Clad and Dissimilar Metals

STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 Ml 0784265 0510340 603 mm CHAPTER 6 PREPARED BY A ‘COMMITTEE CONSISTING OF: S. D. Kiser, Chairman Inco Alloys International CLAD AND [=~ Oregon Graduate Genter J.F King Oak Ridge National Laboratory J.C. Lippold T. Ohio State University M E A LS D.L. Olson Colorado School of Mines C. L, Schmidt Precision Components Corporation Introduction 334 ‘WELDING HANDBOOK COMMITTEE MEMBERS: Fundamentals 335 SD. Kiser co tens international Service Considerations. 342 b.1 Temple Detroit Edison Company Filer Metal Selection 344 Welding Process Selection 351 Specific Dissimilar Metal Combinations 353 Welding Ciad Steels 370 Applied Linings 380 Safe Practices oa Applications 384 388 ‘Supplementary Reading ListSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 19598 Ml 0784265 OSLO3LL 747 mm 334 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS ane CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS INTRODUCTION DISSIMILAR METALS ARE chemically different metals faluminum, copper, nickel, etc.) or metallusgically different alloys of a particular element (for example, carbon steel and stainless steel). Dissimilar metal com: binarions comprise one or more base metals and one or more filler metals that, after meleing together during welding, make up the final weld. A series of weld metals, varying significantly in composition may exist within a single welded joint, such as where each individual weld bead has its own compositional characteristics. This chapter addresses the fusion welding of dissimilar metals and clad materials. It does not address joining methods, such as brazing, that resule in insignificant alloying between the base metal and the added weld metal FUSION WELDING WHEN DISSIMILAR METALS are joined by fusion welding (complete admixture of all components making up the joint), the alloying between the base metals and filler metals, when used, becomes a major consider ation. The resulting weld metal behavior can be signifi cantly different from that of either base metal during, subsequent processing and in service A combination of metals with significantly different chemical, mechanical, and physical properties can present problems during welding, during subsequent treatments, or in service. The combination can be two different base metals or three different metals, one of which is a filler meral. The resulting weld-metal composition will differ from that of any of the components and can vary with the joint design, the welding process, the filler metal, and the welding pro cedure, Consequently, these factors, and any thermal exposure the weldment may experience during fabrication or in service, must be established and property evalu: ated prior to production. In each case, the filler metal selection, welding process, and welding procedure for the application should be established using suitable tests. LOW-ALLOYING PROCESSES MOST COMBINATIONS OF dissimilar metals can be joined using low-alloying techniques and processes such as, brazing, solid-state welding, or soldering where alloying, between the metals is normally insignificant. In certain combinations, these are the only methods that can be employed because of intolerance for complete metallurgical mixing {melting) of the various metals making up the welded joint. When insignificant alloying between the metals exists, only the difference in the physical and mechanical properties of the base metals and their influ- ‘ence on the serviceability of the joint should be considered. SUITABILITY FOR SERVICE THE MAJOR GOAL of dissimilar-metal welding is to produce a weldment that meets the intended service fequirement. Despite the fact that a sound weld has been produced and passed all of the normal qualification and acceptance tests, the conditions encountered in service may produce a premature and unexpectedSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842bS OSLO3b2 bab Ml failure. Service conditions such as thermal cycling and corrosive environments require that special attention be directed toward the metallurgical characteristics and the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the dissimilar-metal weldment. A major metallurgical difference between a weld and a base metal is microstructural. The weld can be considered equivalent to a CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 335 casting, while the base metal is usually a wrought product form. The cast structure may impact the service suitability due to the likelihood of lower fatigue strength, reduced creep rupture ductility and chemical segregations. These factors all must be considered, as related to the service environment, when designing a ‘weldment for satisfactory long-life performance. FUNDAMENTALS WELDING DISSIMILAR METALS requires consideration of all the basic factors found in conventional welding, but their effects usually must be more carefully considered, WELD METAL IN THE FUSION welding of dissimilar-metal joints, the most important consideration is the weld-metal composition and its properties. Its composition depends on the compositions of the base metals, the filler metal, if used, and the relative dilution of these, The weld-metal composition usually is not uniform, particularly in multiple- pass welds where a different weld-metal composition resides in each individual weld bead, and a composition gradient is likely to exist in the weld metal adjacent to each base metal. The solidification characteristics of the weld metal also are influenced by the relative dilutions and the composition gradients near each base metal. The filler metal specifier must predict what these compositions will be and then pass judgment with respect to potential hot cracking during weld metal solidification and, assuming no cracking will occur, the stability of the resultant metallurgical structure during subsequent fabrication, and later in service. For example, a stainless steel with a high delta ferrite content embrittles at cle- vated temperatures through conversion of the ductile ferrite phase to the brittle sigma phase. Such structures are avoided by using a filler metal in which the ferrite phase is totally suppressed, such as the NiCrFe-2 composition, The basic concepts of alloying, the metallurgical characteristics of the resultant alloy, and its mechanical and physical properties must be considered when designing a dissimilar-metal joint. If the two base metals form a continuous series of solid solutions when melted together, such as copper and nickel, production of a fusion weld between them is readily accomplished. On. the other hand, if complex phases or intermetallic compounds are formed when the two base metals are melted together, successful fusion welding likely depends on filler metal availability and a welding, procedure that will avoid such compounds and phases, and will produce sound metal with acceptable proper ties for the intended service. Evaluation of the intended service is a paramount consideration each time a dissimilar combination of at least two base metals and at least one weld metal is encountered. DILUTION AND ALLOYING DURING FUSION WELDING, metal from each base metal and the filler metal itself, if used, are melted together into the weld pool. Upon solidification, the weld metal will be either a single phase or a mixture of ‘two or more phases. A phase can be a solid solution, such as occurs between nickel and copper, an interme” tallic compound (CuAl,), or other compounds such as carbides (FesC and TiC). Also, within the realm of solid-solution phases, different arrangements of atoms can result in different phases such as austenite and ferrite. The number, type, amount, and metallurgical arrangement of the phases present largely determine the properties and soundness of the weld metal. Solidifica- tion and cooling rates also have a significant effect on the phases present and the metallurgical structure of the metal. Understanding the stability of these phases in the weld and the thermal effects of welding on the base metals requires sound metallurgical knowledge of the following: (1). The effects of metallurgical alloying within the weld itself (2) The heat-affected zone of each parent metal (3). The relation of both of these to further fabrication processes and in-service performance, i.e, forging, heat treatment, and expected in-service environment Cyclic oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures (as temperatures go up and down) in specific environments must be well understood, Obviously the welding, engineer, design engineer, and system or process engineer (in-service specialist) must communicate at aSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 336 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS very early stage if in-service predictability is 10 be realized Basic metallurgy associated with the alloying of metals and the metallurgy of welding are discussed in Vol- ume 1 of this Handbook. Review of this material will provide background on the reactions that take place during welding, and insight into the mechanics of dilu tion and alloying. However, the combined requiements of welding, fabrication operations, and in ditions (especially in-service variations of cotrodents, temperature, pressure, and equipment complexity) make base metal and weld metal selection a very close community effort among the various parties involved enroute to achieving an optimum in-service result. However, predictability in welding dissimilar metals is a very old challenge that has been successfully addressed for decades In welding dissimilar metals, the filler metal. must alloy readily with the base metals involved to produce a weld metal chat has a continuous, ductile matrix phase. Specifically, the filler metal must be able to avcept dilution (alloying) by the base metals without producing a crack-sensitive microstructure. The weld metal microstructure must be stable, pass applied mechanical acceptance tests, withstand subsequent fabrication operations (¢.g., forging and thermal treatments), and prove stable under the expected service conditions, The weld metal strength should be equivalent to or better than that of the weaker base metal. In many applica tions, a strengrh-supplying filler metal is capped off with’ a corrosion-resistant surface layer of lesser strength filler metal, For example, a NiCrCoMo-1 (Ni 21Cr-13Co-1.2AD) filler metal may be capped with a NiCr-4 (Ni-44Cr} composition to impart superior oxidation resistance to a high-strength weld, although the first weld itself has inferior oxidation’ resistance if exposed to the environment. This practice is but one of many examples in which two filler metals within the same joint may be needed co achieve a desired end result. Significant stirring or agitation occurs in the molten weld pool with most are fusion welding processes. This tends to produce weld metal with a substantially uni form composition macroscopically, except for a narrow band that occurs at the fusion line. The band of melted but unmixed or partially mixed base metal usually is wider when the filer metal has a higher melting poine than the base metal.! In muhtiple-pass are welding, the composition of each, weld bead is macroscopically uniform, However, a weld has a coarse dendritic microstructure in which chemical microsegregation occurs and can be a weakness in 1. Bacslack, W. A. Lippold, J. Cu, and Savage, WF formation in austenitic stainless Steel weldments. S8\6): 1685-1765, 1979, Unmixed zone Welding Journal 2998 M™ O7842b5 0510363 S12 a service if proper filer metal selection is not made. For example, the segregation of molybdenum in pit-resisting iron-based stainless steel welds can result in peema- ture failure. To avoid this, a NiCrMo nickel-based filler metal often is selected. However, definite compositional differences are likely in succeeding weld beads, especially berween a root bead, the beads adjacent to the base metals, and the remaining fill beads in thick joints. The practical significance of interbead chemical differences usually is, diminished by using an over-alloyed filler metal that renders such differences insignificant in an in-service context, The average composition of the entire welded joint can be calculated when two things are known: ay (2) The ratio of the base metals melted to the entire weld metal volume, i., the dilution ‘The composition of the base metals Dilution is defined as the change in composition of a welding filler metal caused by the admixture of the base metal or previous weld metal in the weld bead. It is usually considered as a percentage of the base metal that has entered into the total weld metal. The dilution can be determined from area measurements on a transverse section through a test weld. Figure 6.1 illustrates the method of determining the amount of base metal dilution in a bead-on-plate weld. Figure 6.2 illustrates how to determine the dilution in a groove weld between two, base metals when welding, with or without a filler metal. Weld profiles with various total dilutions also are shown, The equations in Figure 6.2 use the same nomenclature convention as is defined in Figure 6.1 100 AVIA + F) where = % total dilution D4 = % dilution by base metal a A = cross-sectional area of weld in base metal a ‘oss-sectional area of wold above the base metal Figure 6.1—Dilution in a Bead-on Plate WeldSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH B-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 0510364 459 mm CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 337 Fe A - By DILUTION BY METAL 9% = aracfiae x 100 DILUTION BY METAL b% = age; x 100 AWB, TOTAL DILUTION. = aagaifapy % 100 (A) Dilution Calculations with Filler Metals 2 _ Xt *s DILUTION BY METAL a.% = Ae x - gag x100 TOTAL DILUTION% = 100 {B) Dilution Calculations with No Filler Metal Added 3 eS HIGH TOTAL DILUTION ‘APPROX. 65% TOTAL DILUTION APPROX. 