The lnternatlonal

Journal of
Accounting

Culture and Accounting in Indonesia: An Empirical

Examination
M. Sudarwan and Timothy J. Fogarty
Jakarta, Indones/a and Case Western Reserve llnlverslty

Key Words

Culture

The case ot Indonalan

ot rapidly

expanding

FmsnLd

xcountlng

the persistence

competition

oligopoly.

make firms

less Inclined

-kounrm~

rr~ula~on

IS lnterestmg

conglomerates

to proi Ide more elaborate

However.

rcpomng

for a \anety

dlsslosure

ot mformatlon

ot hlstoncal

txtors

and the lack ol J uell

to pro\ldr

TINS

setting

development

developed

Intormatlon

Journal

-\I1 rights of reproductron

to the public

entry bxners

market

tradltron.

Since Dutch

to
ma\

and U S

accountmg practice. the drtterences

some of the more unique aspect\ ot

between xcountlng

estabhshed models in the literature

that suggest that the development ofxcountmg

terned by change In cultural norms

The InternatIonal

apltal

In Indonesld

paper considers the rclntlonshlp

Implementing

to a u lder set ot mterehted primes

such JS trade protectlon,

accounting practices ha\e Influenced Indonesian

betc\een Dutch Jnd U S xcountlng
ma> explain
accountmg

of reasons The emergence

and state enterpn>es ma> Increase the need tor flnns

of kcountmg

and culture In the lndoneslan

lonytudlnal

standards and disclosure

\ 01 31 No 4. pp 463481

m dn\ fornl reserved

results are ottered

prxtrces

ISSN
Coptrlght

I_ 1996 Clnlrersltl

dre pat-

0020-7063
of Illrnols

463

THEINTERNATIONALJOURNALOFACCOUNTING

Vol 31 No -I 1996

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

The Dlmenslons of Culture
The theory ot culturll

dlmen>lonb

led In the fields of sociology.

Ineraure

An dnalys

by Hothtede I 1980) has been wdelb

developed

theory,

organlzdtmnal

of the SOCUI Citation

and more

mltpte~

consensus

the need tar an elaborate

\ion> POH

groups

among researchers

lntroductlon

et Dtsrmm 15a measure ot the Interpersonal

IS dl\tnbuted

unrqunllg

there group!,

Ltmtmttm

the extent the) preter structure and stablllty

15 contrasted

wth

achievement

societal

beha mr Long-/ctttt ovwmutott

struction

of sjnthetlc

dpproxhmg

whether

modesty,

that do not produce

IncrementA

Hotstede hds shown that these dlmenslon>

Howxcr

demand3

IS pnvlleged

In

trom

o\er col-

mdl\ Iduals, the need for loyslt!

male-temale

toward

ot the

gender roles

nurturance.

and

ot a,>er-

maxullnn>

and cooperatl\e

reflect the extent to which bocletles rely on the AOH con-

>olutlons

tolerance does not pnze persl\tent

natIons

levels

Socwtles 1 q

and m their

autonomy

ackno~vl-

that IS lIkeI>

xwlety

In the future

In relatlonshlpb

Reflecting

dlsposmon\

dlmen-

to the relatlon>hlp

Mascrrlrtm I\ a measure of the deslrablllt>

for others

and eltemal

tl\e behavior

pertain>

measure\

wuatlons

It relates to the strength of bond5 beween

the extent of re\ponsrbll$

It also

cultural

members of mstltutlons

dlstdnce

It~dr~ufmlrsttt meJ>ure> the extent perwnal

lectl\ltles

proposes fi\e

power or Influence between \oc~al

motdmce

member> of a society a\ to uncertain or unknown

technology

1981-1992.
to buggestlng

and to the nature ot the communlcatlons

between supenors and subordinates

to occur between

Pouer

In addltlon

as to a theol?, ot culture

Hotstede

It bho#> the extent to which the lee powerful

edge that power

field\

stud-

In accounting

Index re\ealb that over the penod

the theory ha\ been cited In 583 studle\ In man> dlfterent

the existence of a wbstantlal

recently

rerults

This

culturA

,~J>sI~

ot culture pro\ Ide a viable mean5 to compare

or not these dlmenwn>

the change In culture within

short-run

progress or decomposltlonal

J \lngle

Ao

pro\ Ide a meaningful

NW of

socletv has not been addressed

Cultural Influence on Accountmg

( 1988) theorized

Grq
values

xcountlng

\ystemb

xcountlng
else

ot

Cottwnwrtwtt

generalized

n\k

ulth

1s the preterence

1 lew ot the uncertunty

lalsbcz-faire,
restrIctIon

tabng

ot dl\clowre

\anatlon

and

the

approach

Grqs

maintenance

and accounting
of the days

that

model describes
ot

protessional

legal requirement\

for the cntorccment

and tor the conwtent

In accordance

lnlues

descnptron

with prescnptl\e

C~tttfot-tttrnI\ a preference
companle\

s cultural

Professrotdrsttr measures a preference for the ewrJudgment

a~ oppobed to compliance

bewecn

Hotstede

A a result of cultural

protes\londl

opposed to flevblllty
nies

between

the mobt comprehensl\e

~~lucs In tour dlmenslons

control

practlccs

can dltfer

Indl\lduJl

sclt-reguldtlon.
tory

connectlons

By doing 50. he pro\lded

ot umtorm

use ot such prxtlcrs

and stdtuaccountmg

o\er

the umque CIrcumstJnces ot Indlwdual

tor J cautlou\

ot future event\
Sew-cc\

ot buvnesb InformatIon

approach

time

a\

compa-

to measurement

as d

Th13 I\ opposed to a more optlmlstlc.

IS a preterrnce

tor confidentlaIn>

to thohe who xe closely

In\ol\ed

and the
wth

Its

465

Cullure and Accounlmg In Indonesia

management
publicly

dnd financing

accountable

4s such, It can be contra,ted

to a more transparent.

open and

preterence

Expected Relatlonshlps
The work of Hofstede

md Gray creates d basis for the exploration

between changes In the fl\e cultural

\Jues

ot the relatIonshIp

and changes In the tour accounting

culture and accounting are reIdted through these dlmcn\lons

should be associated through time ulthln the confines ot a single nation

H,:

H3:

IS related to the change in accounting

Change m mdl\ IdualIsm IS related to the change in accounting

H1:

H5:

IS related to the change in accounting

Lalues m

context

Change in time onentation

In the Indonesldn

IS related to the change in accounting

values

contekt

Specific expectations
denominated

values in

contekt

Change in mascullmt)

the Indonesian

\ alues

context

Change m uncertainty dvoldance

Hz:
values In the Indonesian conteYt

the Indonesian

the!

