EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL

ENERGY TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION

INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION

EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL
ENERGY TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION

EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL
ENERGY TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Growing populations and industrializing countries
create huge needs for electrical energy. Unfortunately,

magnetic losses, where energy dissipates into



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electricity is not always used in the same place that

the dielectric effect, where energy is absorbed

it is produced, meaning long-distance transmission

in the insulating material.

lines and distribution systems are necessary. But

transmitting electricity over distance and via networks

The Joule effect in transmission cables accounts for

involves energy loss.

losses of about 2.5 % while the losses in transformers

range between 1 % and 2 % (depending on the type

So, with growing demand comes the need to minimize

and ratings of the transformer). So, saving just 1 %

this loss to achieve two main goals: reduce resource

on the electrical energy produced by a power plant of

consumption while delivering more power to users.

1 000 megawatts means transmitting 10 MW more to

Reducing consumption can be done in at least two

consumers, which is far from negligible: with the same

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energy we can supply 1 000 - 2 000 more homes.

change consumer habits.

Changing consumer habits involves awareness-raising
Transmission and distribution of electrical energy

programmes, often undertaken by governments or

require cables and power transformers, which create

activist groups. Simple things, such as turning off lights

three types of energy loss:

in unoccupied rooms, or switching off the television at

night (not just putting it into standby mode), or setting

2
3

the Joule effect, where energy is lost as heat

tasks such as laundry for non-peak hours are but a few

in the conductor (a copper wire, for example);

examples among the myriad of possibilities.

2QWKHHQHUJ\SURGXFWLRQVLGHEXLOGLQJPRUHHIFLHQW
transmission and distribution systems is another
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superconducting transformers and high temperature
superconductors are new technologies which promise
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the same time, new techniques are being studied.
These include direct current and ultra high voltage
transmission in both alternating current and direct
current modes.

OUTLINE OF AN ELECTRICAL
TRANSMISSION/DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

Power plant

Step-up
substation

High voltage
overhead lines

Step-down
substation

Medium/Low voltage
transformer

ELECTRICAL LOSSES
AND OVERALL EFFICIENCY
A power plant produces electrical energy in medium

The length of cables between a power plant and a

(20 000 V) or low (1 000 V) voltage which is then ele-

step-up substation is short since they are usually

vated to high voltage (up to 400 kV) by a step-up

installed in the same place, so the energy losses there

substation. Electrical power is then transmitted across

are quite low. The situation is not the same between

long distances by high-tension power lines, and the

the step-down substation and users where kilometres

higher the voltage, the more power can be transmitted.

of medium and low voltage cables must be erected or

A step-down substation converts the high voltage back

buried to reach them.

down to medium voltage and electrical power can

then be transported by medium voltage lines to feed
medium and low voltage transformers using overhead
lines or underground cables. Most of the users are
fed in low voltage, but bigger ones, such as factories,
commercial buildings, hospitals and so forth, can be
directly fed in medium voltage.

Energy losses essentially come about in transformers

Electricity supply companies generally try to limit energy

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losses in overhead lines to about 2.5 %. So, between the

step-up and step-down substations is quite high and may

power plant and the step-down substation the total losses

reach 99 %, but this depends mostly on the real power

range between 3 % and 5 %. Between the step-down

delivered, compared with the maximum power it could in

substation and users the losses can be about the same

principle deliver. A transformer operating at power close

or even greater. Therefore the overall losses between

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and low voltage transformers are of different types and

and 15 %, which suggests that there is still some room to

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depending on the power delivered.

and hence reduce CO2 emissions.

For cables its the contrary. Those carrying high current

sustain more heating and therefore endure more
energy loss because of the Joule effect, which is an
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conductor. Essentially, electrical current passing through
a conductor raises its temperature and this heat bleeds
away as lost energy. This raises design considerations
for overhead lines for long distance transmission cables
and underground ones which deliver energy from the
step-down substation to the user.

RELEVANT IEC
TECHNICAL COMMITTEES
IEC Technical Committees work in a variety of
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TC 7

Overhead electrical conductors

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electrical insulating materials and

energy supply

systems

TC 10

Fluids for electrotechnical

applications

In addition, TC 113, Nanotechnology standardization for

TC 11

Overhead lines

electrical and electronic products and systems, involves

TC 13

Electrical energy measurement,

the IEC in a very promising area that could see important

tariff and load-control

breakthroughs across a broad range of technological

TC 14

Power transformers

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TC 17

Switchgear and controlgear

TC 20

Electric cables

SC 22F Power electronics for electrical

transmission and distribution
systems

TC 42

High-voltage testing techniques

TC 55

Winding wires

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TC 90

Superconductivity

11

IEC STANDARDS AVAILABLE

Although the following list is not exhaustive, it does
give a good idea of the broad range of subjects the IEC
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transmission and distribution:
IEC 60076 series for liquid immersed or

IEC 61039*HQHUDOFODVVLFDWLRQRI

dry power transformers covering ratings, test

insulating liquids

methods, measuring methods for losses,

IEC 611810LQHUDORLOOOHGHOHFWULFDO

loading guides, and so forth.

equipment - Application of dissolved gas

IEC 61378 series on converter transformers.

analysis (DGA) to factory tests on electrical

IEC 61803, Determination of power losses in

equipment

HV direct current converter stations.

IEC 61620, Insulating liquids - Determination

IEC 60183, Guide to the selection of

of the dielectric dissipation factor by

high-voltage cables.

measurement of the conductance and

IEC 60287 series for calculating the current

capacitance - Test method

rating and losses for electric cables.