25% TOTAL DILUTION {C) Weld Profiles of Various Total Dilutions Figure 6.2—Dilution in a DissimilarMotal Welded Joint May Be Obtained by Comparing Cross-Sectional Areas of the Weld MetalSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 19598 MM O7842b5 0520365 395 Ml 338 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS The average percentage of a specific alloying clement (X) in the diluted weld metal can be calculated using the following equation: Xp = DaXq + DpXpr Xp - Dy) (6.1) where Xo = average % of element X in the weld metal = % of element X in base metal a % of element X in base metal b of element X in filler metal f 1D, = % dilution by base metal a, as a decimal Dy, = % dilution by base metal b, as a decimal D,, = % total dilution by base metals a and 6, asa decimal The ability to determine the approximate weld-meral composition is important when making dissimilar-metal welds. The composition determines many important properties, such as strength, corrosion resistance, fissure resistance, and the potential for sigma formation (an embrittling phase) To illustrate che calculation of weld-meral composition, assume Type 316 stainless steel is welded to a 2-1/4Cr-IMo alloy steel with a nickel-chromium alloy filler metal of type ERNiCr-3. The nominal compositions of the three alloys are given in Table 6.1 Assuming the total dilution is 35% as determined by area measurements on a transverse section through a test weld (but more probably based on the welding, engineer’s experience), 15% from the Cr-Mo steel, 20% from the Type 316 stainless steel and 65% contribution by the ERNiCr-3 filler metal, the average percentages of Cr Ni, and Mo in the weld metal are calculated as follows: Table 6.1 Compositions of Base and Filler Metals Chosen as an Example _ Nominal Composition, % Element" CrMoSteel 316 Stainless FillerMetal Cr 35 170 a Ni = 120 n Mo 10 25 = Fe «5 0 3 CeM% = 0.15{2.5) + 0.20(17} + 0.65(20) = 16.8 ae % = 0.20(12) + 0.65(72) = 49.2 Mo% = 0.15(1) + 0.20(2.5) = 0.65 This composition is known to be crack resistant and unaffected by fabrication operations such as forging and thermal treatment. Specifically, no transformation to brittle phases should occur as would be possible in elevated-temperature service if an austenitic stainless filler metal were used. If an austenitic stainless steel such as 308 or 309 were used, the ferrite would transform to sigma phase with ‘exposure above about 900 °F (482 °C). (See Figure 5.18, Page 285.) The weld metal composition calculated in the above example would be fully austenitic (see Figure 5.7, Page 265), and ‘would not be affected by thermal exposure. MELTING TEMPERATURE RANGES JOINING OF DISSIMILAR metals by fusion welding requires melting of both base metals. If the melting tem: perature ranges are close, normal welding techniques and procedures can be employed. When there is a wide difference in melting temperature ranges, the problems cof welding become complex. In fact, it might be neces sary to use brazing, braze welding, soldering, or solid- state welding techniques for joining those dissimilar metals combinations. Table 6.2 compares the melting temperatures. and other importanc physical properties of some metals to those of carbon steel. It obviously is difficult to weld aluminum to steel ox, for that matter, any of the other alloys in this table according to these data, on the basis, ‘of melting temperatures alone. When physical properties are at wide variance from each other, there will nor- rally be metallurgical problems as well. Significant differences in melting temperature ranges of the two base metals or of the weld metal and a single base metal can result in liquation cracking of the metal, with the lower melting temperature. Solidification and contraction of the metal with the higher melting temperature will induce stresses in the other metal while it is ina weak, partially solidified condition. Sometimes this problem’can be solved by depositing one or more layers of filler metal of intermediate melting temperature range on the face of the lower melting range mate- tial. This procedure is known as buttering. The weld is then made between the buttered face and the other base metal. The buttering layer serves to reduce the effect of the melting temperature differential For example, attempting to make a groove weld between Type 304 stainless steel and 90 copper- 10 nickel plates using ENiCrFe-2 can result inSTD.AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7A4265 05103bb 22] Ml CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 339 SS Table 62 Relationship of Physical Properties of Various Metals with Those of Carbon Steel Ratio of Propertos® ‘Austenitic Relative Property Carbon Steel Copper Aluminum Stainless Stool 7ONi-3KCu___7BNi-N6CrFe ‘Mean coefficient of thermal expansion? 10 14 19 13 12 Ww Thermal Conductivity 10 18 31 03 05 03 Heat Capacity 10 08 19 10 ua og Density 10 u 03 10 u ul ‘Meting Temperature 10 07 04 09 a9 os ‘Values shown represent ratio comparisons to carbon ste, nat actual property values. b._Fromroom temperature to 500°F (20°C). heat-affected zone liquation cracking in the 90 copper 10 nickel groove face due to the large melting temperature differential [see Figure 6.3(A)]. By applying a weld overlay, or buttering layer, of 70 copper-30 nickel weld ‘metal t0 the 90 copper-10 nickel plate, as shown in Fig- ure 6.3(B), liquation cracking can be avoided. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MOST METALS AND alloys are relatively good con- ductors of heat, but some are much better than others (see Table 6.2). When two dissimilar metals of significantly different thermal conductivities are welded together, rapid conduction of heat from the molten weld puddle by an adjacent base metal can affect the energy input required to locally melt that base metal. ‘The welding procedure must provide for this difference. Often the welding heat source must be directed toward the metal with the higher thermal conductivity to obtain proper heat balance. The amount of heat that flows into a base metal from the weld pool is a function of the temperature and thermal conductivity of the base metal. When welding dissimilar metals, heat loss to the base metals can be balanced somewhat by selectively preheating the metal with the higher thermal conductivity. Dilution is more uniform with balanced heating. Preheating the base metal of higher thermal conductivity also reduces the cooling rate of the weld metal and the heat-affected zone. The net effect of preheati is to reduce the heat needed to melt the base metal. The most common example of preheating the base metal of higher thermal conductivity is when pure copper is welded to steel or stainless steel. Copper has a thermal conductivity that is 8 times higher than steel (see Table 6.2), and it requires about 1000 °F (538 °C) preheat in order to be melted into the weld joint. 2. The heat flow of welding is more extensively covered in Chapter 3 ‘of the Welding Handbook, Vol 1, Sth Ed L ENICrFe-2 / ENicr#e-2 yes wom ST won } } LIQUATION CRACKS: 70 Cu-30 Ni BUTTERING (A) Liquation Cracking (8) Use of Buttering to Avoid Liquation Cracking Figure 6.3—Liquation Cracking May be Avoided by Buttering with an Intermediate Melting Temperature ‘Weld MetalSTD. AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH G-ENGL 1994 MM O7642b5 OSLO3b7 168 mm 340 CLAD AND THERMAL EXPANSION DISSIMILAR METALS THE DIFFERENCES IN coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) between metals in a dissimilar-metal joint produce stresses in the joint during changes in temperature. This factor is particularly important for in- joints operating at elevated temperatures in a c temperature mode. A common example of this situation is austenitic stainless steel joined to a chromium-molyb denum low-alloy steel in fossil-fired powerplant transition joints, Premature failure, using austenitic stainless filler metals, was eliminated by using a nickel-chro mium-iron filler metal with a more intermediate thermal expansion coefficient between the two base metals Figure 6.4 depicts an example of a powerplant dissimilar-metal weld thermal fatigue failure that resulted from the use of Type 309 stainless steel weld metal. Type 304H stainless steel was joined to chromium molybdenum low-alloy steel (T-22) by using a backing ring and a Type 309 stainless steel weld. Figure 6.5 shows an example of the relative expansion in a dissimilar-meral weld joint between austenitic and ferritic steels, Ideally, the linear thermal coefficient of expansion of the weld metal should be halfway between the two base metals, especially if the difference between the two base metals is large Dilution of the deposited weld metal can alter its expansion coefficient. For example, dilution of pure nickel with copper tends to increase the thermal expan sion coefficient, but dilution with certain amounts of iron, chromium, or molybdenum tends to reduce it Thus, the thermal expansion characteristics of the wo dissimilar base metals and the weld metal are important considerations. Large differences in thermal expansion coefficients of adjacent metals during cooling or in service will induce shear stresses at cheir interface. The linear thermal expansion coefficient & can be defined as the change in strain Ae with respect to a change in temperature AT: ae a== G ar This is a characteristic property of each alloy. It is more commonly represented as Al a= Tar (6.3) where the change in length over the original length, Al/l, represents the change in strain, AC. The stress 6 in the heat-affected zone of one of the metals associated with a dissimilar-metal interface can be estimated using the following equation (8) End View of Right Hand Piece Courtesy of Inco Alloys international In Figure 6.4—Thermal Fatigue Failure in a Dissimilar Metal Weld Using a 309 Filler Metal to Join a Low-STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 OS103b8 O74 Mi AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL Ni-cr WELD RELATIVE COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION {B) Photomicrograph of Joint between Type 304 ‘Stainless Steel (Left) and 2-1/4Cr1Mo (Right) ‘Welded with ERNiCr3 Filler Metal Note: Values shown in (A) above represent eatio comparisons to carbon steel, the same as in Table 6.2, not actual property values, Photo Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory Figure 6.5—Relative Relationships in a Dissimilar-Motal Wold Joint between Austenitic and Ferritic Steels o=EaaaT (64) where E__ = the elastic modulus of the metal Ao. = the difference in linear thermal expansion coef ficients berween the two metals AT = the change in temperature By knowing the base metal compositions, the filler metal compositions, and the welding dilution, a CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 341 relationship between the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and chemical composition can be used to predict the thermal expansion properties of dissimilar- metal welds. The determination of this relationship was reported in a study by Elmer, Olson, and Matlock who experimented by measuring the CTE of various stainless steel alloys and mapping these data as a function of composition.” PREHEAT AND POSTHEAT TREATMENTS SELECTION OF AN appropriate preheat or postweld heat treatment for a welded joint can present a problem with some dissimilar metal combinations. Welding an alloy that requires preheat to another alloy that does not can be done by directing or favoring the preheat on the proper side of the joint. If this cannot be done, it should be verified that preheating will not be detrimental to the side of the joint not requiring it. Postweld heat treatment requirements for dissimilar- ‘metal joints can pose a challenge to the designer. The appropriate heat treatment for one component of the weldment may be deleterious to the other component for the intended service conditions. For example, if an age-hardenable nickel-chromium alloy is welded to a nonstabilized austenitic stainless steel, exposure of the weldment to the aging treatment for the nickel-chromium alloy would sensitize the stainless steel and decrease its resistance to intergranular corrosion. One solution is to use a stabilized austenitic stainless steel, if that is acceptable, or use a nickel alloy not subject to carbide precipitation (sensitization). Both methods will result in higher fabrication costs. Another solution can be to butter the face of the age- hardenable, nickel-chromium alloy component with a similar alloy that is not age hardenable. This component is then heat treated to obtain the desired proper: tics. Finally, the buttered surface is welded to the stainless steel component. Buttering may increase fabrication costs, yet it provides an economical solution for many applications. OTHER WELDING CONSIDERATIONS Magnetic Effects MAGNETIC FIELDS, EITHER induced or permanent, can interact with a de arc or an electron beam to produce force fields that cause undue deflection of the 3. Elmer, J. W., Olson, D. L., and Matlock, DK. *The thermal expansion characteristics of stainless stel weld metal.” Welding Jour: ral 61(9): 2935-3015, 1982. 4. For a more detaled discussion of hutering, refer to Chaptet 7, Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, 8th EdSTD-AUS UHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 2998 MM 0784265 O5103b9 130 Ml $42 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS welding arc or electron beam, Arc blow, beam deflee tion, or metal transfer can be affected by the force of a magnetic field. Magnetic flux can be generated by the flow of welding current in one or both components, residual magnetism, or a nearby external source. ‘When only one of the metals being welded is ferro: magnetic, a de arc or electron beam can be deflected toward that side of the joint. An excessive amount of, that metal can be melted, resulting in excessive dilution. Also, there may be incomplete fusion at the root of the weld. Results such as these can occur when welding carbon steel co a nickel alloy or to an austenitic stainless steel. The arc or electron beam is deflected to the carbon steel side of the joint unless special precautions are taken to offset magnetic effects. Magnetic deflection is, not a problem with an ac arc or the short-circuiting mode of GMAW. Beam deflection can be used with elec tron beam welding to control this problem When the GMAW process is used, the short-are mode of transfer often is used to counter arc-blow because no, molten weld metal is in free-flight to be affected by magnetic fields. Metal is transferred from the electrode to the workpiece only during the period of time when the electrode is in contact with the weld pool. Weld Metal-Base Metal Interaction WELD METAL PENETRATION into the grain boundaries in the heat-affected zone of the base metal can oceur in certain alloy systems. The likely result is intergranular eracking in the heat-affected zone, Usually, the tendency for this behavior is governed by the laws of liquid metal infiltration, For instance, molten copper- rich weld metal can penetrate carbon steel or austenitic stainless steel grain boundaries during welding. The degree of penetration can be greater when the base metal is preheated and/or under tensile stress. Joint Design WHEN DESIGNING GROOVE joints between dissimilar metals, consideration must be given to the melting, characteristics of cach base metal and the filler metal, as well as to dilution effects. Wide angle grooves decrease dilution, permit better control of viscous weld metal, and provide room for better manipulation of the arc for good fusion The joint design should provide for appropriate dilution in the first few passes when welding from one side Improper dilution could result in a layer of weld metal possessing corrosion resistance and mechanical properties that are inappropriate for the intended service, par ticularly when the joint will be exposed to cyclic stresses, When welding from both sides, back gouging, of the first weld can provide better control of dilution in the first few passes of the second weld. SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS THE SERVICE LIFE of dissimilar-metal joints depends upon their mechanical and physical properties, micto- structural stability, and resistance to oxidation and cor rosion. Each of these considerations will be examined in this section. MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES A DISSIMILAR-METAL JOINT normally contains weld metal with a composition different from one or both base metals, The properties of the weld metal depend on the filer metal composition, the welding procedures, and the relative dilution with each base metal. There are also two different heat-affected zones, one in each base metal adjacent to the weld metal. The mechanical and physical properties of the weld metal, as well as those of the two heat-affected zones, must be considered for the intended service. Special considerations generally are given to dissimilar-metal joints intended for elevated temperature service. A favorable situation exists when the joint will operate at constant temperature. During elevated temperature service, internal stresses can decrease by creep relaxation and reach an equilibrium, However, itis best to reduce the effects of large differences in coefficients of thermal expansion when large temperature fluctuations cannot be avoided in service. ‘The problem can he avoided by selecting base