Therefore

Change m power distance IS related to the change In accounting

m the Indonesian

Lalues If

In J meanmgful w+.

tor protesslonalrsm.

umtormlty.

as subparts A. B, C. and D wthln

conservatism

md secrcc) can be

each hypothesis

METHODOLOGY
Measurement
Constructs

In\ol\lng

culture and accounting

lng Hofstede t 1980) and Gray ( 1988). multiple

\dlues ue not readily

construct and measured tor each lear m the sampling

ahzatlons

of the constructs In this study

appropriate

More detailed

Information

observable

Follou-

measures were adopted for each theoretlcJ

frame

Table I detruls the operatlon-

Beyond this. a brief rationale

tor the measures IS

can be found In Sudarwdn t 1995)

Hofstede (1980, 1991) suggests that the wealth of natlons IS one ot the predictor5
vanance

tfrsrance between nations Therefore

In po~w

chardcterwlcs
and In technological
development
trons underprnnrng
wealth creation
Hotstede

rooting

of the

Its measure In educational

statlstlcs appeals to Ideas about condo(1991) suggests that the amount and

coverage of codified laws Indicate degrees of utzcet-turtm m~ordance Accordingly,

this
construct IS operatlonallzed
In terms of the magnitude and scope of governmental deregulation

mltlatl\es

different

Wealth

provides

people with resources to pursue Interest5 that may be

from the Interests ot others (Hotstede

and the urbanization

1991) This suggests that mcome per capita

rate will pro\ lde measures of rtrdr~wltmltsttt Smce tttmculttm

maps

Table 1

The Lmk Between Culture Constructs and Proxy Variables

Culture and Accountmg In lndonesla

Table1

The Lmk Between Culture Constructs

and Proxy Variables

Conbnued

Culture and Accountmg m lndonesla

470

THElNTERNATlONALJOIJRNALOFACCOUNTlNG

Vol 31 No 4 1996

Nell mto gender role> and mto the gendered dl\ IsIon of labor (Hotstede.
posltlon

of employment

obsen anon ot the compo5mon

lty

the Importance

the percentage

ot Gross Fl\ed

mentalltv

\e\eral
provide

mea>ures

Indonesian

accounting
and audltlng

of professional

across firms

and the general debcnptlon

but Jpplled

conslstencq

wlthrn

m tinanclal

dn> one reporting

k-m-\

(see Hendnksen

19881 For
of

method5 not permltted

of Indone5lan

by

measure5

ot

Accountant\

for

unIformIt>

changes, comparatl\e

penod

In the Indonesian

(Gray

ot their work product

reports, and by the number

and compJrJblht!.

sheet cind Income statement Items Cor~n~rsr?r

meanly

d
m

standards, the protesslonallsm

standards Issued by the Ab>oclatlon

method> pre>cnbed

Indicates
programs

tor the exercise ot profes-

selt-regulation

practice Included the number ot accounting

nccountlng

Product

to spend more on educatlondl

To address accounting

standud>

1rr~fi~7r~rn entail>

accountlnp
pol~c)

m the Gross Domestlc

practice 15 measured with the number of accounting

nccountlng

d ~IML !~rr.-err

For these purposes

In human capital also IS consldered

and the mdmtenance

appropnate

use ot re5ources

of pr,,fc?ss10t1(711stll are d preterence

reasons, the nature ot auditors

accountmg

Since

Investment

s Investment

The mam charactenstlcs

sional Judgment

of the conser\atl\e

A firm societal comnutment

order to further the society

The

by sex ot students pro\ Ides a tuture measure ot mdsculm-

( 1991 1. m his use of the ChInebe Value Survey to develop

Hotstede

Index, Indrc&ed
deferral

1980). the com-

bl sex senes as a measure ot current societal mascullrut~

and the number

In

accounting
of nltemdtl\e

dccountrng

standards tar both balance

m accountmg

prdctlce took on Its t!,plcal

& Breda 1992, a5 It related to perml5slble

accountmg

method5

can be measured bl the number ot balance sheet Items and the number of Income

statement Items prehcnbed In the Indonesian

In a relatlle

context

U S accounting

~lth

standard\

accounting

U S nccountlng

\tandards

standards henlng

are approached.

This can also be placed

as a benchmark

the le53 secretive

The more

IS Indonesian

accounting

practice

Data Collection and Samplmg Frame

Thlb stud)
umquelq

used data that co\ers

Jppropnate

dunng that time (Roblson

ous reports and archives
Statl,tlcs,

Intematlonal

Flnanclnl

a t\helve

because ot the significant

Marketing

the Umted

were pro\ lded by the Development

qenq

deleloplng

that pro\ldes
countnes

cial reports
publlshed

by the International

long-term

Another

the Jahdrtd Stock Exchange

Supervlsorq

Statlstlcs
Econonuc

group of financial
These findncldl

trom bun-

Trend5

financial

corporntlons

reports

m English

Flnancldl

reports of

and Finance Superb~soq

Flnanclal

Finance Corporation

loans and Lenture capital

15

m Indonebla

Reports. International

\h hose tasks Include the audit of state enterpnses

pnvnte enterprises were provided

orgamzatlon

and pn\ate

This penod

that occurred

Lalues uere obtained

that publish

firm5

These firms Include both 5tdte enterpnses

gotemment

NatIon.

Data, dnd Indone5lan

from

( I98 I- 1991)

transformation

1991) Ddtd related to cultural

mcludlng

reports Here obtdmed

state enterpnses

year penod

to pn\dte

reports wa5 obtained

reports were proklded

Board

reports ot

a World Bank
enterpnses

from firm5 hsted m

by the Capital

Muket

Board to which firms listed in the Jakarta Stock Exchange submit their finanIn total.

108 financial

In English nhlle

reports compnse

the remammg

the sample

Fifty-5even

31 reports used the Indonesian

reports were
language

Fatty

471

Culture and Accountmg In lndonesla

reports were trom state enterprises.. dnd 58 reports nere from pnkate enterpnses
zatlons

span man}

drtferent

mdustnes

mcludmg

mnnufacturmg.

