BAB 13

SUNRISE, SUNSET AND TWILIGHT

Since refraction affects zenith angle, it changes both the Right Ascension
and declination of an object. It also affects the time the object appears to
rise and set.
The standard formula for the altitude of an object is:
sin sin sin cos cos cos H

If a = 0 (the object is on horizon), then we have:

This gives the semi-diurnal arc H:

the time between the object crossing the horizon, and crossing the
meridian.
Knowing the Right Ascension of the object, and its semi-diurnal arc, we can
find the Local Sidereal Time of meridian transit, and hence calculate its
rising and setting times.
However, refraction means that this simplified formula cannot be used,
since the altitude should be, not 0, but -034'. This is not too important for
stars, which are rarely observed close to the horizon. But it makes an
important difference in calculating the times of rising and setting of the
Sun.
Furthermore, "sunrise" and "sunset" generally refer to the moment when
the top of the Sun's disc is just on the horizon. So we must also allow for the
semi-diameter of the Sun's disc, which is 16 arc-minutes.
So sunrise and sunset actually occur when the Sun has altitude -050' (34'
for refraction, and another 16' for the semi-diameter of the disc).
Since the atmosphere scatters sunlight, the sky does not become dark
instantly at sunset; there is a period of twilight.
During civil twilight, it is still light enough to carry on ordinary activities
out-of-doors; this continues until the Sun's altitude is -6.
During nautical twilight, it is dark enough to see the brighter stars, but still
light enough to see the horizon, enabling sailors to measure stellar altitudes
for navigation; this continues until the Sun's altitude is -12.
During astronomical twilight, the sky is still too light for making reliable
astronomical observations; this continues until the Sun's altitude is -18.
Once the Sun is more than 18 below the horizon, we have astronomical
darkness.
The same pattern of twilights repeats, in reverse, before sunrise.

In summer, astronomical twilight will last all night, for any place with
latitude above 49.