metals with similar thermal expansion characteristics. If this is not feasible, an alternative is to place a third metal between the two base metals. This third metal should have thermal expansion characteristics intermediate to those of the other two. Added metals such as these sometimes are called transition joints imilar reasoning can be applied in the selection of the filler metal. If possible, dissimilar-metal welds should be located in areas of known low service stress because of the possible additive effect of thermallySTD.AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 0510370 752 a induced stresses to those produced by external loading. If this cannot be done, then filler metals that are notch, tough and resistant to thermal fatigue must be selected. Nickel-alloy classifications generally satisfy these requirements, although adequate service sometimes may be found in less expensive filler metals. The properties of the various metallurgically different regions in a welded joint are important when the joint will be used in cyclic temperature service. Such properties include coefficient of thermal expansion, elastic modulus, yield strength, and crack propagation characteristics. When subjected to cyclic temperature service, differences in the two base metals and the weld metal can induce fluctuating stresses in the heat-affected zones and adjacent weld metal. Cracks may develop as a result of thermal fatigue and cause early failure of the joint. Service life under cyclic temperature conditions will depend on the ability of the metal to resist crack initiation, as well as its resistance to crack propagation. In terms of thermal fatigue resistance, a coarse dendritic cast weld structure will possess inferior thermal fatigue properties to that of a wrought base metal of a similar composition. The use of a filler metal that overmatches the base metal, with respect to static properties, is frequently done to overcome this reduction in properties associated with the cast weld metal structure. The weld is such a small fraction of the total weight of the weldment that the increased cost of such filler metals, if they extend the service life of the joint, is insignificant. Because various metal properties change with temperature, it is difficult to mathematically predict the behavior of a dissimilar joint in service. Thermal cycling of sample weldments, followed by metallurgical and mechanical evaluations, can provide useful information on expected service performance. However, a better strategy is to select a weld metal that is expected to perform better than both base metals. MICROSTRUCTURAL STABILITY THERE IS LIKELIHOOD of significant chemical composition gradients in the weld metal, particularly in the regions adjacent to the base metals. In addition, operation at elevated temperatures can cause interdiffusion between the weld metal and the base metal that, in turn, results in microstructural changes. A joint between two. dissimilar metals has variations in atom concentration and activity across the weld. These activity gradients, can be interpreted as chemical potential gradients that can result in atom diffusion with or against the concentration gradient in multiple-component alloys. Thus, it is difficult to predict with absolute certainty, from concentration data alone, the migration of specific atoms, across a dissimilar-metal joint during high-temperature service. Movement of atoms over a period of time alters CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 343 local alloy compositions and produces changes in the mechanical and physical properties of the metal in the region. A dissimilar-metal weld made between a low-alloy steel and an austenitic stainless steel with an austenitic stainless steel filler metal illustrates chis problem. The carbon content of low-alloy steel is generally higher than that of austenitic stainless steel weld metal. The relatively large amount of carbide-forming, elements, such as chromium, in stainless steel tends to lower the chemical activity of the carbon. This situation produces a large potential chemical gradient for carbon diffusion from a low-alloy steel to stainless steel weld metal, which can occur during postweld heat treatment or dur ing service at elevated temperatures. As a result, decar- burization and sometimes grain growth take place in the heat-affected zone of the low-alloy steel that lower its mechanical properties. At the same time, the adjacent stainless steel weld metal is carburized and complex carbides form. The buildup of carbides will substantially increase the hardness of the weld metal in this zone and increase the likelihood of cracking. CORROSION AND OXIDATION RESISTANCE THE WELD METAL and both base metals have specific corrosion behaviors that must be considered by the designer in the initial selection of materials. For example, sensitization of certain austenitic stainless steels promoting corrosion in specific environments is_an important concern in welds, especially when the filler metal is also austenitic stainless steel With dissimilar-metal weldments, the formation of galvanic cells can cause corrosion of the most anodic metal or phase in the joint. Also, the weld metal may be composed of several microstructural phases, and local- ined cells between phases can result in galvanic corrosion at the microstructural level. To minimize galvanic corrosion, the composition of the weld metal can be selected such that the weld is cathodic to the base metal in the specified environment. It is particularly important that the weld be cathodic, since it is usually only about 5 percent of the surface area of the vessels. Thus, the large surface area of the base plate becomes the anode and low corrosion rates occur. For example, 70 nickel-30 copper alloy is used in desalination and salt brine equipment above 180 °F (82°C), Galvanic studies show that a weld metal of nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy must be used to prevent excessive galvanic corrosion of the weld. The galvanic corrosion data in Table 6.3 clearly shows the need for a highly alloyed totally dissimilar weld metal. 5. A more detailed discussion of galvanic corrosion is presented on Pages 346348STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 Ml 0784265 051037) £99 mm 344 CLAD AND. DISSIMILAR METALS TT Table 6.3 Galvanic Series of Selected Filler Metals in Saturated Brine at 153 ‘F (67 °C) Felative Electrode Potential, Filler Metal _ “125 ERNICIMo3 140 Wrought 400 “150 ENiFetr2 “170 ENicuy, 1.80 Cast 325 ERNICU-? ‘Relative electrode potential measured rom protected cathode (V=0)t0 carraded anode, ._ CastadD was produced ty induction mating a small piece of wrought 0. A galvanic cell associated with a high-strength steel may promote hydrogen embrittlement in the heat affected zone of that stec! if itis the cathode of the cell. Hydrogen embrittlement must be considered if the FILLER METAL SELECTION service temperature of the weldment will be in the range of 40 to 200 °F (4 to 93 °C), and the weld will be in a highly stressed area of the assembly. Residual stresses developed in the weld zone often are sufficient to promote hydrogen embrittlement and sometimes stress corrosion cracking, Chemical compositional differences in a dissimilar- metal weld also can cause high-temperature corrosion, problems. Compositional variations at the interfaces between the different metals can result in selective oxi dation, when operating at high temperature in air or oxidizing atmospheres, and the formation of notches at, these locations. Notches are potential stress raisers in the joint and can cause stress-oxidation failure along the weld interface under cyclic thermal conditions. If the resistance of a dissimilar-metal weld joint to a specific corrosive environment is not certain, accelerated corrosion tests should be used to predict the estimated life of the proposed joint, Accepted corrosion, test procedures are specified in ASTM publications. For example, ASTM G28 and G48 can be used to measure the degree of sensitization and resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion, FILLER METAL SELECTION can be accomplished best by using a combination of scientific principles and the fabrication and service experience of the industrial disciplines involved. The significance of optimum selection cannot be overestimated. The filler metal selected must be compatible with the base metals to be joined such that four major areas of requirements are met by welds that ate produced within a range of acceptable dilution rates. The four areas of requirements are: metallurgical compatibility, mechanical properties, physical properties, and corrosion properties METALLURGICAL COMPATIBILITY ‘THE FILLER METAL selected must be able to accept a range of dilution from both metals to be joined without cracking or promoting cracking in either base metal. It must also produce sound weld deposits with acceptable levels of porosity and inclusions. In addition, the deposit must remain structurally stable under the ser vice conditions specified by the design. The precipitation of new phases or changes in the original phases can lead to degradation of mechanical or corrosion proper: ties, Therefore, the filler metal selected should usually provide a microstructurally stable deposit after dilution, when exposed to the environment. Sometimes it is pos sible to select the filler metal such that positive changes, occur as a result of service such as work-hardening or age-hardening, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES THE DEPOSITED WELD metal after dilution must provide sufficient strength and ductility to allow the welded joint to meet acceptance test criteria. For instance, tensile and yield strength and elongation prop: erties must be sufficient to pass bend and tensile testing, although sometimes longitudinal bending may be required.® Additionally, impact, fatigue, fracture tough: ness, and stress-ruprure or creep testing may be required. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF the weld deposit must be reasonably compatible with those of the base metals being joined. For instance, the melting range of the filler metal chosen should be low enough to minimize liquation cracking and partially melted and mixed zones within either base metal 6. Typical transverse and longitudinal ben test specimens are shown oon Page 355;STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 Ml O7842b5 OS10372 S25 mm An example of dissimilar welding of a high-melting point metal to a lower melting range alloy is shown in Figure 6.6. A chemical company was experiencing high corrosion rates in part of their NiCrFe alloy 600 equipment. The company determined that tantalum performed well, so it lined the equipment with thin sheets of tantalum welded to alloy 600 using the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process and ERNiCr-3 filler metal. Melting ranges of these metals are shown in Table 6.4. A cross section of a sample weld is shown in Figure 6.68. The weld shown has good fusion and little melted and tunmixed zone because the filler metal chosen had a melting range near that of the lower melting range base metal. ‘The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the filler metal chosen should provide minimum internal stress as a result of thermal cycling of the welded joint in service. This usually is accomplished by selecting a filler metal whose weld-deposit CTE is intermediate between those of the base metals being joined. For heat- transfer service and electrical resistance-heating applications, coefficients of thermal and electrical conductivities are usually important. CORROSION PROPERTIES THE CORROSION RESISTANCE of the weld metal should equal or exceed the resistance of the base metal that has been selected for its corrosion-resistant (A) Top View CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 345 Table 6.4 Melting Ranges of Motals Involved in Sample Weld Shown in Figure 6.6 Metal Moting Range Tantalum 5425 °F (2996 °C) NiCrFe 600 2470-2575 °F (1354-1413 °C) ERNiCr-3 2487-2850 °F (1364-1399 °C) properties. For example, when applying corrosion- resisting liners, or wallpapering, plug welds often are used between the nickel-alloy wallpaper and the steel substrate.’ In these applications, the weld deposit must equal or exceed the corrosion resistance of the wallpaper alloy, since the steel is not exposed to the corrosion environment. Also, the weld is a diluted, cast-structure whose surface area is much smaller than that of the wallpaper. Thus, to provide acceptable service under galvanic corrosion conditions, a filler metal must be chosen that provides an overmatching chemical composition that is cathodic to the wallpaper all 7, See discussion of plug welds, Page 382. Also refer to Section 6 of ANSUAWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Non destructive Examination, and to the definition for plug weld in ANSVAWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terme and Definitions, (B) Cross-Section View (Courtesy of inco Alloys Internationa, ne Figure 6.6—Sample Weld of Tantalum Lining GTAW to NiCrFe Alloy 600 Using ERNICr Filler Metal (Reduced to 75%)STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH L-ENGL 1998 Ml 0784265 0510373 4b1 mm 345 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS In applications where both base metals will be exposed to the corrosion environment, the weld metal chosen must meet or exceed the resistance of that of the Ieast corrosion-resistant alloy. In both low-temperature, aqueous environments and high-temperature corrosion environments, the choice is sometimes made of a weld metal that is dissimilar to the base metal being welded. This is done to provide overmatching corrosion resistance in the weld to prevent preferential corrosion of the weld. The most commonly encountered problems in low- temperature aqueous environments are galvanic, pit ting, and crevice corrosion. By appropriate selection of filler metal, these potentially disastrous attacks may be Galvanic Corrosion. When two metals of different composition and metallographic structure are coupled, electrically in the presence of an electrolyte, a possible accelerated corrosion cell is formed. A galvanic series is a ranking of materials according to their respective electrode potentials in a given type of aqueous or moist environment such as sea water, potable water, acid, or soil. It is used in determining the likely galvanic corrosion relationship between dissimilar materials. In gal vanic corrosion, which is sometimes referred to as bimetallic corrosion, metal dissolution is associated with direct current flow between dissimilar materials in electrical contact with cach other in a corrosive clectrolyte. A galvanic series of varioug metals and alloys in sea water is shown in Figure 6.7.