Orgam-

tarming

financial

services, hotel. and transportation

The sources of data related to Indonesian
AXutrtattsr

1984 and Nortna

Itldanesta

tlons ot the Assoclatlon

contain.

respectl\ely,

ot Indonesian

Indonesian

1992. and Indonesian

dccountmg

Petnerrhsaatt

ad

Accountants

accountmg

audmng btandards are Prtnstp

publ~ca-

Both are the offlclnl

Auntan

(Ikatan

Akuntnasl

Indonesia)

standards Issued hy the Assoclatlon

audrtlng standards promulgated

bq the Assoclatlon

that

before

until 1990

Data Analysis
The structural equations sottuare
lyze the data
Lanablesl

LISREL

that compose

latent

analysis to test the vahdlty

LISREL

as a single model
connectlons

(Joreskog Br Sorbom,

kanables

of selecting

(theoretIcal

of such a selectlon

ancy hetween observed lanables

constructs

LISREL

reduces the arbltrarmess

constructs)

b> lncorporatmg

and Intent vanables

LISREL

pro\ Ides an

estimates of the dlscrep-

In the test of the relatlonshlps

also considers all possible connectlons

Thus compare3 tavorably

1989) was used to ana-

the measures (obsenable

among

among constructs under stud!

to tests that pro\ lde more selective tests of the

Jmong consnuct~ (I e . regrebslon dnd ANOVA)

RESULTS
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
As a prelude

to the hqpothesls

model through confirmatory

tests

LISREL

This

tactor analysis

dssesseh the mtegnty

information

exact nature ot the results that are sought through the hypotheses
vlablllt>
proved

of the theoretlcal
to he Independent

mltv conser\atlsm

constructs
constructs

The accountmg
In the Indonesian

and secrecy were not redundant

proved hlgmtlcantly

related to the theoretIca

for

dtstatice

culture

proved

(porter

to be d >upenor evpresslon

culture. frttre hotr:otl

m Indonesia

not he tested
Two observed
horr:ott

(ratio

context

ot the Independent

the fifth hqpothesls

vanables

bdnables

Investment

the

umfor-

All measures

Four latent lanahles

time onentatlon

Product

ot

values

eftects could

Intended to measure the drmenslon

to Gross Domestic

and tnascir~rtiih

The fifth dlmenslon

factor H IthIn the cultural

set Involvmg

that were onglnally

of Gross Fixed

Professlonallsm.

tndt~~rdrralrsttt

was not found to he a independent

Theretore.

tests bv questioning

nor non-parslmomous

a\ ordance,

to alter the

values set forth by Gray (1988)

constructs ds expected

rrttcertatnm

of the proposed

hds the potentId

of ttttte

and the ratio of

spending on education to total government spending I IoJded slgnlficantly

on ttzcftl rdualtsttt Therefore
they were Included as addItIonal measures of Indlvlduahsm
Further analysis revealed that tourteen out of the other fifteen observed kanables ha\e a
significant

relatlonshlp

to the four remammg

the ratio ot student enrollment

ahles This

dlmenslons

to total population

measure was excluded

of Indonesian

culture

Homeker.

was not related to any of the latent ian-

from subsequent analysis

THElNTERNATlONALJOlJRNALOFACCOUNTlNG

472

Vol 31 No 4 1996

Hypothesis Tests
The cultural
all\m,

\alurs

conservatism.

were h!potheslzed

to hae

secrecy and umformlt~

penalve

relatIonshIps

of accounting

practtce

results ot the final LISREL model that rncludes all slgmficant

etfects

REL presentation

~5

15

Involves

the depIctIon

of a tnmmed

model

the result of starting hlrth a model of all hypothesized

Ing the not sqyficant

effect> that Improve

the overall

with protesslon-

Figure

I reports the

Comentlonal

shown m Figure

LISI

This

effects (the tull model) ellmlnat-

fit of the model

CONSERVATISM

INDIVIDUALISM

4-Oll-

All coefflctents

Figure 1

are slgnlflcant

at 01

Structural Equahon Model for the relahonship between Culture and Accounbng Practice (Tested Model)

473

Culture and Accounlmg III Indonesia

Power Distance Effects Hypotheses IA-1D

Test results mdlcate a posltlve relntlonshlp between power distance and consenatlsm
The relatlonshlp has a regression coefficient ot 331 and d t-i alue of 5 218 Thus. the relationship IS srgmficant at 001 and Hlpothesls
IC IS supported
Reductions m power
distance IS related to decreases In conservatism
Hypothesis
t-value

1B predicts

a relatIonshIp

for such a relatIonshIp

between

power

distance

of 2 008 Indicates the reldtlonshlp

and umtorrmty

The

has a slgmficance

level

1B IS supported

of p < OS Hypothesis

Results of the hypothesis testing indicate no slgnlficant relatIonshIp between power dlstance and professronnhsm
Therefore
Hypothesis I A 15 not supported This suggests that
changes m power distance In Indonesian society may not hn\e any Impact on changes m
professionalism
ot accounting practice In Indonesia H> pothesls ID predicts J reldtlonshlp
between power distance and secrecy Results of the h>potheslb testing mdvxtes no slgmtIcant reldtlonshlp

between power dlstdnce and >ecrecy The r-\~lue

secrecy and power distance IS not significant

of the gamma between

at p c OS Hypothesrs

ID IS not supported

In sum. two out of the four hypotheses pertaining to the relatIonshIp between pouer d~stdnce and accounting lnlues xe supported The supportive e\ ldence tor this hqpothesl\ set
IS nuved

Uncertamty Avoidance Effects Hypotheses 2A-2D

Teb\ts ot Hqpothesls 214 evdludte the ekpectatmn that protessionJll\m

IS reIdted to uncertainty a\oldnnce
The test result sho\cs a pn.srtr\~ relatlonshrp
between uncertainty
~\oldance and professlonahsm of the Indonesian accounting practice >lgmficdnt p c OS
Contrary to mtumon a decreasing trend of uncertnrnt) avoidance IS not assocldted with a
stronger comnutment

to professronallsm

In the preparation

ot flndnclJ

reports

Hypothesis 2B predicts J posltl\e relatlonshlp bet\\een uncertalntv aioldance and unlfornutg

The tests ot this hypothesis
provide
supportlie
evidence ot the posltlle
relatIonshIp between uncertainty a\oldance and umforrruty
The represslon coefficient ot
Z 586 is significant

dt p c 001

Tebt> ot hypothesis
between uncertainty
structural equation
supported
Hypothesis
accounting

