssen,T.J.B.M.Fal'ko,VladimirKubatkin,Sergey(2010).
"Towardsaquantumresistancestandardbasedonepitaxialgraphene"
(http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/v5/n3/abs/nnano.2009.474.html).NatureNanotechnology5(3):186
189.arXiv:0909.1220(https://arxiv.org/abs/0909.1220).Bibcode:2010NatNa...5..186T
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010NatNa...5..186T).doi:10.1038/nnano.2009.474
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(https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnnano.2009.474).PMID20081845
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20081845).
4. "conventionalvalueofvonKlitzingconstant"(http://physics.nist.gov/cgibin/cuu/Value?rk90).NIST.
5. Novoselov,K.S.Jiang,Z.Zhang,Y.Morozov,S.V.Stormer,H.L.Zeitler,U.Maan,J.C.Boebinger,
G.S.Kim,P.Geim,A.K.(2007)."RoomTemperatureQuantumHallEffectinGraphene".Science315
(5817):1379.arXiv:condmat/0702408(https://arxiv.org/abs/condmat/0702408).
Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1379N(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315.1379N).
doi:10.1126/science.1137201(https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1137201).PMID17303717
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17303717).
6. Tsukazaki,A.Ohtomo,A.Kita,T.Ohno,Y.Ohno,H.Kawasaki,M.(2007)."QuantumHallEffectin
PolarOxideHeterostructures".Science315(5817):138891.Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1388T
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315.1388T).doi:10.1126/science.1137430
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1137430).PMID17255474
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17255474).

Furtherreading
Ando,TsuneyaMatsumoto,YukioUemura,Yasutada(1975)."TheoryofHallEffectinaTwo
DimensionalElectronSystem".J.Phys.Soc.Jpn.39(2):279288.Bibcode:1975JPSJ...39..279A
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975JPSJ...39..279A).doi:10.1143/JPSJ.39.279
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1143%2FJPSJ.39.279).
Klitzing,K.Dorda,G.Pepper,M.(1980)."NewMethodforHighAccuracyDeterminationof
theFineStructureConstantBasedonQuantizedHallResistance".Phys.Rev.Lett.45(6):494
497.Bibcode:1980PhRvL..45..494K(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980PhRvL..45..494K).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.45.494(https://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.45.494).
Laughlin,R.B.(1981)."QuantizedHallconductivityintwodimensions".Phys.Rev.B.23(10):
56325633.Bibcode:1981PhRvB..23.5632L
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PhRvB..23.5632L).doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.23.5632
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.23.5632).
Yennie,D.R.(1987)."IntegralquantumHalleffectfornonspecialists".Rev.Mod.Phys.59(3):
781824.Bibcode:1987RvMP...59..781Y(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987RvMP...59..781Y).
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.59.781(https://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.59.781).
Hsieh,D.Qian,D.Wray,L.Xia,Y.Hor,Y.S.Cava,R.J.Hasan,M.Z.(2008)."A
topologicalDiracinsulatorinaquantumspinHallphase".Nature452(7190):970974.
arXiv:0902.1356(https://arxiv.org/abs/0902.1356).Bibcode:2008Natur.452..970H
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.452..970H).doi:10.1038/nature06843
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06843).PMID18432240
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18432240).
25yearsofQuantumHallEffect,K.vonKlitzing,PoincarSeminar(Paris2004).Postscript
(http://parthe.lpthe.jussieu.fr/poincare/textes/novembre2004.html).Pdf
(http://hrma.physics.sjtu.edu.cn/PhysicsHorizon/25yearsQHElecture.pdf).
MagnetLabPressReleaseQuantumHallEffectObservedatRoomTemperature
(http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/pressreleases/2007february15.html)
Avron,JosephE.Osadchy,Daniel,Seiler,Ruedi(2003)."ATopologicalLookattheQuantum
HallEffect"(http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v56/i8/p38_s1).PhysicsToday56
(8):38.Bibcode:2003PhT....56h..38A(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhT....56h..38A).
doi:10.1063/1.1611351(https://dx.doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1611351).Retrieved8May2012.
ZyunF.Ezawa:QuantumHallEffectsFieldTheoreticalApproachandRelatedTopics.World
Scientific,Singapore2008,ISBN9789812700322
SankarD.Sarma,AronPinczuk:PerspectivesinQuantumHallEffects.WileyVCH,Weinheim
2004,ISBN9780471112167
Baumgartner,A.Ihn,T.Ensslin,K.Maranowski,K.Gossard,A.(2007)."QuantumHalleffect
transitioninscanninggateexperiments".PhysicalReviewB76(8).
Bibcode:2007PhRvB..76h5316B(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvB..76h5316B).
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doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.76.085316(https://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.76.085316).
E.I.RashbaandV.B.Timofeev,QuantumHallEffect,Sov.Phys.Semiconductorsv.20,
pp.617647(1986).
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