° The open bars represent the range of electrode potentials, based on actual measurements in flowing, natural sea water. Note that a few classes of materials which exhibit active-passive behavior each have two bars. In these cases, the open bar represents the electrode potential range in the passive condition (i.e., no corrosion) and the solid bar indicates the potential range when the same material is in the active condition (i.., localized corrosion such as pitting and crevice attack). A more electronegative material (e.g. mild steel or cast iron) will behave as the anode when electrically coupled to a relatively more electropositive (or less electronegative) cathode material (e.g. 90 copper- 8. Two differenr sign conventions are in use within the scientific com ruatty for ranking the measured electrode potential values. In the corrosion enginces’ and electrochemiste’ convention an active mate zal (eg, magnesium) has a more electronegative parental relative 0 4 more clectropositive material (ee aluminum of 2ine o ste! example, in sea water Similarly, aluminurm is more electronegative than stel, steel js mote electronegative than coppet, copper is more electronegative than titanium, and so on. The physical chemist" and thermodynamicises’ convention uses the opposite polarity, eg. titanium is more electronegative than copper copper is more electrones ative than stel, and 40 forth, In this discussion, we wl follow the Corrosion engineers’ and elettochemists convention 10 nickel). If certain conditions are met, corrosion of the anodic material in the galvanic couple will be accelerated, while that of the cathodic material will be slowed or stopped. In general, the metals at the lower and more left (noble) part of the figure, when coupled to those above them, do not corrode because they are protected, while those at the upper and more right (active) part will corrode, The farther apart any two materials are, the faster the upper material will corrode. Galvanic corrosion severity (on the anodic material) is directly related to current density (i.e. total current divided by bare metal surface area on the anode). Ifthe area of the anode (active) metal decreases, the specific corrosion current density increases proportionately. Ide- ally, the anode should be as large as possible, and the cathode as small as possible. In a dissimilar-metal weld, the weld metal should be cathodic to both base metals. The metal microstructure also influences the potential for galvanic corrosion. Castings have a segregated, dendritic structure, while wrought plate, pipe, forgings, sheets and rods have a uniform, homogenous structure. Many matching weld filler metals differ slightly from their base metals because of the addition of deoxidizer and fissure resistant elements, which may segregate in the weld metal structure. Alll of these factors cause elec- trochemical differences that increase the likelihood of galvanic corrosion between metals of - matching compositions. It is commonly assumed that galvanic corrosion is proportional to potential difference between dissimilar ‘materials in the galvanic series. This is a fallacy because it assumes that Ohm's Law applics. However, in elec- trochemical corrosion behavior, a phenomenon known as polarization is much more important than Ohm's Law. In fact, in many instances the Ohm's Law situation may appear to be reversed. In other words, gal vanic-corrosion current density associated with certain dissimilar materials can be large even though their potential difference is small and vice-versa. Potential differences between dissimilar materials in the galvanic series should not be used as an indicator of likely magnitude of galvanic corrosion. The magnitude can only be inferred from experience and DC-current measure ments, but not potential measurements. Galvanic corrosion phenomenon can be quite complex, and other factors often come into play (e. 9. The galvanic series should not he confused with the electzomotive force (EMF) series which is also popblarly mentioned in chemistry text books. The EMF series is also ¢ ranking of electrode potentials but under very specific conditions, viz. pure metal (eg. nickel), deoxy. agenated elecrolyte containing test-metal cations (eg in this eas nickel ions érom a nickel sat such as nickel sulfate) a @ speciic con centration, and standard temperature, In contrast, the galvanic series is for engineering materials in heterogeneous environment, estan Tess sels in sea water. Thus, fom a practical standpoint, the galvanic Series is mach more useful shan the EMF series; however, the limita ‘tons of the Former should not he underestimated,STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1498 MM O7842bS OS10374 378 Mi CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 347 NOBLE POTENTIAL, V (SATURATED CALOMEL ELECTRODE) ACTIVE T ] T macnesium [] | Cane | | Dpenviuium | | | [ALUMINUM ALLOYS | jcADMIU IMILD STEEL, CAST IRON cone aLtoy steet | | On 70-30 NICKEL MANGANESE BRONZE C]suicon sronze | it [po-s0 copeten.wiexet| Bao | gq INICKEL-ALUMINUM BRONZE Sree INICKEL-COPPER ALLOYS 00, 500 | JALLOY 20 STAINLESS STEELS {CAST AND WROUGHT) INICKEL-RON: ‘aRoMIUM ALLOYS 825 Corman NICKEL CAST IRON ALUMINUM arONzE INAVAL BRASS, ewido BRASS, RED BRASS Pb-sn GOLDER (0 (80/50) JADMIRALTY BRASS, ALUMINUM BRASS. IN BRONZES (G & M) | KEL SILVER ISTAINLESS STEEL-TYPE 430 COPPER.-NICKEL {CHROMIUM ALLOY 600 STAINLESS STEEL STAINLESS STEEL-TYPES 316,317 1 |STAINLESS STEEL-TYPES 410, 415| “TYPES 302,304,321,347 COrtarinum | [cnamrre| | NcrMo-cuSiAloys | \ | TrANIUM INi.CrMo ALLOY C NOTE: Alloys are listed in the order off the potential they exhibit in flowing ‘seawater. Certain alloys may become ‘active and exhibit a potential near -0.5 volts (shown by a second, dar bar) at shiolded areas or in low-volocity [or poorly aerated water. [1 I Courtesy of Ladue Corrosion Services, An ino Company Figure 6.7—Galvanic Series of Various Metals and Alloys in SeawaterSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH L-ENGL 348 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS temperature, flow rate, biofouling, deposition of heavy metal ions, full immersion versus atmospheric expo: sure, and other environmental factors}. While the galvanic series will indicate which material will behave as the anode, and which as the cathode, in a galvanic couple, litle more can be deduced from the series alone ‘The galvanic series is even less helpful when three or more materials clectrically coupled concurrently are considered, Figure 6.8 shows a steam coil used to heat a pickling bath. The pipe was fabricated from autogenously seam welded Alloy G base metal that subsequently was girth welded with ERNiCrMo-3 filler metal. Note that the circumferential weld metal (ERNiCrMo-3) has nor been corroded, while the autogenous seam weld has severely corroded. Another view of the cross section of the utogenous weld is shown in Figure 6.9. The preferential attack is primarily due co galvanic corrosion resulting from structural differences and molybdenum microsegregation in the autogenous seam weld. A weld metal containing more nickel and molybdenum should have been added to the longitudinal seam weld to provide a cathodic weld metal with greater nickel and molybdenum content than that of the base metal (cB, like thar in the girth weld) Pitting and Crevice Corrosion. These types of corrosion are thought to be forms of galvanic corrosion resulting from regions of reduced flow resulting in concentration cells. Welds are often involved as the result of differences in the microstructure, such as microsegregation and inclusions. Some environments are more prone to pitting corrosion, and the search for the most economical but resistant materials often leads to the weld metal being the weak link in the chain of materials because of microsegeegation One severe application is found in the pulp and paper industry where stainless steels with 3 r0 6% molybdenum are used successfully in bleach plants.'° The envi. ronment is an acid chloride aqueous media that is a strong pit-inducing liquor. When autogenous welds are used in this environment, preferential weld pitting is frequently seen The cause is known to be the result of the microsegre gation of the chromium and molybdenum to the inte dendritic areas of the weld metal. If autogenous welds or welds of matching composition filler metals are made 2996 MH 0764265 0510375 234 mm Figure 6.9—Cross Section of the Longitudinal ‘Autogenous Weld Shown in Figure 6.8 in alloys that contain chromium and molybdenum, ; ee ervchment of chromam and maighdcnar the ae, Microprobe Analysis of Weld Metal dendritic areas leaves the dendrites depleted of chro: t Fj mium and molybdenum, Table 6.5 shows the oe compositional differences between dendrites and inter- ee ame dendritic areas of 316L and 317L as disclosed b Metal Mo Gr Mo ~~ Base metal 163. 2818432 10. Gamer 8. High-performance austenitic stainless steels in the pulp Weldmetaldenciteconter «=< 43-—«18 M4220 aru paper dustry Teeical Series No. 10,006. Ontario, Canady lterdondte phase m1 87) Md 86 Nickel Development InstirateSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 OS1037b 170 electron microprobe analysis. The bulk base metal chromium and molybdenum contents are given for comparison. Since chromium and molybdenum are the principal elements that impact pitting resistance, it can readily be seen that pitting attack would proceed at the weld metal dendrite centers. The solution to this problem lies in the proper selection of an overmatching filler metal. Choosing. filler metal with sufficiently higher molybdenum content (such as ERNiCrMo-3) will offset the pit-inducing segregation effects, and a higher nickel content will enhance the metallurgical compatibility with the base metals. Weld Metal Select Resistance in for Pitting FILLER METALS OF nickel, nickel-coppes, nickel- chromium-iron, and _nickel-chromium-molybdenum, readily tolerate some dilution by iron. Therefore, they can be applied directly on steel using welding techniques that minimize dilution. Two or more layers of cladding may be required to reduce dilution by iron to an acceptable level for in-service performance. This is particularly true where chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten levels are critical to corrosion performance. ‘The resistance of an alloy to pitting, crevice, and general corrosion increases with the increasing level of critical elements, ASTM G48-97 provides an equation for estimating the temperature at which testing should begin for critical pitting susceptibility:"! CPT = 2.5(%Cr) +7.6(%Mo)+31.9(%N)-41 (6.5) where CPT = critical pitting susceptibility testing starting temperature, °C A simpler relationship of the pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) of selected nickel-based alloys, based on the contents of chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten, is given by the following equation: PRE = %Cr + 1.7(%Mo + %W) (6.6) where PRE = pitting resistance equivalent ‘The PRE value resulting from this equation is simply a ranking of the pitting resistance of a particular alloy 11. ASTM G48, Test Method for Pitting and Crevise Corrosion Resis- tance of Stainless Steels and Related Alloys by the Use of Ferric Chlo- ride Solution. Philadelphia, Pa American Society for Testing and Materials CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 349 rel to various other alloys.!* Higher PRE values indicate greater resistance. Values of PRE for five nickel-based alloys that are used in extremely corrosive environments are shown in Table 6.6. In a number of severe tests, the corrosion rate of the base metals was found to vary inversely with the PRE value. When weld metals that only match the chemical composition of the base metal are used to fabricate equipment that will be used in severe corrosion environments, preferential weld metal corrosion often is encountered. This is due to dendritic microsegregation that occurs in molybdenum-containing weld metals. Therefore, if pitting, crevice corrosion, or galvanic attack are anticipated, it is better to use a filler metal with a PRE value higher than that of the base metal (or higher than that of the matching filler metal). For example, AWS ERNiCrMo-14 (UNS N06686) may be used to join any of the materials in Table 6.6 and provide better corrosion resistance than if filler metals of matching chemistry were used. Figure 6.10 shows the pitting corrosion results. in tests with four of these alloys.'? Welds made with filler metals of matching compositions are shown on the right, and with filler metal of overmatching composition (higher PRE value) on the left. Note the pitting in the weld metals of matching compositions. 12 ilfeent PRE formalas exist for different alloy groups frm vari- aie sours. Sx Rome Gunns, Vets Bruty and Ca, ‘Alberto, “Concerning empirical equations to predict corrosion resi tance of high nitrogen stainless steele for Beat exchangers” Heat Exchanger Technclogis forthe Global Environment, PWRVOI. 25, Ed, Maurer, J. R- New York: American Socery of Mechnanical Eng tees, 1994, Also sce Chapter 5y Page 312. For more on PRE formi- las for nickel-based alloys consul the Nickel Development Institut, 214 King St. West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 13, The sample welds were made using the gas tungsten arc welding process in base plates of 0.25 in, (64 mm) thickness. Three tals of Gach rest were exposed for thee days in an oxiiing chloride pting solution of 11.9% sulfuric acid, 13% hydrochloric acy 16 frre Chloride, and 1% cupric chloride at 217 °F (103 *C), Table 6.6 Pitting Resistance Equivalents (PRE) for Selected Nickel Based Alloys —___Pompositon wet ‘Alloy UNSNo. Fe Ni Gr Mo W PRE NOS 3 =~OSC«RCSC SCS Cz NiO 6 57 155 16 39 4933 Cz Nos 4 85 214 13431 4985 ez = Nogo22 «2-4 S42 32945 a NOGS8G «157-563 39 ABASTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 Ml 0784265 0510377 O07 a 350 CLAD AND. DISSIMILAR METALS (A) Alloy 686 (UNS NO6686) Welded with AWS ERNiCrMo-14 (UNS NO6686) Filler Metal (B) Alloy 622 (UNS NO6622) Welded with AWS (C) Allloy 622 (UNS NO6622) Welded with ERNICrMo-14 (UNS NO6686) Filler Metal Inconel Filler Metal 622 {D) Alloy C-22 (UNS NO6022) Welded with AWS (E) Alloy C-22 (UNS NO6022) Welded with ERNICrMo-14 (UNS NO6686) Filler Metal Standard UNS N06022 Filler Metal {G) Alloy C-276 (UNS N10276) Welded with Standard ERNiCrMo-14 (UNS N06686) Filler Metal UNS NN10276 Filler Metal Courtesy of nco Alloys International, ne igure 6.10—Pitting Resistance of AWS ERNiCrMo-14 (UNS NO6686) Filler Metal in Various NicrMioW Base Metals (Left) Compared to the Use of Matching Composition Filler Metals (Right)STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7642bS OSL0376 143 Mw CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 351 WELDING PROCESS SELECTION SELECTING THE WELDING process to make a given dissimilar-metal joint is almost as important as selecting the proper filler metal. The depth of fusion into the base metals and the resulting dilution may yary with dif ent welding processes and techniques.'