2C proirde

aloldance
coefficient

supportl\e

Inverse relatIonshIp

A decrease m uncertamt)
practice

Ie\el

1D prollde
avoidace

This dIrectIon

IS Ao

relatIonshIp

ot 4 418 Indicate> that the

of p < 001

between uncertruntg

Tests ot this hypothesis

more secretike nccountrng

tor the expected

The r-\Jue

hdls J clgmficance

7D predicts a relatIonshIp
practice

elldence

and conservdtlbm

avoidance
support~\e

IS slgmficantl>

Hypothesis

1C IS

and the becrecq of

ebldence

tor dn

sssoclated ulth a

not IntuItIke

In sum. all four hypothe\eb between uncertamty dvordance and accountmg values are
significant
Homeler.
the curious dlrectron of tno ot these ettects cannot be Ignored

lndlviduahsm Effects Hypotheses 3A-3D

Hypothesis 3A predicts a relatIonshIp between Indlvlduahsm

and professlonallsm
The
test resulted m a regression coetficlent ~lth a t-value of 3 018 The results Indicate that a

THElNTERNATlONALJOURNALOFACCOUNTlNG

47-l

posrtl\e

relatronshlp

vgmflcant
prxtice

between Indl\

at p < 001
3C predicts

results show J coettlclent

practice IS

of accounting

slpmttcJnt

at p < 001 Thuc

con3er\,Ulsni
Te\t

a rclatlonshlp

ot accounting

re\ult\
d r-value

Hypothew
mdl\ Iduallwi

reldtlon>hlp

The regrewon
The

slgmflcant

I<

ot J sutficrent

\hon

magnitude

negatl\e

toclety

prxtlce

reklonshlp

IS

associated with Increase> In the

mdl\IduJllsm

dnd the 3ecrecq of

between Indl~Iduallsm
reldtronshlp

between

and secrecy
the tuo

I\

935

\anables

IS associated wth the Increahmg trend of secrecy of

reldtlon>hlp

a po>ltlve

between

relatIonshIp

wclety

Thus. hipothebls

Indl\lduJlsrn

between

to produce a hlgmficance

Indl\ IdualIsm ot the Indoneblan

xcountlng

IS

Test

practice

at !) < 00 I The results suggest that a decreasmg trend In the

of the Indonevan

te\t rewlts

of accountmg

betueen

coefflclent

accounting practice
Hlpothesls
3B predicts a negatr\e
Home\er

and consenatlsm

practice

of -!5S?

3D

mdr\Iduallsm
and conser\atlsm

mcreJse In Indl\lduJw-n

show J ncgatl\e

dccountmp prxtlce

between

between Indl\lduallsm

ot I1 302 The results suggest that such a posltl\e

ot I 651 with d t-\dlue

In nccountlng

Increases, the protewonallsm

also increases

Hypotheslh

mlth

and protesslonallsm

~dual~srn

A> lndl\lduallsm

Vol 31 No 3 1996

Ie\el

and unitormity

mdlvldu&m
ot 1 c 001

and umformlt~
A decrease m the

13 as>oclJted ~lth a decrease m the unitormity

ot

3B WJ\ not supported

Mascuhndy Effects
Results of the hypothesis

betkseen rndxulmlt>
not approach

testing tor the fourth set Indicates no slgmficant

and nccountmg

values

the necessary levels

relationship

The r-values for these gamma coetficlent>

No hypotheses

pertdmmg

to this cultural

did

value HIS

supported

DISCUSSION
The Nature of Cultural and Accountmg Values In Indonesia
The tIndIng>
(JWUPI tirsrlwce
the descnptlon

of thl\

stud> suggest that only

ot Indonewn

culture

four ot Hotstedes

rnrit~~ttfrr~tlrsttr

w~cc~~~w~n (11orriw~

The fitth dlmenslon

mte~ /rorr:ott was not tound to be a unique dlmenslon

thl> dlmenslon

and

H JS added retrospectl\el!

tuture

15

structure

Llppreclated onI> through

of the Indone>lan

dlmerwon
The development
nent\

IS

more u-nportant than the present

culture

ot accounting prxtlce
conservatism.

ot protesslon~lism

kdlues

The fact that

199 I ) also suggests

the Indonesian

soclet)

The Importance

Impact on the present condltlon

does not require

\Jues

necessary to

cultural

culture

to the other tour (Hofstede

Its tangible

1 are

of Hofstedes

ot Indoneslnn

that It 13 conceptualI\
redundant
Unllhe other Asian n&on\
that are steeped In Confucldmsm.
ma> not consider that the tuture

five culturJ

ttrrrscir~rtrrh

the separate

statement

ot the

Thus, the
ot this

In Indonesia can be clasblfied Into the composecret!. and umtorrmtv

developed
by Gray

475

CultureandAccountingIn lndonesla

( 1988) Thus findlng

comparable

suggests that the development

ot xcountmg

practice In Indonesra IS

to that of other ndtlons. Insofar as these four dlmenslons

~Imonlous dnd complete

are required for a par-

e\planatlon

Cultural Change and Accountmg Change In lndonesla

The hypotheses tests sought >upport tor slYteen specific relatIonshIps
ot assoclatlon
tahng

a detailed

look at the connectlon

nation oker ,I penod of time

ships that compnbe

between

At the \dme time

the xcountlng-culture

natmnJ

drives

\ocletle>

toward

ot ndtlonal

uealth

m+

economic

distance

societal

de\ elopment

on gokemment

result In a reduction
enterprises

J great relldnce on government

pollcle\

oruf access to gokemment

~sm m conductmg

m+

buslne\\

this pdttem of doing buslnes\

protewon
dnd audrtlng
slorwl

hd\e

\h Ith the go\ emment

The go\emments

3tandards

btandxds

I\ apparent

changes In the aboLe emu-onment\

and the reduction

Thl\ Interpretation.