IEC 60826, Design criteria of overhead

IEC 60885 series on electrical test methods

transmission lines

for electric cables.

IEC 62052 series on general requirements,

IEC 61788 series on superconductivity.

tests and test conditions for electricity metering

IEC 60028, International standard of

equipment (AC)

resistance for copper

12
3

IEC 62056 series on electricity metering data exchange for meter reading,
tariff and load control
IEC 62271 series on high-voltage
switchgear and controlgear
IEC 60060 series on high-voltage test
techniques


IEC 60505(YDOXDWLRQDQGTXDOLFDWLRQRI

IEC 60317VHULHVRQVSHFLFDWLRQVIRU
particular types of winding wires
IEC 60404 series on magnetic materials
electrical insulation systems

IEC 60243 series on test methods for electrical

strength of insulating materials

13
3

TECHNOLOGIES WITH POTENTIAL

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energy savings which can be made during the life cycle

formers and high temperature superconductors are

of a transformer and then choose the most appropriate

technologies that promise much in terms of electrical

one. These transformers differ from ordinary ones in that

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they use high quality magnetic material and selected

insulating substances and are designed in such a way

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that they can be cooled down better.

According to the Leonardo ENERGY website, which

Regulators may also require using certain kinds of

is the global community for sustainable energy

transformers within the context of the Kyoto Protocol.

professionals: The worldwide electricity savings

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Superconductivity

estimated to be 200 TWh. This savings potential is not

only technically advantageous, but also brings economic

Most conductors have some degree of resistance

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Superconductors are materials that have no resistance to

is often an economically sound investment decision

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despite their higher purchase price.

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a material which became superconducting at 4 degrees

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decades. But because their prices are greater than

with the discovery of new materials this had risen to

for ordinary transformers, buyers should estimate the

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14

Photo courtesy of Sumitomo Electric

liquid nitrogen a commonly available coolant. Today,

effect. With superconductors, losses due to the Joule

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effect become essentially zero, thereby creating the

-135 C (or -211 F). Despite the apparent coldness, this

potential for dramatic reduction in overall losses. Even

is known as high temperature superconducting, or HTS,

with the added cost of making them cold enough for

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superconducting, transformers in the 10 MW and higher

in the future.

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less expensive than their conventional counterparts.

Superconducting transformers
High temperature superconducting cables
When a transformer is under a loaded condition,
Joule heating of the copper coil adds considerably

Superconducting cables offer the advantage of lower

to the amount of lost energy. Although todays utility

loss, lighter weight, and more compact dimensions, as

power transformers lose less than 1 % of their total

compared to conventional cables. In addition to better

rating in wasted energy, any energy saved within this

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1 % represents tremendous potential savings over the

and faster installation of the cable system, fewer linking

expected lifetime of the transformer as they can be in

parts, and reduced use of land. The high performance

service for decades.

of superconducting materials leads to reduced materials

use and lighter and more compact cable technology. In

We are all used to seeing copper and aluminium

this way, energy and cost are saved in the whole chain

electrical wires and cables, which conduct electricity at

of manufacturing, transport, installation, use and end-of-

ambient temperatures but lose energy due to the Joule

life disposal.

17
3

In the shorter term, these HTS cables offer energy

of hydrogen or other energy types. The determining

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factors for them, apart from cost, are political stability

cost. The long-term perspectives include low-loss

within the connected regions, ownership and tariff

backbone structures that transmit electric power over

structures.

long distances. The driving factors for such backbone

structures are:

The IEC committees where these technologies are

being considered are TC 14, Power transformers, TC

uninhibited exchange of electricity in

20, Electric cables, and TC 90, Superconductivity.

interconnected networks;
solar energy potential in North Africa;

Other transmission techniques are also being studied,

green energy (hydroelectric and wind) in

such as direct current and ultra high voltage in both

northern Europe.

alternating current and direct current modes.

HTS cable backbones, which do not yet exist, would be

designed as DC systems with power ratings in multiples
of gigawatts. They can be created as virtual backbones
joining and reinforcing existing networks, or as actual
lines traversing continents.
HTS backbones will be an alternative or complement to
gas and oil pipelines, oil tankers and overland transport

18

CONCLUSION
The IEC has been developing standards that deal
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As an example, at a meeting held in Paris in 1932,
IEC Advisory Committee No. 2 (as the TCs were then
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electrical machinery, decided to set up a permanent
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losses. Technical Committee 2, Rotating machinery,
and TC 14, Power transformers, today continue that
work by delivering the highest quality International
Standards involving the best means of producing and
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Overall, IEC work addresses a vast array of technologies.
Standardizing the transmission and distribution of
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make a difference to the future of the world in its quest
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20

THE IEC
The IEC, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is the

The IEC has served the worlds electrical industry

worlds leading organization that prepares and publishes

since 1906, developing International Standards to

International Standards for all electrical, electronic

promote quality, safety, performance, reproducibility and

and related technologies collectively known as

environmental compatibility of materials, products and

electrotechnology. IEC standards cover a vast range of

systems.

technologies from power generation, transmission and

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The IEC family, which now comprises more than

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140 countries, includes all the worlds major trading

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nations. This membership collectively represents about

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85 % of the worlds population and 95 % of the worlds

safety and performance, the environment, electrical

electrical generating capacity.

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also administers international conformity assessment
schemes in the areas of electrical equipment testing and
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electrical equipment operated in explosive atmospheres
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ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
3, rue de Varemb
P.O. Box 131
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Switzerland
Tel: + 41 22 919 02 11
Fax: + 41 22 919 03 00
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