# It is not uncommon with shielded metal arc welding for the filler metal to be diluted up to 30 percent with base metal. The amount of dilution can be modified somewhat by adjusting the welding technique. For example, the electrode can be manipulated so that the arc impinges primarily on the previously deposited weld ‘metal. The dilution can be kept below 25 percent with this technique. However, weld bead reinforcement will be high, but not necessarily objectionable. If dilution from one base metal is less detrimental than from the other, the arc should be directed toward that metal. This technique also is applicable to gas tungsten arc welding, Dilution with gas metal arc welding can range from 10 to 50 percent, depending upon the type of metal transfer and the welding technique. Spray transfer gives the greatest dilution, and short-circuiting transfer the least dilution, Penetration with submerged arc welding can be greater, depending on polarity, and can result in more 14, Control of dilution is discussed in most of the process chapters in the Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, Sth Ed. Ie aso’ is explained in ‘Chapter 7, Surfacing, inthis volume dilution. Oscillation allows submerged arc welding of nickel alloys using direct current, electrode negative, resulting in lowered dilution. Narrow welds (high depth-to-width ratio) can be produced by electron beam and laser beam welding. A high- density beam can provide very narrow welded joints with minimum melting of the base metal. If filler metal is required, an interlayer of appropriate thickness can be preplaced in tightly fitted, square-groove joints, or filler metal may be added with an auxiliary wire feed device. Regardless of the process, dilution also is affected by other factors, including joint design, weld position, and fi-up. It is always best to have a minimum uniform dilution along the joint. Variations in dilution may produce inconsistent joint properties. With resistance spot and seam welding of lap joints, an interlayer of appropriate thickness can be placed between the overlapped sheet metal parts. This interlayer can melt and alloy with the molten base metals to form a nugget. Alternatively, when shorter current cycles are used, the interlayer is not completely fused; rather, individual nuggets are formed at each base metal interface with the interlayer. When laser or electron beam welding of dissimilar metals, a weldable or chemically compatible interlay may be needed to provide a crack-free weld. Tables 6.7 and 6.8 present information about some other welding processes known to have been used on a limited basis in dissimilar welding application.STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH G-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 0510379 987 Mi 352 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS e a ° q e e 4 a 2 e e 4 e 4 ® a 4 a a a e e e e ° 4 e e e 9 e 4 4 e a e e ° 4 e 2 ° a 4 ° e e e 4 e e e a 4 e e e e e ° ° ° ° 4 4 e e e 8 e ee e a 4 4 a e ® e ee e a e ® 2 ° e e sims spas sag unusfomy Soy uuu uy wimg ‘un woe §—Aoyy —ssopmms -umjy —seddog JeyoIN = t= -COZ_ RUE] ONS,“ e Pq -eubey unis wnuopoAoyy unupeia PIe9 sans tumgorn wyeue, tumuoaurz ume Sony IN tomy sodog ‘wrung soars ssajeas sree hoy syoa%s woqeg ra i ed qre01A}s204 pue jemay ~ Burpuog uosso|chy 10) suoNBUIELHOD [eIOIN AELUISSIG e9ore, SSSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH B-ENGL L998 MM 0784265 0530380 bT) mm CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 353 Table 6.8. Inertia Welding of Dissimitar Alloys Component Cryogerc tank iting for fuel els onthe space shutle Tutine wheels (7 units) Connection ofhlcopter power source tothe main rotor Injector tubes Hydraulic solenoid valves forsirraftike the FS and 38 Rocket motor case ‘Alloy Combination 2219 aluminum to Type OAL stainless steel Various inconel and other hightemperature aloysto alloy steels NitralioyN to maraging steel 250to Niraloy N Haynes 188to Inco 718 ‘Type 200 series stainless steels to mild steel ANS|4130 ste! ting to an investment casting SPECIFIC DISSIMILAR METAL COMBINATIONS INDUSTRIAL EXPERIENCE WITH dissimilar-metal welded joints frequently guides the choice of filler metal and the prediction of special problems or properties. These primarily relate to metallurgical capabilities, namely soundness of as-deposited weld metal, and to performance in service. STAINLESS STEEL TO CARBON OR LOW-ALLOY STEEL AUSTENITIC, FERRITIC, OR MARTENSITIC stainless steel can be readily fusion welded to carbon or low- alloy steel using a filler metal that can tolerate dilution by both base metals without forming flaws in the joint. An austenitic stainless or nickel-based filler metal is commonly used. The choice of filler metal depends on the application and the service conditions.’ Stainless Steel Filler Metal A NUMBER OF austenitic stainless steel filler metals are available commercially.'® Phases in the microstructure of the deposited weld are shown in Figure 5.7 of the previous chapter (Page 265). Role of Ferrite in Stainless Steel Weld Deposits THE 300 SERIES stainless steel welding products fre~ quently are used for joining dissimilar iron-based Austeni 15. See “Chromium Stainless Steel co Stee,” Page 361, for precautions on welding frst and martensitic (400 Series) sainless steels 16. See ANSVAWS AS.4, Specification for Stainless Stel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, ANSUAWS AS.8, Specification for Bare Stainless Stee! Welding Electrodes and Rods, and ANSUAWS 5.22, Specification for Flux Cored Corrosion-Resisting Chromium ‘and Chromium Nickel Stel Electrodes. alloys. It is well-known that the fully austenitic compositions such as Types 310, 320, and 330 are sensitive to weld-metal solidification cracking. Additionally, it has been proven that Type 300 welding materials having a controlled amount of ferrite (3 to 8 FN) are almost immune to solidification cracking. The WRC-1992 diagram in the previous chapter (Figure 5.8, Page 266) can be used for the selection of electrodes with appropriate ferrite number (FN). The balance of elements in the weld metal that influence the tendencies for ferrite and austenite formation are either nickel equivalent (austenite stabilizer) or chromium equivalent (ferrite stabilizer). ‘The presence of ferrite in the weld metal is generally helpful in decreasing solidification cracking, but ferrite also can have harmful effects at both low (cryogenic) and high temperatures. At low temperatures, ferrite will lower the impact and ductility properties. At sufficiently high temperatures, the ferrite present will transform to sigma phase and also lower those properties (see Figure 5.18, Page 285, in the previous chapter). Over the past 40 years, at least four diagrams have been developed to predict the ferrite content in stainless welding products: Schaeffler, DeLong, Espy, and the Welding Research Council (WRC). The latest, developed by WRC, uses the ferrite number (indicating that the ferrite content has been measured by an instrument calibrated per its procedure).!” The WRC-1992 dia~ gram (Figure 5.8, Page 266) is preferred for austenitic ‘materials having less than 0.2% nitrogen and less than 10% manganese, The Espy diagram (see Figure 6.11) better accounts for materials with more nitrogen and ‘manganese. 17. See subsection, “Prediction and Measurement of Ferrite,” in the previous chapter, Pages 264-268,STD.AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH B-ENGL 1998 MM 0744265 0520361 538 Ml 354 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS ey ) g ° 28 & z a s ate KH, a SS | ws g ‘ de 2 AUSTENITE & ae 3 BR a 3 ae ed © #2” cS 22 16 eo Be st x8 AaM ss Sees CS $2 ed Ae wt a= a ge 0-4 we ez Se 8 MARTENSITE rE 8 hemor cess $3 8+ F 28 Rx 4 ineeera Mee FERRITE TT TT T TT TT real TT 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 4 16 18 20 22 24 2 28 40 32 34 36 3B 40 Croq = %Cr + KM + (1.5.x 4Si) + (05x %Cb) + 5 x %V) + (9x KAI) Figure 6.11—Espy Constitution Diagram Nickel-Based Filler Metal NICKEL-BASED FILLER METAL is commonly used to weld stainless steel to carbon or low-alloy steel. This is especially true when thermal treatments during fabrication or elevated temperature service conditions are to be encountered. The filler metals generally used for these applications are Type ENiCrFe-2. and -3 covered elec trodes and Type ERNiCr-3 bare electrodes and welding rods. When the base material is a heat-resisting stainless steel, NiCr-3 and NiCrCoMo-1 welding compositions are specified. Other compositions also are suitable, but usually at increased costs. The ductility of stainless to carbon steel welded with nickel-based-alloy weld metals is indicated in Figure 6.12. The transverse specimen reveals the various strength zones within the specimen, while the longitudinal specimen demonstrates a 180° bend capability of all the zones. For dissimilar bend specimens, a longitudinal bend specimen is considered superior to the transverse bend because all zones must participare in the bend Misleading ductility values can be obtained from transverse bend tests, and also from transverse tensile tests Longitudinal tests are preferred for determining weld ductility, strength, and soundness. Carbon Migration CHROMIUM IN STEEL has a greater affinity for car bon than it does for iron. When a carbon or low-alloy steel is welded with a stainless steel filler metal contain: ing a significant amount of chromium, carbon will dif- fuse from the base metal into the weld metal at temperatures above approximately 800 °F (426 °C), The extent of the diffusion is a function of temperature and exposure time. It increases rapidly at 1100 °F (593 °C) and above. Carbon migration can take place during postweld heat treatment or during service above about 800 °F (426 °C), Ferritic steel filler metal is not used because it results in a martensitic fusion zone. This material has poor thermal fatigue properties due to its as-cast grain structure, and it is weakened by the formation of a decarburized zone. These factors result in very poor service performance, and its use is avoided.STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 0520362 474 am (A) Longitudinal Bend Test (Good Bend) CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 355 (B) Transverse Bond Test (Broken Bend) Courtesy of Inco Alloys Intemational Ine. Figure 6.12— If carbon migration is extensive, it will be indicated by a lightly etching, low-carbon band in the carbon steel heat-affected zone and a darkly etching, high- carbon zone in the higher alloy weld metal as seen in a transverse metallographic section. The extent of carbon migration during postweld heat treatment or elevated temperatures service should be determined during weld ing procedure qualification. It is known to influence long-time stress-rupture strength during elevated temperature service. During cyclic temperature service, the heat-affected zone will be subjected to varying shear stresses because of the differences in coefficients of thermal expansion of, the base and weld metals. These stresses may produce fatigue failure in the decarburized band next to the weld interface, which is especially weak due to loss of carbon, The NiCrFe-2 composition will have a more favorable thermal expansion coefficient match than a stainless steel filler metal, and therefore the joint will be more resistant to thermal fatigue failure even in the presence of a decarburized region. jypical Bend Test Specimens of and @ Nickel-Based Alloy jimilar-Miotal Weld between Carbon Steel Service Considerations TRANSITION JOINT STRESS due to temperature changes is an important service consideration in elevated temperature applications, such as steam power- plants, refineries, and other chemical processing plants. Figure 6.13 gives the mean linear thermal expansion coefficients as a function of temperature for several alloys commonly associated with such transition joints. ‘The thermal expansion coefficient of 2-1/4Cr-1Mo steel is about 25 percent less than that of Types 304 and 316 austenitic stainless steel. In certain applications, transition joints between austenitic stainless steel and low-alloy steel may experience numerous temperature changes during operation. For a given change in temperature, the stress imposed at the weld joint is proportional to the difference in their coefficients of thermal expansion, Stress analyses of welded joints between these two types of steel indicate that the stresses introduced by thermal change are nearly as great as those produced by the operatingSTD.AWS UHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 Ml 0784265 0510383 300 a 386 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS —_—_—_—_——_— TEMPERATURE, °C 0100 200 300 Jin, PERF COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR THERMAL, EXPANSION, i ° 200 ~~«400~=~SC«OO 400 2 wg Eo ge ge 88 8 ® coo 100012001400 TEMPERATURE, pressures and any thermal gradients across the joint. Experience with dissimilar-metal transition joints has shown a significant number of failures in less than the expected-service life. The majority of the transition joint failures in austenitic to ferritic steel joints occur in the ferritic steel hear-affected zone, adjacent to the weld interface, as shown in F These failures are generally attributed to one or more of the following cau: (1) High stresses and the resulting creep at the inter face as a result of the differences between the coeffi cients of thermal expansion of the weld and base metals. (2) Carbon migration from the ferritic steel into the stainless steel, which weakens the heat-affected zone in the ferritic steel (3). Preferential oxidation at the interface, accelerated by the presence of stress. (4) Formation of carbid that act as sites for void coale creep damage. phases (Ma3Cs, MgC) ence which may result in }3—Mean Coefficients of Thermal Expansion as a Function of Temperature for Transition Joint Alloys ae Figure 6.14—Typical Crack along the Weld Interface ‘Between Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metal (Right) and a Ferritic Steel Base Metal (loft) x 400 _STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL L998 MM 0784265 0510384 247 mm Nickel filler metals of the FNiCrFe-2 and ERNiCr3 types resolve the problems of high stresses and carbon migration, and they have become standard filler metal choices for transition joints in power steam plant applications, i., high-temperature service with cyclic thermal loading of the joint. Utility companies have found that dissimilar-metal joints in fossil-fuel plants between combinations such as 2-1/ACr-IMo steels and Type 316 stainless steels can cause problems. Originally, these joints were made with ‘Type 309 stainless steel filler metal, but at service temperatures of 900 to 1100 °F (482 to 593 °C)] the carbon on the Cr-Mo steel side has an affinity for the chromium in the joint. The result is a region in the heat- affected zone on the Cr-Mo steel side that is denuded of carbon. This region becomes very soft, weak in creep, and not very tough. Because of this condition, there have been some accelerated creep failures in that zone. A layer of chromium carbides also can form on the stainless steel side of this interface. For welds that join chromium-molybdenum alloys to austenitic stainless steels, Type 309 filler metals work and can be qualified to ASME Section IX requirements. However, in plant boilers, when 2-1/4Cr-1/2Mo tubing is welded to Type 304H stainless steel for superheater and reheater service, Type 309 becomes a poor choice. This service involves metal temperatures of 1150 or 1200 °F (621 or 649 °C), pressures of 3 to 4 ksi (21 to 28 MPa), and temperature cycles. Because the austenitic stainless steels have a coefficient of expansion that is about 30% greater than that of the chromium-molybdenum, use of a Type 309 filler metal will force all of the thermal mismatch onto the weaker chromium- molybdenum material. If a chromium-containing, nickel-based filler metal is used, the mismatch is forced to the stronger Type 304H side of the joint. The reason for this is that the nickel- based filler metal has a coefficient of expansion that matches that of the chromium-molybdenum steel. By selecting a nickel-based filler metal, the life of the joint can be extended by 4.5 to 7.5 times. Figure 6.15 shows the relative service life of dissimilar joints between Type 304 stainless steel and 2-1/4Cr-1/2Mo when welded with E309 stainless steel and various nickel-chromium type filer metals. Figure 6.16 shows the wide cap dissimilar joint design that gave the longest service life of the joints shown in Figure 6.15. For dissimilar-metal joints in fossil-fuel plants, there will be thermal cycles, and there also will be dissimilar coefficients of thermal expansion. If Type 309 is used for welding under such conditions, the thermal mis- ‘match will be put on the weaker of the two materials, namely, the chromium-molybdenum steel. This kind of joint, where dissimilar coefficients of thermal expansion need careful attention, also is present in refineries and in ethylene plants. CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 957 For moderate temperature service [below 800°F (426 °C)], austenitic filler metal may be used. A NiCrFe nickel-based filler metal also is suitable but costs more. However, the selection of an austenitic stainless steel filler metal for joining dissimilar members requires a prediction of the resultant weld-metal composition and microstructure after dilution by the base metals. In multiple pass welds, the dilution may vary within the joint build-up sequence. More than one filler metal may be used to accommodate variations in dilution as succeeding weld passes are made. The Schaeffler diagram in Figure 6.17 indicates steel weld-metal compositions based on nickel and chro- ium equivalents that can develop undesirable britele~ ness or cracking.!