In golemment

buch as the accounting

socletnl norms are not automdtlc

may be bJsed on the Increa\lng

protesto the

ma) negate the conre-

rn government

regulation

ot the xcountln,o

doe< not nece\\anly

tor

communrtl
appll

to other
Health
norms

But fol certnln segments ot the WCI-

mbtttutlonrll

con3equences

ot the changes

In the reliance of the accountmg

tor such substantl\e

related to the profewonatlsm

cornpetItIon

between

IS not conducl\e

ma!, hd\e had an Impact on socwtal

avoidance

A reduction

IS posltlvelv

make

at large. the Incredhe In natlondl

on government authontl
m+ be J necessru). condltlon
Indonesian nccountlng professlon
That lndlwdu~llsm

to

report3 ~lco reflects

ma) not hale an4 Impact on the Indone-

however,

reguldtlon

comrnunrt~

to the dblllt>

dn!, conflict

authonty

~\oldance

For soclet)

related to power dlstdnce and uncertainty

et)

has been the result of

Prote>slonal-

proteswn

and the reduction

A\ a result

society

or an

\erq cdutlous In settmg xcountmg

to alord

to government

health

111pomer distance and uncertnlnt)

segments ot the Indonesian

dlstdnce

authontj

ot fln~ncl~l

This en\lronrncnt

the changer

practice

beconddq

prote>$lon

H lthln the xcountmg

of buqmess xtl\ltle.\

In pouer

mw not be a ke) txtor

regulation

quences of the Increase In natlondl

sl.ln nccountlng

In this sltuaot goiemment

In many aspects dnd stage> of the xcountmg

the xcountmg

and go\emment

The attachment

become

Necessdlr?, steps are t&en

emergence ot selt-reguldtlon

(Hofstede.

howe\ er Indicate> that

inmdtl\es

to some degree

Since the prepxatlon

protewonahsm

Influence

This ma) m&e

An increase In
nomis

rn ruch a proce>s Thus. tar such parties. the rncreJse

not necessarll\

increase in protessionali\m
The succes\ ot both state and pn\ate

arrangements

related to Inch-

J\oldancc

wealth credtlon does not reduce the Importance

to the key parties m\ol\ed

In natlonal

The 3pec1fic patterns

HIS tound to be posItIveI\

wealth depends heavily

tlon. the process of national

ot

In one

they also Indicate that the specific relatlon-

IOU poiter

1980 I99 I ) An anal) 31s ot Indonesldn

the creation

level\

the plduslblllt>

practrce and culture

but not reIdted to power distance or to uncertalnt)

uenlth

authority

xcountlng

news are quite ~anable

of reldtlonshlps are worthy of dttentlon

The professwnJlsm
ot xcountlne
prxtlce
~ldu~llsm

Slgnlficant

were reached In rune cases These rnlued results validate

among firms

In

communltl

change In the

ot xcountlng

In such an en\ lronment

prxtlce
manag-

476

THElNTERNATlONALJOURNALOFACCOUNTlNG

en of firms are under constant pressure to exercise their profewonal

their competitors
Thus could also mean that professlonahsm
ot financial report\
Thl> result, however,
mxket

competition

15 not consistent

mdlvldualrsm

and ot the confirrndtor>

of Indonewm

that the Indl\lduallsrn

constructs

txtor

practice

ot society

and that of busme\\

en\lronment.
IS relatl\ely

test5 of hypotheses

between uncertainty

proklde

aioldance

that L\\ the go~emment

the

management

may he different

does not a>soclate with an lncredbe In the profewonalrsm

In a competltl\e
community

wth

of datd that meawre

analysis shou that the result5 do Indicate that

practice when access to government

tewonahhm

Exarnltwtlons

>oclet> may ha\e decred>ed over the 1980s This suggests

An Increase In competmon

The

ulth the tlndmgs ot the tests mhlch suggests that

ot xcountlng

mdlvlduallsm

the profewonal

&~lls to outperform

IS needed In the preparation

In the processeb of flrnis wealth creation IS not associated

increase m the protesslonJl>m

xcountlng

Vol 31 No 4 1996

authontl

especIalI\

can clrcum\ent

of

the need tor pro-

It the self-governance

structure of

Immature
wpport~\e

e\ldence

and the con>enatlsm

lessen3 control

o\er

of the pobltlve

ot accounting

economic

actl\ltles

relJtlonshlp

prxtlce

through

TINS

lmphes

Its deregulation

pol~q firms have to deal wth Increawyg competltlon

CornpetItIon does not alloy managerr ot timis to deal onI\ with secure bwme>ses An o\ercmphasls
on J conservatl\e
approach

to doing hwness

ma) force firms to pah,s Investment

opportumtws

to other5

This ma! attect the firm\ pcrformdnce m product and tmanclal markets
In tlnanclal market> competltlon
requires that firms seehng funds tram the markets
pro\lde

e\ ldence to con\ lnce potenwl

Investor5 ot pronusmg

cJxe. J firm 5 cost of capital becomes a function ot firm\

Ing potential

Investors

HIth

a firms

returns gIlen

rusks In this

success In this process Imprebs-

succecs potential

15 crucial

to Irnpro\e

firms

competm\eness
In tlnanclal
markets Since firms financial reports are an important
source ot mtormatmn In competltl\e
capltdl markets, firms seek to pro\ Ide lntormatlon
In
their financial

reports look good

In the short-run

firms ae less Ilkcl!

to choo>e consena-

tl\ e xcountlng
methods to measure Jnd dlsclose firms \ Jues In the flnanclal reports
Test results show a po\ltl\e relatlon>hlp between the tmo constructs As dlscussed In the
prewous

section.

mdl\Iduallsm

had a decreasing

both the Indl\ Idu,.tllbm ot the Indonrsw

trend

Thu>

the findlngs

socletb dnd the consenatlsm

suggests that

of xcountmg

prac-

tice tvere IOH

The pre\~ou\ dlscuwon
also euplalned that Athough the lndl\Idudllsm
of the Indonewn society In general N JS decreaslnp, firms en\ u-onrnents had an mcreasmg trend of
Indl\Idualw-n
Indonevan
Incred\lng

This lead\ to an lnterpretdtlon

that apart tram the general condmon

of the

socwt!. Indlvlduall~m
ah It relates to a business entity s en\ ironment has
N hlle the cowen ntlsrn of xcountlng
prxtlce NJ~ low If so, the Increase In the