® The small, unshaded central region of the diagram indicates weld-metal compositions that should be suitable for most service conditions. The microstructure of an austenitic stainless steel weld metal that falls in this, region will consist primarily of an austenitic matrix with 3 to 8 FN delea ferrite. The delta ferrite assists in preventing hot cracking of the austenitic matrix. How- ever, this phase transforms to a brittle sigma phase during high-temperature service, 930 to 1650 °F (499 to 899°C), and lacks ductility at service temperatures below its ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. Therefore, excessive ferrite in austenitic weld metal is undesirabie. Selection of both a suitable filler metal and a welding procedure should provide a weld-metal composition that falls within the unshaded region of Figure 6.17. If this practice cannot be done, then a NiCrFe nickel-based filler metal will be a safer choice, although ata higher cost. The Schaeffler diagram may be used to estimate the weld metal microstructure when joining a stainless steel, to a carbon or low-alloy steel. Figare 6.18 illustrates the procedure with an example of a single-pass weld joining, mild steel to Type 304 stainless steel with Type ER309 inles stel filer metal. First, a connecting line is drawn between the two points representing the base metal compositions, based ‘on their chromium and nickel equivalents. Point X, representing the relative dilutions contributed by each base metal, is then located on this line. If the relative dilutions of each base metal are equal, point X is at the ‘midpoint of the line, A second line is drawn between point X and the point representing the ER309 filler metal composition. The composition of the weld pass lies somewhere on this line, the exact location depending upon the total dilution. With 30% dilution, the composition would be at point Y. This composition is located in the unshaded area of Figure 6.17, and would 18. The appropriateness of using a particular constitution diagram (Schaeileg DeLong, Espy, WRC-1992, etc) depends on the composi ‘on being evaluated, See also subsection, "Prediction and Measure- ‘ment of Ferrite,” inthe previous chapter, Pages 264-268.STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 358 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS M™ 0784265 0520385 163 mm SS cao] ENICHFe-1 46 ENICFe2 5a EN(CrFe-3 (LOW HEAT INPUT) 5a ENICrFe-3 (HIGHHEAT INPUT) 56 ENICrFe-1 59 ENICrFe-1 (WIDE CAP) cz ILLER METAL USED IN WELDING FERRITIC AND AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS 5 6 7 8 LUE RATIO, RELATIVE TO TYPE 309 STAINLESS STEEL FILLER METAL Figure 6.15—Rel Courtesy of Eleevie Powor Research natitute Life of Weld Joints Between Ferritic Steels and Austenitic Stainless Steals _Made with Various Filler Metals SSS / WIDE CAP _- 08H STAINLESS STEEL crMo STEEL Courtesy of Inco Alloys International, Ine Figure 6.16—Wide-Cap Joint Design for Dissimilar Metals be considered acceptable. If a succeeding pass joins the first pass to mild stecl, the dilution with the mild steel should be kept to a minimum to avoid martensite formation in the weld metal If dilution of austenitic stainless steel filler metal is a problem, it may be controlled by first buttering the joint face of the carbon or low-alloy steel with one or two layers of Type 309 stainless steel filler metal, as shown in Figures 6.19(A) and 6,19(B). After machining and inspecting the buttered layer [Figure 6.19(C)}, the joint between the stainless steel component and the buttered steel part can be made using conventional welding procedures and the appropriate filler metal for welding the stainless steel base metal [Figures 6.19(D) and 6.19(E)} A low-alloy steel component can be heat treated after the buttering operation, and then joined to the stainless steel part. This avoids a postweld heat treatment of the complete weldment that might sensitize the austenitic stainless steel component to intergranular corrosion. However, before heat treatment is done, the loss in ductility caused by the ferrite to sigma transformation in the Type 309 mixed with steel must be evaluated (see Figure 5.18 in the previous chapter, Page 285). Also, buttering is an expensive fabrication operation. The use of a NiCrFe filler metal will require no buttering, and the thermal expansion coefficient match is much better, Thus, it may prove to be more economical in the long run while enhancing in-service reliability. h-Temperature Service. For applications above 700 °F (371 °C), itis general practice to use one of the nickel-based alloy filler metals. These fillet metals offer a number of advantages for transition joints that are exposed to cyclic temperature service. During welding, they can tolerate dilution from a variety of base metals without becoming crack sensitive. Nickel-based alloy filler metals have coefficients of thermal expansion closer to those of low-alloy steel (seeSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 OSL038b O17 mm Figure 6.17— Schaeffler Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal Indicating Those Compositions Prone to NICKEL EQUIVALENT 4 20 2 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR » . 5 g : 5 s 3 g § 1 7 Ih arene | Hi | FERRITE ; | 2: 7 2 Es chmomuneauvasent MASTENSTIC HOTCRACKING BRITLENESS AFTER HIGH craginngsetow NOTGSNENS SREUNERTEMT —TewrtsArune MGS” notte “atoms GATENESS (499 - 899 °C) Brittioness or Cracking TYPE 304 BASE METAL ER 309 BILLER METAL’ MICROSTRUCTURE ‘WITH 30% DILUTION EQUAL FUSION, + OF BOTH BASE METALS METALS 359 10 20 20 100 CHROMIUM EQUIVALENT Figure 6.18—Estimating Weld-Metal Composition from the Schaeffier Diagram ° 4 8 2 16 20 24 28 32 36 FERRITE CONTENT, %STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 0530387 TS mm 360 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS WELD METAL, LOW-ALLOY OR CARBON STEEL {STAINLESS STEEL) a a PN oy (A) Edge prepared for buttering (B) Face buttered with filler metal STAINLESS STEEL @ (C) Buttered face prepared for welding (D) Joint aligned for welding \Weto METAL aa es yom oD Figure 6.19—A Technique for Welding Stainless Steel to Carbon or Low Alloy SteelSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 0510388 992 Mm Figure 6.13). During thermal cycling, the stresses at the weld interface between one of these filler metals and the Jow-alloy steel base metals are much lower than when an, austenitic stainless steel filler metal is used. Internal stresses are presented at the interface between the stainless steel and the nickel-based alloy filler metal because of the difference in their coefficients of thermal expansion. However, the good oxidation resistance and the high creep-rupture strengths of the metals at this interface can ‘maintain suitable mechanical integrity in service. Design Considerations. When carbon or low-alloy steel to austenitic stainless steel transition joints are required, certain considerations should be given during the system design phase to provide long-time service. As mentioned previously, the stresses imposed at the weld interface in a dissimilar-metal joint are high as a result of the differences in the coefficients of thermal expansion. Therefore, other system stresses at the joint should be kept low. External loads on the joint should be minimized by proper system design and placement of the joints. An alternative joint design is to interpose a third base metal, called a transition piece, between the austenitic stainless steel and the carbon or low-alloy steel (see Fig- ture 6.20). This third base metal should have a coefficient of thermal expansion intermediate to the other two base metals. The main disadvantage of this design is that two welded joints are needed, and costs increase. ‘With a NiCr or NiCrFe filler metal, only one weld is required, dilution tolerance is very high, a close thermal expansion coefficient exists, and cyclic fatigue and strength properties are superior. Thus, the single- joint design provides both economic viability and technical superiority. CLAD AND DISSIMILAR Chromium Stainless Steel to Steel LECTION OF a filler metal for joining chro- stainless steel (4xx-series ferritic or martensitic) toa carbon or low-alloy steel can be made using the following general rules: METALS 361 (1) For welding one hardenable chromium steel to another with a higher chromium content, filler metal containing chromium equal to that of either steel can be used. Furthermore, any filler metal whose chromium content lies between these limits is equally satisfactory, provided the weldment is properly heat treated. (2) A general rule for welding any chromium steel to any low-alloy stee! is to use a filler metal that has the same composition as the low-alloy steel, provided that it meets the service requirements of the application. With any low-alloy steel filler metal, the chromium that is picked up by dilution from the chromium steel base metal must be considered. (3) For welding any chromium steel to a carbon steel, carbon steel filler metal can be used. A chromium steel filler metal can alternatively be used, but itis prefer- able to use a lower cost and less hardenable filler metal (4) An austenitic stainless steel filler metal can be used for welding one chromium steel to another, or to any other steel, provided that the 30% higher coefficient of thermal expansion of this filler metal does. not create unacceptable differential expansion stresses and provided that the weld doesn’t become crack sensitive due to dilution. (This can be determined by using Figure 6.18.) In that case, a nickel-based filler metal, such as ERNiCr-3 or ENiCrFe-2, will provide lower stress due to its near-matching coefficient of thermal expansion. ERNIcCr.3 FILLER METAL (eave n4src), Ll 2Cr-1Mo STEEL (7-77 (139°C), Note: Mean coofficiont of thermal expansion from 70 to 1000 (21 to 538°C) 46F6-32.5Ni-21Cr (UNS Noseoo) (3.4arF (18.970), ER 16-82 FILLER METAL [o.erF (73r0) TYPE 316 ‘STAINLESS STEEL [a.7re (7.770), noted below each material in units of length x 10°/longth + degree of tomperature. Figure 6.20—Design Concept for a Transition Piece between Low-Alloy Steel and Austenitic Steel for Elevated-Temperature ServiceSTD-AUS UHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7442b5 0510389 629 Ml 362 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS (5) A NiCr or NiCrFe filler metal may be used to provide good coefficient of thermal expansion match with both steel and chromium stainless steels. When determining the proper heat treatment for a weld that joins a chromium steel to any other steel, itis inadvisable to apply general rules. The advice of a com- Petent metallurgist should be sought because of the infi- nite number of possible metal combinations. Tina limited way, a general rule can be applied for the heat treatment of such welded joints where mechanical properties are the only concern. In such cases, a heat treatment that will soften the heat-affected zones of both base metals usually is suitable for the weld metal, provided its composition conforms to the recommenda- ‘ions previously given. The heat treatment that requires the highest temperature or longest soaking time, or both, usually is suitable for the other metal if lower mechanical properties are acceptable. It is generally agreed that chromium steel can be welded to any other alloy steel, provided the right procedures are used. Joints so produced should have satisfactory properties for operation at temperatures up to about 800 °F (426 °C When the properties of the heat-affected zone in the chromium stainless steel are important, bath the stainless steel and other steel can be buttered with Type E309 auste nitic stainless steel weld metal. An appropriate preheat or postweld heat treatment can be used to obtain desired properties in the buttered components. The stainless steel surfaces then can be welded together without preheat Using a suitable austenitic stainless steel filer metal, such as Type E308. However, the loss in ductility caused by the ferrite-to-sigma transformation during heat treatment must be considered. Also, buttering is expensive. The use of a NiCr or NiCrFe filler meral requires no buttering, and the match of coefficients of thermal expansion is much better than with austenite stainless steel weld metal. Thus, using NiCr or NiCrFe filler metals is likely to be more cost effective and more reliable than using austenitic stainless filler metas. NICKEL AND COBALT ALLOYS TO STEELS ‘kel-Based Alloys NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS ARE easily welded to steels using a suitable filler metal and proper control of dilution. Nickel-based filler metals generally are used because of their good ductility and tolerance of dilution by iron Sulfur and phosphorus in nickel and nickel alloys cause hot cracking. The melting techniques used to produce nickel and its alloys are designed to keep the content of these elements to low levels. By contrast, the sulfur and phosphorus contents in some steels are typically higher. Consequently, dilution should be carefully controlled when joining’a steel to a nickel alloy with a nickel-alloy filler metal to avoid hot cracking in the weld metal. Nickel alloys should be welded to steels using nickel- alloy filler metals. Stee! welding products should not be used because they tend to form airhardening, brittle deposits, Austenitic stainless steels should not be used either, because dilution from nickel alloys usually eliminates their ferrite, resulting in deposits of crack- sensitive, fully austenitic stainless steel. Iron Dilution. Most nickel alloy weld metals can accept a substantial amount of iron dilution, but the dilution limit generally varies with the welding process, and sometimes with the heat treatment. Figure 6.21 shows the limits of iron dilation in four types of weld metal deposited by the commonly used are welding processes. These limits are based on practical experience rather than metallurgy. Weld metal deposited with nickel or nickel- chromium covered electrodes can tolerate up to about 40 percent iron dilution, On the other hand, the dilu: tion should be limited to about 25 percent when using, nickel or nickel-chromium bare filler metal. Acceptable limits of iron dilution for nickel-copper weld metal vary greatly, depending on the welding process, With shielded metal are welding, iron dilution, of up to about 30 percent usually can be tolerated. Sub- merged arc weld metal should not be diluted by more than 25 percent, With the gas shielded welding processes, nickel- copper weld metal is less tolerant of iron dilution, especially if the weld is to be thermally stress-relieved. The maximum limits are not closely defined, but conservative guidelines for iron dilution in a welded ee] WELD METAL, ncKeL STAM, caw SAW GTAW & GMAW, STRESS RELIEVED LAW, AS We NICKEL-COPPER can eeeceeee ‘SMAW coppERNicKEL FZ] AW, GMAW, SAW Wicket-crtoMuM SES aw 010 20 30 40 60 60 70 MAXIMUM IRON DILUTION, % Figure 6.21—Limits for Iron Dilution of Nickel and NickelAlloy Weld MetalsSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 0520390 S40 Mi joint are 10 percent when it will be used as-welded and S percent when it will be thermally stress-relieved. To avoid exceeding these limits, a buttering layer of nickel or nickel-copper weld metal should be applied to the steel by shielded metal are or submerged arc welding prior to welding the joint with a gas shielded process. Copper-nickel weld metals should not be used with steel, since they are limited to about 5% iron dilution: Chromium Dilution. As shown in Figure 6.22, chromium dilution must be controlled with all nickel-alloy weld metals. Dilution of nickel weld metal should be limited to 30 percent. Nickel-chromium filler metals are commonly used for joints involving dilution by chromium, The total chromium content of nickel-chromium weld metal should not exceed approximately 30 percent. Most nickel-chromium alloys, including filler metals, contain less than 30 percent chromium, and dilution is not a problem. Nickel-copper weld metal has a maximum dilution tolerance for chromium of 8 percent. Consequently, nickel-copper filler metal should not be used to join nickel-copper alloys to stainless steel, Likewise, copper- nickel weld metals should not be used with stainless steel, since they tolerate only about 5% chromium dilution. Silicon Dilution. Dilution of nickel-chromium weld metal by silicon also should be considered, especially if cone or both components are castings. Total silicon content in the weld metal should not exceed about 0.75 percent to ensure freedom from solidification cracking. Filler Metals. Suggested nickel-alloy filler metals for welding nickel alloys to steel or stainless steel are given in Table 6.9. Where two or three filler metals are given for a particular dissimilar metal combination, the choice should depend upon the specific type of steel or stainless. steel to be joined to the nickel alloy. In some cases, the LT WELD METAL NICKEL NICKEL-COPPER COPPER-NICKEL NICKEL-CHROMIUM o 10 20 30 40 60 MAXIMUM CHROMIUM DILUTION, 9% Figure 6.22—Limits for Chromium Dilution of Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Weld Metals CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 363 amount of dilution with the base metal is the controlling factor, and this may vary with the welding process Mechanical Properties. Typical tensile strengths of welded joints between several nickel alloys and steels are given in Table 6.10. Cobalt-Based Alloys MOST COBALT-BASED ALLOYS contain 10 to 20% nickel, 20 t0 30% chromium, and 2 to 15% tungsten or molybdenum, or both, Metallurgically, they behave ilar to the high-temperature nickel-chromium alloys with respect to welding. When joining a cobalt alloy to a stainless steel, a filler metal with a composition similar to that of the cobalt alloy is recommended. A nickel alloy filler metal may also be suitable for the application at a lower cost. In any case, the filler metal selection, welding process, and welding procedure for the application should be established by suitable tests. COPPER ALLOYS TO STEELS Copper and Iron COPPER AND IRON mix completely in the liquid state but have limited mutual solubility in the solid state. Most copper.iron alloys produce two-phase solid solutions. ‘The absence of brittle intermetallic compounds is advantageous from a weldability point of view. However, a two-phase alloy weld metal can lead to corrosion problems in certain applications. Iron dilution can be minimized by the use of appropriate welding procedures or placement of a buttering layer of nickel on the steel. Gas tungsten arc and shielded metal arc welding are preferred over gas metal arc welding because of better control of penetration and depth of fusion. In the copper-iron alloy system, a large number of compositions have wide freezing ranges. Therefore, hot cracking is likely in copper-iron alloy weld metal. The surface activity of copper on iron is high. Molten copper will often attack iron along its grain boundaries and produce hot cracking or fissuring in the heat-affected, zone of steel. This phenomenon is known as infiltration. Copper WHEN WELDING COPPER to steel, dilution of steel with copper should be avoided. One way to prevent this from occurring is first to butter the copper component with a nickel alloy. Copper will alloy with nickel in all proportions to produce a single phase alloy. ‘Then the nickel face can be welded to carbon or stainless steel using techniques and filler metals suitable for the particular combination of metals.STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0764265 051039] 487 Mi 364 cLao AND DISSIMILAR METALS TS Table 6.9 ‘Suggested Filler Metals for Welding Nickel Alloys to Steel aa SKK OO Neeeerrrerarearaarrsee SS Nickel Alloy Filler Metal for Welding to” UNSNo. Common Designation” FilerMetal For Carbon or Low-Alloy Steel Stanlos Stol Coveredelecrode EN, ENICiFe-2 EN, ENIGTFe2 ENICiFe-3 Naqz00 Commercial pure nickel Bare wire RN ERNiCe3 ER: ERNCr 3, ERNICFe-6 Seo aeao Covered electrode ENIGu-7, EN ENCiFe-2,ENiGrFe3 oy Bare wire ERNiT ERNIC:S ERNCiFe-6 NossO2 —_Aloy502 ‘Nogso0 —_Alloy600 Covered electrode ENCFe2ENGFes ——_-ENCiFe 2, ENICiFe3 NNogs60 Alloy 800 Barewire ERNCr3ERNCiFe-S ——-ERNICr-3, ERNICiFe.6 Coveredelectrode ———ENICrFe-2.ENICrMo3 —_—ENICiFe-2,ENICeMo3 ee Bere wire ERNIC:3 ERNIC‘Mo3 —ERNCr3 ERNiCrMo3 Covered electrode ENCIMo3 ENicrMo-3 bd Barewie ERNCrMo3 ERNiCiMo-3 Covered electrode ENiMe-7 ENMo? a Bare wire ERNIMo-7 ERNMo7 Covered elecrade ENTCAMo4 ERNCMo4 NE eee Barewire ERNICHMo-4 ERNCMo-4 Covered electrode ENICMo-4 ENCIMo-4 Dean Bare wire ERNCMo-7 ERNCrMo-7 Coveredelectode ———ENICIMo-9 ENICMo-9 re Barewire ERNiCeMo1 ERNCeMo- SX 8. Some ofthese alloy designatons ae based upon tad names. los of similar compostions may be known by other designations. Refer to AWS Specificatons AB and AB: for information on icka-loy iter metal. Table 6.10 Tensile Stongth ‘UNS Wo Stet FilerMetaP isi MPa Elongation, % Failure Location ‘No4#00——Aloy@to ‘iOstziness ——_-ENIGIFe-2 818 564 4 Aloy400 Nosdoo ——Aloy400 ‘istinless —_ENIGFo-2 #34 575 45 Aloyaa0 NNOB500 oy 600 Birsiainiess —ENICrFe-2 $51 656 29 Ayoo0 NoBs00 ——Aloy60 WBsiciness —ERNICeS ©9000 ea 35 ‘Sails ste! N06625——Aloy625 SDistanless ——ENCIMo3 312 623 ~ —— Stanissstel N06625——Aloy825, ‘Aidstanless —ERNCMo3— 78 466 = Stainless sto NoBB00 Alloy 00 ‘isizinless ERGs 9 625 3B Aloys00 Ni0001 Alloy Mid steel ENMo-1 0 aig — Mid stet 10002 Aloy Sibswiniess © ENICFe-2 05 628 38 Stainless stl Nion02 Alloy Mid stool ENCINO 810 a — —— Midsteel TT 8. Some ofthese alloy designations ae based upon ade names Moys of similar compositions maybe known by other designations 'b_Referto AWS Specticatons AS.11 and AS 14 for information onnicke-aly filer metasSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 0510392 313 mw The thermal conductivity of copper is very high. Therefore, preheating is always recommended for coppet to minimize the possibility of lack of fusion defects. ‘This is true for both joint and buttering welds. The copper component should be preheated in the range of 400 to 1000 °F (204 to 538 °C), depending on its thickness, for heat balance across the joint during welding. When the copper side of the joint has been buttered with ENi-1 electrodes or ERNi-1 filler metal, preheat of the copper side is unnecessary when filling the groove, but might be required for the buttering operation. ‘When welding copper to steel or stainless steel, there is a 500-700 °F (260-371 °C) melting range difference. A low-melting-range filler metal is preferred to. mini mize the fissuring tendency in the copper heat-affected zone. ECuNi or ERCuNi would be ideal except they will only accept about 5% iron dilution. A suitable solution is to butter the steel with ENiCu-7 or ERNi-1, then weld the buttered steel to the copper using ECuNi or ERCUNi Copper can be welded directly to steel with silicon bronze (CuSi-A) or aluminum bronze (CuAI-AX} or Nickel (Ni-1) filler metal using one of the common are welding processes. Porosity in aluminum bronze weldments has been reported. Preheating of the copper usu: ally is necessary. When steel is welded to copper with any of the three above filler metals, iron dilution from the steel must be kept low. Copper-Nickel Alloys ‘THE WELD-METAL COMPOSITIONS in the copper nickel-iron alloy system that are and are not susceptible to hot cracking are shown in Figure 6.23.'? The dilution of copper-nickel filler metal by iron or chromium, or a combination of the two, should be limited to less than 5 percent. (See Figures 6.21 and 6.22.) This limita- tion is generally applicable to other copper filler metals. Copper-nickel alloys are sometimes joined to carbon steel or stainless steel for marine applications. One method is to butter the steel face with nickel (ERNi-1 or ENi-1) or nickel-copper (ENiCu-7 or ERNiCu-7) filler ‘metal to limit dilution of the weld metal by iron and, in the case of stainless steel, chromium. The joint can then be completed with copper-nickel or nickel-copper filler metal, depending upon the service requirements. Pre- heat should not exceed 150 °F (65 °C). Another method is to butter the copper-nickel alloy with nickel filler metal (ENi-1 or ERNi-1), and then weld the joint with the same filler metal. 19, Diagram by A. L. Schaeffler appears in Reynolds, S. Jt, Spaks, W.L., and Poole, LK. "Development of nickel alloy suciacing tech: niques for feedwater heaters.” Welding Journal 42(8): 635-43, 1963, CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 365 PERCENT COPPER Figure 6.23—Diagram Showing the Region of Hot Crack Susceptibility of lron-Diluted, NickelCopper ‘Weld Deposits Aluminum Bronze ALUMINUM BRONZE CAN be joined to carbon and stainless steel with nickel or aluminum bronze filler metal. Preheat and interpass temperature requirements depend upon the type of steel being welded. For carbon and low-alloy steels, the preheat temperature should be in the range of 300 to 500 °F (149 to 260 °C), depending on the hardenability of the steel. For stainless steels, the temperature should not exceed 150 °F (65 °C). The steel should be clean and free of oxide. With multiple pass welds, a joint buildup sequence using stringer beads helps’ to control dilution by the steel. Interpass cleaning with a stainless steel wire brush is recommended to remove oxides from the deposited metal, With gas tungsten arc welding, alternating cur rent provides good cleaning action. Brass LOW-ZINC BRASSES can best be welded to steel with the gas tungsten arc welding process. The zinc content of the brass should be 20 percent or less to minimize fuming and porosity in the weld. Welding procedures similar to those used for aluminum bronze are satisfactory. The steel should be buttered first with a copper-tin filler metal using direct current, electrode negative. The weld then is made using the same filler metal and alternating current to promote cleaning. Preheat is not usually used with brasses. The arc should not impinge directly on the brass to avoid overheating and fuming.STD-AWS UHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 2998 M™ O7842b5 OSL0393 2ST Ml 366 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS Instead, the arc should be directed onto the filler metal to limit the depth of fusion into the buttered layer on the steel and thus, dilution by iron, Copper Alloys to Nickel Alloys THERE ARE SOME applications for the welding of copper and copper-nickel alloys to nickel and nickel- alloys, but very few for brasses and bronzes. Copper and nickel are mutually soluble in each other. There fore, welding these two metals and their alloys does not present serious problems. Copper-nickel, nickel-coppes, and nickel-fller metals are available. Nickel-copper weld metal has a minimum strength about 40 percent greater than the minimum for copper-nickel or pure nickel weld metal. Copper and copper-nickel alloys can be welded to nickel or nickel-copper alloys with either copper-nickel or nickel-copper filler metal. Aurogenous welding usually results in porosity formation in the weld. The nickel may be buttered with nickel-copper filler metal, and the joint welded with copper-nickel. If a stronger joint is required, the copper can be buttered with cop- pe-nickel filler metal and the joint welded with nickel- copper filler metal. Nickel filler metal is recommended for joining copper or copper-nickel alloys to nickel alloys containing, either chromium or iron, or both. The copper or cop. pernickel joint face can be buttered with nickel-filler metal prior to welding to control dilution by copper. As an alternative, the nickel buildup on the copper alloy can be welded to the nickel-alloy component with a nickel-alloy filler metal of similar composition. ALUMINUM ALLOYS TO STEEL WITH RESPECT TO fusion welding, iron and alumi ‘num are not compatible metals. Their melting temperatures differ greatly: 1220 °F (660 °C) for aluminum vs. 2800 °F (1538 °C) for iron, Both metals have almost no solubility for the other in the solid state, especially iron in aluminum, and several brictle intermetallic phases can form (FeAl, FepAls, or FeAls). Consequently, fusion welds joining iron and aluminum would be bri. tle, In addition, high welding stresses. would. be expected because of the significant differences in their thermal expansion coefficients, thermal conductivities, and specific heats. Aluminum to Steel ALUMINUM CAN BE joined to carbon or stainless steel by brazing or welding if the steel is first coated with a metal that is compatible with a suitable filler metal. Aluminum, silver, tin, and zinc coatings can be used, but aluminum is the most common. The coating can be applied to clean steel by dipping the steel into a molten aluminum bath operating at 1275 to 1300 °F (690 to 704 °C), with or without fluxing. Steel also can be aluminum coated by electrodeposition, by hypervel- ocity thermal spray, or by vapor deposition. Small steel parts can be rub-coated with aluminum or alurinum- silicon alloy using an aluminum brazing flux. Alterna- tively, the steel can be coated with a silver brazing filler metal, and commercial zinc- or tin-coated steel might be satisfactory for some applications. After cleaning, the coated steel part can be joined to the aluminum part using gas tungsten arc welding and an aluminum alloy filler metal. The arc should be concentrated on the aluminum member while flowing the molten weld metal over the coating on the steel. The steel must not be melted. The strength of such a joint is related to: (1) The metal used to coat the steel (2) The thickness of the coating (3) The bond strength between the coating and the steel surfaces Joint design also affects the strength of the weld because it determines the area of loading and the pres ence of stress concentrations. Under carefully controlled conditions, joint strengths in the cange of 15 to 30 ksi (103 to 207 MPa) can be obtained. Experimental evi- dence indicates that optimum strength is achieved when the weld is void of brittle intermetallic compounds and the adherence of the coating to the stee! is optimum. The addition of 3 to 5 percent of silicon, copper, or zine to the aluminum-filler metal helps to limit the thickness of the intermerallic layer between the fused zone and the zinc coating on galvanized steel. A copper flash on the steel prior to zinc coating improves adherence of the zinc and thus, the strength of the joint. A technique used with electron beam welding to minimize the amount of intermetallic compounds in the weld metal, as well as to control their distribution, is to vapor deposit a thin layer of aluminum on the steel. A heat treatment can be used