Indl\ IduJlsm

of wch firms would correspond

vatism ot xcounting

prnctlce

Increwng

to a ncgatl\e

competltlon

relatlonshlp

motl\dtcs

firm\

with the conser-

to tavor nsk tdkmg

beha\ Ior dnd to select les\ con>enatl\e

accountmg methods
The tebt results alho shah dn unexpected posm\e relatIonshIp between power distance
and the consenatlsm
of xcountlng
practice The process of n&londl wealth creation pro\ldeb ,In explanation
for this result Modem lndoneslan wealth cre&on requires capital
partwpdtlon
tram LUIOUS sources When this depends on go\emment
Ixk of competltlon among tlrrnb to attrxt fund\ from capital markets

authonty
there 15d
AccordIngI\
tums

477

Culture and Accountmg III lndonesla

are not subject to pubhc scrutmy

Intormatlon

ot firms

operating

results and asset POW

tlon can be lImIted to a fern well-connected

groups Firms do not need to be concerned
about provldmg mtormatlon regarding their success to outside investors and other parties
But as wealth dccumulatlon
well-connected

Increases

the accumulated

groups may not be sufficient

to tulfill

capital

the expanded

ot the estJblrshed.
needs for firms

capi-

tal Fu-ms then must look to cdpltal markets for addmonal sources In an efficient
market, publicly
tiveness

a\allable

Since financial

InformatIon

of a firm s performance

reports serve as one medium

influences

capital

a firm s attrac-

tor firms to dispense mtormatlon

ot

their performance. firms mdly choose aggresslle accounting policies Competition

IS again
ldentlfied as the possible dnvmg factor tor less consen atI\ e approaches to the preparation
of financial reports
The tests of the hypotheses

Indlcdte no hlgmficant

and the secrecy ot accounting

dence ot the posltl\e
accounting

practice

practice

reldtlonshlp
The results

relatlonshlp

betKeen

The results ~150 do not pro\lde

bctaeen

howr\er.

uncertalnt)

a\olddnce

do pro\ Ide supportive

pomer distance
support~\e

e\~-

,ind the becrec!

of

e\ ldence of the negative

relatlonshlp between mdl\ lduahsm and the secrecy of accounting practice

Reliance of the business commumty
on golemment
authonty
may Ao negate the
etfects ot the lncredse In nJtlonal uenlth on the proce>s ot lessenmg the secrecy of
accounting

practice

The Importance

ot being able to deal with government

authority

Incentrkes to business to build personal access to the source ot such duthonty

gl\es

and to pre-

vent others tram shnnng such personA access Therefore, the Increahe In natlonal wealth
may not be tollo\hed by a reduction In po\\er distance and In the becrecg ot xcountmg
practice
This result. hoaeker

IS In contrast to the suggestion

power distance dnd the consen atlsm ot xcountlng

section, the wealth creation

ot a positive

prxtlce

relatronshlp

process required to support Ixrge scale enterpnseh.

of the reliance

on government

tram potentId

Investors

duthonty

especIalI>

neces>lt&b

that firms develop

ah the need tar capital

betbeen

As discussed In the pre\ IOU

regardle>s

capltal

sources

Increases In magnitude

Once

the firms succeed m gaming funds tram general cdpltal markets they hale to make more
mformatlon akallable to Investors Consequently, firms w111hale to reduce the sccrec) ot
accounting practice

It 15 not clea

that thrs has to occurred In any great degree In

Indonesia
Indonesian firms and the ndtlon 5 accounting protewon
guidelines for certnmtj

Go\emment

hale depended on gobemment

deregulation lessen> the a\culablllty ot such gulde-

lines The accountmg commumtq may not be read!, to face this wudtlon

Accordmgly

Instead of boosting confidence deregulation may IncreaSe the Jnxlety among firms and
the dccountlng protewon Th15 may ha\e resulted In a more secretl\e nccountlng practice,
and theretore underlies the negdtr\e relatIonshIp with uncertant\
suggests a residual

ettect ot the pre\~ouslj

acts as dn Impediment
reporting
Lou

Indlvldu.4lsm

hIghI> regulated

d\oldance

TINS result

business emlronments

to the process ot lncreasmg disclosure In external

ot the Indonesian society 1s associated

that

financral

with J high secrecy ot the

Indonesian dccountlng practice As dlrcussed earher, It ma! be useful to contrast the buslness firm en\ wonment with the general Indl\ iduahsm of the society Firm en\lronments
mdlcue increasing firm mdl\lduallsm
Thus. confined to the \lew ot a busmess ent$s
strategic ad\antage. the above rebults suggest th,lt an Increasing trend ot firm mdl\ldual-

THElNTERNATlONALJOlJRNALOFACCOUNTlNG

478

I>rn 1s assoclnted
intormation

urth

a greater

The results ot the te\t\

Ism and the umfomuty

to mamtam

secreq

of h) potheses show a posm\e

of accountmg

to a business firm environment

give \upportlve

concern

evidence

practice

15opposite

for J negatlle

accounting
prJctlce

In this context.

process ot the firms Increahes

neu

accounting

the test results of hypothesis

methods

becomes more open

to their

complexIt

financldl

more complexrt>

the result5

the mdlvlduahsm

Indicates

changes has the highest loadrnp on the umformlty

creation

Indl\ Idualas It relates

In society at large

between

en\ lronments and the urufomut) of accounting prdctlce

4n nnalysls ot the dmienslon> ot nccountmg practice

propnetq

hetween

since Indl\ldualtsm

to Indl\ Idudllsm

relationship

and protect

relatlonshtp

However.

Vol 31 No -1 1996

ot firms

that the number

dlrnenston

ot

of accountmg

IC could suggest that as the wealth

occurs and firms tend to apply more

reporting

As the wealth

penetrate firms

operation

creation

and reporting

process
practrces

The old ways of doing things may not be suitable for an Increasing compleuq
ot firm>
operation and reporting processe\. dnd changes In these processes become Ine\ltnble
In
thl5 sltuatlon.

managers ot funms mutt he able to be creatl\e.

dddpt to the necessq

changes Changes In accounting
and flexclblllty of firms manager\
In searching

for alternative

dccountlng

Inno\atlve

method>,

firms

encounter

accounting protesslon m Indonesia may not hake contemporanly

standards This Iea\es firm\ with different sources of accounting
choose

The sources ot neu accounting

lntematlonal

accounting

dlscrepancles

among

\tdndards

method3 rnq

the fact that the

appropnate accounting
methods tram which to

Include, but are not lImIted

and the U S accounting

these choices.

and flexclhle to

methods ma! signal the creatlk lty

the unltormlty

standards

of accounting

to. the

Due to the many

practice

15

likely

to

decrease
The results of the tests of hypothesis X Indicate that In the absence ot gokemment regulation. business firms become anylous as to business sltuatlon5 At the sdme time the
accounting

professlon

ing standard
practices

setting

HomeLer,

does not seem prepared to pursue an expanded

The combined

to accept the nsk ot reporting

accounting

agenda of account-

can lead to more secretive

this could lead to an lnterpretdtmn

ha\e enough confidence

ods Le55 unltorm

bltudtlons

accounting

that firms are mature enough and

under dltterent

practices are then reflections

accounting

ot this flexlhlllt\,

meth-

Thus

the

pressures of uncertainty contnbute to managenal discretion In tmanclal reporting Managers Internal needs for new ,Iccountlng
methods that can cope with the Increasing
complexIt>

of firms

control

and fmanclal

reportmg

maq be the pnnclpal

factor atfectmg

the lower urutormlty ot accountmg practice The development ot such needs may not he
necessmlq associated wrth the tums competltlve
en\u-onment
As long a5 thebe needs
mlse and external uniform guidelines tor the desired accounting method\ are not avdllable
the practrce of e\temal hnancldl reporting will vary It may ha\e little to do with the
fim-15 competltl\e
en\ Ironment or Indl\ IdualIsm
Importdntlj
theretore. this study pro\ Ides new e\ ldence for the universal role ot managenul dlscretlon In the process ot accounting choice Managenal dlscretlon, we n%ert.
exists not only In a tradltlonnlly
tree market envu-onment but charactenstlcall!,
in sltuanon5 where there 15 lehs voluntary
dlszlosure ot mformntlon
about firms, and where
golemment
Influence mixes with market mechamsms The presence of manqenal
dlscretlon complicates
the apprecldtlon
ot cultural
Influence
on accounting
Manapenal

479

Culture and Accounting in lndonesla

dlscretron
general

emerges

from a firm s specific

en\lronment

LateI>

held

dltterent

that Influences

companies.

and

organIzational

shaped

This further

puhl~cl)

cultures

sltuatlon,

the culture
held

through

demonstrates

which

the

however,

pretatlon

Indicate

that xcountmg

male gender

t>pe

not yet rmpnnted

Icall>

practice

a meanmgful

the m\olvement

this lack ot Impact

firms

relatlonshlps
accounting

busmess
between

nal drscretlon
Identified
firms

IS
The

knlues

lead to an mterof the CI~~SIC

Homen ha>

that demogrdph-

thus far IS so mammal

that

firms seem> more adaptl\e

reports

and the reliance

of the busmess

go\emment

between cultural
oler

motives

finan

reporting

In such an enklronment

that underlie discretionary

reporting

may

practice
hake

dlrectlons

Market

of the tradItIona

The rell-

caused

the

competition.
relatIonshIps

practice

provide

competing

c\planatlons

ot accounting

practice

1s not necessanly

m established

on access

and secrecy of the Indonesian

values and the unltorrmty

with fun15 operating

not operating

of accountmg

and psychologlcal

commumty

ot accounting

the reallzatlon

value5 and conservatism

~11th U S

htandards applied

dnd distort the hypothcblzed

authority

values and protesslonallsm

to

standard hettlng

In accordance

or accounting

values and the dimensions

on

accounting

partly

standards

which appear to confirm

community
cultural

competition

relatlonshlps

IS

and accounting

mq

It IS also notable

bv Indonesian

financial

accounting

hand, seems to stimulate

between cultural

in

proces\

the domain

communlt>

prdctlce to be the rererse ot the conventlondl

on the other
Market

their

are factors

between cultural

the

operate

and educated Indone\lan

gender value

reporting

competmon

authonty

relstlonshlps
of

financial

may prepare

Maket

to golemment

culture

the
pn-

should not be surpnslng

standards, InternatIonal

rn other nation

ante

altematlle

ma!,

dccwon

to all accounting

1s still wthm

of more skIled

Instance,

The findings

changes than does the process ot Indonesian

Indonesian
accounting

related

ot women m the accounting

The practice ot external

en\lronmental

between

relatlonshlps

m Indonehld

The Involvement

for

not represent

State enterpnses,

management

that the relatlonshlp

no slgmficant

or ma)

at large

corporatlonr.
which

compllcJted
and dltficult to generalize
Malsculmlt>
was hypothesized
to be negatrlelq
results,

mq

ot society

competltl\e

hmlted

by economic

capital

markets

also hake polItIcal

ot the
Managereasons

Managers

or pslchologlcal

of

motl\es

practices

lmphcatlons for Future Research

This study questions the extent that a smgle model of cultural
across nations

While

the Indonesian

slons. this IS not necessanly

study m dlfterent

countnes

Lalues be determined
qualltatl\e
dlfterences

true tor other ndtions

can the generahzablllty

may erode the straightforward

that IS laIrdated

OnI!

through

of Hotstedes

the repllcatlon
dlmenslons

dlmenot this

of cultural

It IS likely that a \arymg number ot dimensions with Important

tie needed to descnbe culture in dltterent countnes Although this
nature ot comparatl\e

dence that can be placed In this work

culture

kdlues can be generalized

case cdlled for the use ot the tour onglnal

studies. It would

Only by having

ober penods ot time can we determme

ede s cultural \ alues m explammg

across nations

Increase the confi-

such a country-specific

and prechctmg the development

grasp on

the usefulness ot Hofstof accounting

practice

480

THElNTERNATlONALJOlJRNALOFACCOUNTlNG

Past research has dlv.ays attempted

descrrbed natIon>

to use culture

poses. the present research shows that lanatlons

bnap-shots

provided

need to Inlest
dlnamlcs

as a va&Ae

While thrs may have some \alldltl

literature

pur-

dre of lImIted

value

What we

m>lghts Into the

ot culture JS It relate, to accounting

to Include dn Inquiry

all human beings regardlebb ot their race or natIonal+

supplement

the posalbly

Hofstede and other\

dltferences

mlsslng dlmenslons

but also about cultural

ot culture

slrrulantles

financlJ

ma! JI\O resurrect the study of culture tram the posslbl)

development

Intro-relatlonshlps

among the dlmenslons

several anomdlles

It remdlns unclear. tor Inbtdnce

to the relatIonshIps

of accounting

prdctlce

Neither

accounting

on goiemment

15 the Influence

prdctlce

ma> be too broad to e\plJln

elaborate

theor!

con-

As J result. we

of a global culture
deal\

with the inquiry

into the

of thlb btudy suggest

uhb the Influence

of market competl-

of culture and the consenatlhm

ot market competition

An equally

be ot

unresolved

on the secrecy ot

Isbue 15 H h) the reliance

beems to Influence only the eftects ot culture on the professlonJ-

rbm dnd the secrecy ot accounting

uell-developed

progress

The tindings

between the dlmenblon>

prdctlce dppdrent

duthontb

ot culture

b>

These Insights

Western bias ot Hotstedes

research Issue related to the study of culture

non I\ limited

understood

not onlv about cultural

reporting

urlth culturll

md\ also be better equipped to cope H Ith the development

Indonesian

a\ currently

among nations which m turn would

standards for external

cept, which tends to equate economic

Another

Into the basic \Aue> ot

Insights Into these basic values

This may enable u\ to have dn understandlng

value In seekmp to harmomze

culture

comparison

In that this occurs. the

m IS research designs capable of provldlng

Future study ot culture could be extended

ma\

that unproblematlcall>

tor cross-ndtlonal

rn culture occur

h> the culture-dccountlng

more heavily

Vol 31 No 4 1996

These IWM\ Indicate that Hotstedeb

and predict the development

ot the Intr+relatlonshlps

Jccountrng

among the dlmenslons

on the speclflc direct and Indirect effect\

ot each cultural

model ot
practice

of culture

could

Lalue on accounting

prdcrice

Llmliatlons
Debplte

widespread

acceptance

measure ot the dlrnemlons

b> nationalit)

ot culture

This cla>slficatlon

basis for natmdl

Hotstede

eul\tence

5 the00

For example

onglnate>

It cultural dltiusm

IS not without

ImperfectIons

Hotstede clas\lfie\

cultural

trom J premise

m Its

dlttuslon

that shared values are the

does not tallow

the border ot ndtlonh. cth-

mc and race cntena rnJ.1 proklde more \~lld wa>s to delmeate cultural differences
The
Indoneblan population comprises several different ethnic groups ~lth dltferent language\
rellglons,
overlook

dnd customs

The tocus on national

the Impact ot the dltferent

ing practice

However.

culture

borrowed

from the literature

cultures ot these ethnic groups on Indonesian

the reliance ot the Indonesian

business commumty

rng

account-

on the luthorlty

ot the po\emment
could molllty the Impact ot these disparate ethnic cultures
Hotstedes theory of culture also does not address the InteractIon eftects among each
dmienslon

ot culture

ter educated.

For e~rnple.

power distance

his theoF

In rl society

predicts that when more people become bet-

WIII decrease

It 15 possible

however.

decrease In power dlstdnce ma> also be marked by a decrease m uncertainty

Better education

ma

~lco enable people to teel confident

about thcmsel\es

that the

~\oldance
and 12~5an\-

Culture and Accountmg In lndonesla

IOUS about uncertainty

there are government

481

In this regard. uncertdlntl a\ oldance may decrease whether or not

deregulation
pohcleh In Hofstedeb model government deregula-

tlon policies are one 01 the en\ Ironmental Indicators of change In uncertdrnty avolddnce
posslblhty huggests that change In uncertainty Jvoldance mdy be due to change in

This

poher

distance

Without

there InsIghts, the theory

may fall to explain

direct and Indirect effects ot change m en\ lronmentdl

The financial

reportmg

a\allable

precluded

types dnd organIzatIonal

achle\mg

hampIe did not tdclhtate

d random

structures

relectlon

a separate e\amlnatlon

and predict

the

values

sample used In thrs study Include companies

ot lines of mdustrq. ownershlp

ablllty constraints

tactors on cultural

with a wide range

data JVJII-

Howeirr

of reporting

entitles

of the relatIonshIp

The

between cul-

ture and dccountlng practice by mdustD classltlcatlon.

o~nershlp type, or orgamz~tlon~l
structure Accordingly.
this stud! could not conduct an aninnlq~~sot the Influence ot firm
speclflc culture on accountmg practice OrganIzatIonal
>tructures and management declslon processes of state cnterpnseb
dltterences

rnq

ma> cause btate and prr\dte

response to changes In en\ Ironmental

provide such InsIght>
This study co\ers

factors

quarter of the hIsto

The Impact

notlceable

trom

thohe of pnvdte
to take dlfterent

enterprrses

of this ndtlon

Ldckrng a wider sample

this stud! cannot

penod. Indone-

transfomwtlon
process from a predomln~ntlq
Although thlr penod reprebents dppro\lmatelJ
a

it IS relate\ ely short tor d stud) of A society and Its cul-

ot en~lronmental

A longer transrtlon

The\e

course> of action m

d penod horn 1981 to 1992 Dunng this twelve-bear

\lan society underwent

a qnlficant
agncultural to a more lndustrlal \oclet>
ture

dltfer

enterpn>es

change,

on \ocletdl

llte

ma)

not be Immedldtel>

penod may have to elapse betore the effects of mterdctlons

among the changes In en\ IronmentA

tactor>

>ocletal norms

and their lnstltutlondl

conse-

quences can be obserk ed

REFERENCES
Gray

S J 1988

Towards a Theory of Cultural Intluenw on the De\rlopmrnt

terns lnlemationally

1991 Cllltwtv

c7nd

-thac~rr 2-l

Orgonr:nfrotts

Ikaran Ahuntnacl Indonssla

_

I990

Prrnsrp

prmsr

JoreAog

No

Sop

urc

of r/w M~rrd Ne\\ Yorh McGra-Hill

1990 A+wrrru Ptwrerr~ns~7~7

-\krrtrrutrsr

1-9 Jakarta

K G and D Sorbom

Indotmru

of Accounrlng Sj\-

I-IS

198-i

4Auttrutr

D~lettgXupr

Jakarta P T Rlneka Clpta

Detwtrtt

Pcvtr\cmcttt

h/o

I 4 d17tr ltuer

P T Rmeha Opta
1989 LlSREL

7 Irstv-s Rtp-rnce

Gttrdc

Moorss! 111s IN Scwntific

Software
Roblson

I99 I Pou er Ad

Contemporary Asia
Sudorman

EC ottom

1995 The Dvnamlc

Evamlnatlon
Lrm\ersitj

rn Sdrarros

Itrdotmro

Wollongong

Austraha

Journal of

Puhhshers
RelatIonshIp

of the Indonesian

Setting

Betueen Cuture and Accounting

Unpuhllshed

dlssertatwn

An Empmcnl

Case Western Reserve