to modify the composition and structure of the deposited layer. During electron beam welding of that layer to the aluminum, the amount of intermetallics is greatly reduced, and they are favorably distributed within the weld metal. When a coating technique is used to avoid the mixing of aluminum with iron in a weld, the service temperature of the joint must be limited to avoid diffusion during operation. Otherwise, the weld would eventually be embrittled. A maximum service temperature of 50°F (260°C) is considered safe for most applications. ‘Aluminum and steel can best be joined together by one of the solid-state welding processes: friction, cold pressure, or explosion welding, A transition piece can be fabricated by one of these processes. Then, theSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7642b5 0510394 196 Ml respective ends of that piece can be fusion welded to the aluminum and steel parts. After tack welding the transition piece in place, the aluminum joint is welded first by gas metal arc, gas tungsten arc, or plasma arc welding. The steel side is then welded, taking care not to exceed an interpass temperature of 400 °F (204 °C), using any process that can maintain this interpass temperature control. When aluminum and other metals are coupled together, the presence of moisture or an electrolyte sets up galvanic action between the two metals and causes preferential attack. The joints should be painted, coated, wrapped, or protected by any convenient method to avoid this problem. Aluminum Alloy To Copper ALUMINUM READILY MIXES with most nonferrous metals in liquid state, but brittle intermetallic compounds commonly are formed in the solid state. These brittle compounds greatly limit the use of fusion welding to join aluminum alloys to other metals.” This is true in the alloy systems of greatest commercial interest, including aluminum-copper, aluminum-nickel, and aluminum-magnesium. Only limited success has been achieved with barrier layers of a third, more compatible metal, but they may be useful for certain applications. To join aluminum to copper, a layer of silver or silver alloy may be applied to the copper surface before welding with an aluminum or aluminum-silicon filler metal The weld is then made without penetrating through the silver layer on the copper. Tin, aluminum, and zine also hhave been used to coat the copper surface prior to welding Gas metal arc spot welding may be used to join aluminum to copper for electrical connections. As shown in Figure 6.24, one member is sandwiched between two layers of the other metal. A hole is drilled through two of the three members. An arc spot weld is made through this hole with penetration into the third member as the hole is filled. A copper or aluminum filler metal is selected to match the top and bottom members. TITANIUM ALLOYS TO OTHER METALS TITANIUM HAS LIMITED solubility for aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, and chromium. When the solubility. limit is exceeded, as in fusion welding, brittle intermetallic compounds are formed. Weld metal containing such compounds has inadequate ductility for structural applications. 20, Aluminum also may be joined to copper (and ste) by cold weld ‘ng, which isa solid state welding process not covered inthis chaptet. The reader is referred to the Welding Handbook, Volume 2, Eighth Faition, Chapter 29, for details of this process. CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 367 Por HOLE corre & ALUMINUM y COPPER FILLER METAL, ZZ) § COPPER, ALUMINUM. COPPER COPPER COPPER, FILLER METAL, BACKING TUBE SEALING ‘COMPOUND ALUMINUM FILLER METAL, ALUMINUM. BACKING TUBE ALUMINUM, eed SEALING COMPOUND Figure 6.24—Gas Metal Arc Spot Welding of. ‘Aluminum to Copper Titanium forms a continuous series of solid solutions with niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, vanadium, and zirconium. The first four elements stabilize the’ beta phase. Although it is not of commercial significance, fusion welding of titanium alloys to niobium, tantalum, vanadium, or zirconium alloys is feasible. Because of the inherent brittleness of recrystallized molybdenum, special techniques are required to weld titanium to that, metal. Because vanadium is compatible with both titanium: and iron, it has potential as an interlayer or filler metalSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 368 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS for welding titanium to steel. Resistance spot welds between titanium and low carbon steel, or Type 302 stainless steel sheets using a vanadium interlayer, might have suitable shear strengths for some applications, provided fusion does not extend through the vanadium layer. Titanium is metallurgically compatible with niobium, and most alloys of these metals can be welded by fusion techniques to produce strong, ductile joints. For this reason, niobium can be used as an intermediate ‘metal for joining titanium to other non-ferrous metals. For example, titanium has been joined to nickel alloys, using a transition piece of niobium and copper alloy, similar to the aluminum-steel type, The titanium was welded to the niobium and the nickel alloy to the copper alloy. Similar joints made with the electron beam, welding process also proved successful in sheet thicknesses up to 0.080 in. (2.03 mm). Copper and titanium are difficult to weld together. Two general approaches have been tried. Useful properties can be obtained when the two metals are joined with an intermediate layer of niobium by the gas tungsten arc welding process. Another approach is to take advantage of the solubility of beta titanium for copper. Gas tungsten arc welds between two beta-titanium, alloys (Ti-30Cb and Ti-3Al-6.5Mo-11Cr} and copper showed good strength and ductility The fusion welding of titanium to aluminum poses several problems related to their greatly different melting temperatures and the brittle intermetallic compounds that are formed, Braze welding aluminum to titanium using aluminum filler metal can produce a minimal layer of brittle intermetallic compound at the aluminum-titanium interface. An example of this technique, with a lap joint configuration is shown in Figure 6.2521 A weld bead is produced in the titanium sheet with partial penetration using a gas tungsten arc torch. The underlying aluminum sheet is melted by heat con- ducted from the titanium, Molten aluminum will wee clean titanium and form a fillet if the underside of the joint is well protected with an inert gas. OTHER ALLOY GROUPS Refractory Alloys ‘THE REFRACTORY METALS of commercial interest are niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, and tungsten. A high degree of solubility exists among all pairs of the four metals. Niobium and tantalum have ductile-to-britele transition temperatures below room temperature. Therefor 21. Osokin, A.A, Technological characteristics af the fusion welding Of aluminum alloys to titanium, Welding Production, 2312): 14-15; 1976, 1996 MM 0764265 0510395 O22 mm GAS TUNGSTEN ]~ ARC TORCH TITANIUM SHEET INERT SS ] Gas T srazewero/ “\ ALUMINUM SHEET PURGE CHAMBER Figure 6.25—Indirect Braze Welding of Aluminum to Titanium these metals can be fusion welded when protected by inert gas shielding or vacuum to avoid oxygen and nitrogen contamination of the molten weld metal. Molybdenum and tungsten have relatively high transition temperatures, and fusion welds between these metals are essentially brittle at room temperature. ‘These metals can be fusion welded to niobium and tantalum, but the welded joints will lack ductility at room, temperature. Mechanical Alloys THE MECHANICALLY ALLOYED materials are unique by virtue of their method of manufacture, They are produced by a process of homogenizing a combination of metallic powders and oxides. The powders and. ‘oxides are homogenized in a high-energy ball mill, called an attritor, that mixes and forges the combined ingredients under the impact of balls in the unit. The result is a mechanically alloyed powder which is then sealed in a metal can, or containerized, and hot rolled, forged, or extruded. Then it is heat treated at 2400 °F (1316 °C). Figure 6.26 illustrates the typical steps for producing mechanically alloyed materials. The mechanically alloyed materials provide more high-temperature strength than conventionally produced melted alloys because of the minor levels of ‘oxides that are dispersed throughout the matrix of the materials. The usual oxide is yrtria (YO3). Most of the mechanically alloyed materials also contain elements that promote precipitation hardening. Examples of those elements are aluminum, titanium, or both, within 2 nickel-based alloy system. Table 6.11 shows the composition of some of the commercially available mechanical alloys, while Table 6.12 shows their typical high-temperature strength and stress-rupture properties. ‘The welding of these alloys requires consideration of the effect of fusion welding on the dispersed oxides. Fusion welding will cause agglomeration of theSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 4598 MM 0784265 0510396 Tho CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 369 a waTeR-cooteD aL GAS: ‘STATIONARY om HEATED CONTAINER HEAT TREATMENT AT ama STEEL at 700 F700 2400°F (1315-0) 20% i“ MK | earines ZN an = a 2 aS — 2S — sancounanvs MASTER ALLOY 1 nie Tran weceasacaury Go| oie “ALLOYED, DE i BALLMILL IMPELLER POWDER exrndsion ASSEMBLY 7 ee PRESS FINAL PRODUCT an Hor ROLUNG a AT 700 T0 2000 (e250 1085°C) Process Operations Used in the Production of Mecha Courtesy of Inco Alloys International Ine. ly Alloyed Oxide-Dispersion Strengthened Products. dispersed yttria and will soften the heat-affected zone. ‘Therefore, if full base-metal strength is essential in the area to be joined, diffusion welding or brazing must be used, In many cases, however, the second member has a lower strength than the mechanical alloy, and fusion welding provides an acceptable fabrication. The selection of the appropriate filler metal depends upon the intended service temperature and stress. ERNiCr-3 filler metal is recommended for temperatures up to about 1450 °F (788 °C). ERNiCrCoMo-1 filler metal is recommended for temperatures up to about 2100 °F (1149 °C). Table 6.12 Properties of Selected Mechanically Alloyed Materials ‘Stress to Produce Rupture at 200 F Youngs Tesile eld (1088 °C) for indicated Elapsed Time Density Modulus Strengt Strong 00h 10008 ‘Alloy Win? kg? Msi GPa ksi MPa ksi MPa" si MPa ksi MPa MATE 00 Gm 8SMGSSC«CSCBSC*«iaSCSCSC*SSCBSCSC“C«‘i MASS 0% «7197 S80, 883 B29 230 35 83 ST 4 81 MAS O77 766700210" 167 11501601100. 7 0 uw — = MAGI? 023 8110 24 2B 22 Mm mB 12 9 9 85 a Longtudinal bb. Testtemperature, 2000°F (1088) _Testtemperature,1100°F (88°C! whichis the intended application temperature for aloyin nuclear reactors 6 ALTO (21°C)STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 19598 MM 0784265 0510397 47S mm 370 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS WELDING CLAD STEELS A VARIETY OF carbon or low-alloy steel forms can be clad with another metal or alloy to protect them in harsh environments, usually to provide better corrosion, or abrasion resistance. Although cladding is usually applied only to one surface, it occasionally is used on both sides. Various methods of producing clad steels, include roll cladding, explosion cladding, and weld overlay cladding. Subsequent hot or cold working to the final shape is almost always involved, with the exception of weld surfacing deposited by fusion welding, The main advantage in using clad steels is their lower cost compared to solid-alloy material. Sometimes, how ever, advantage also may be taken of physical and strength properties of the clad steel. Cladding thickness may vary from 5 to $0 percent of the total thickness, but it is generally 10 to 20 percent for most applications. Usually, when the material thickness exceeds 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), the price differential favors the use of clad steel over a full thickness of alloy. A joint between two clad sections becomes an inte- geal part of the structure. It not only must support the applied load, but it also must maintain the characteristics of the cladding uniformly. Most clad sections are readily welded together, but proper joint design and welding procedures must be used to ensure successful performance in service. JOINT DESIGNS SUGGESTED JOINT DESIGNS for welding clad steels, from both sides are shown in Figures 6.27 and 6.28. A. square groove can be used to weld thin sections, usually using an alloy filler metal for both sides of the joint. Single U-groove, double V-groove, or combination U-and V-groove welds can be used on thick sections {Figure 6.27 (E through H)}) The cladding may be machined back from the joint edge a short distance to ensure that the first pass with steel filler metal is not diluted with clad metal (Figure 6.27 (B, D, B, G and H)]. Excessive dilution by some clad metals, such as copper or titanium, embrittes stec! weld metal. As a general rule, a carbon steel filler metal should not be mixed with the alloy cladding or alloy weld metal making up the joint. In a very high percentage of cases, the resulting deposit will be air hardenable or metallurgically unsound. With a corner joint, the cladding can be on the inside or outside, In either case, the steel is welded first. When the cladding is on the inside, as shown in Figure 6.28(A), the steel weld is back-gouged from the inside comer prior to joining the cladding with a fillet weld. ‘When the cladding is on the outside, Figure 6.28(B), the steel is joined on the inside corner with a filler weld The root of that weld is gouged smooth prior to placing the first weld pass in the outside corner. The first pass may be steel or a buttering filler metal, depending upon, the section thickness. ‘When the melting temperature of the clad metal is higher than that of stecl and the metals are metallurgically incompatible, the integrity of the cladding must be maintained with a backing strip of clad metal. The strip is filet welded to the cladding after the steel is welded. This is done in the case of titanium cladding, as described later (see Page 375). FILLER METALS FILLER METALS THAT are suitable for various cladding metals are given in Table 6.13. Filler metals are listed for use as both buttering passes and as fill passes. As will be discussed in the next section on welding procedures, when welding on or adjacent to the base metal, dilution considerations may require the use of a more highly alloyed or different composition to avoid eracking problems. Once the base metal is isolated by the buttering layers, the balance of the weld can be completed using the filler metals recommended for fill passes, which is usually a lower alloyed composition than used for buttering. In many cases, an intermediate or overaalloyed filler metal, with respect to the base metal, is used so that the final weld exposed to the cor- rodent is similar to the alloy cladding composition. Selection of filler metals to ensure mechanical property integrity for the intended service in the finished weld is necessary. WELDING PROCEDURES Composite Welds THE BASE STFEL normally is welded first with a steel filler metal. The first pass of carbon steel weld metal must not penetrate into the clad metal. Dilution by most cladding metals can embrittle or crack a steel weld metal, making it unacceptable for most applications. The appropriate joint design must be established for the particular clad steel during welding procedure qualification. Dilution of the steel weld metal is not a problem when the cladding is stripped back from the joint, but the operation adds to costs and increases clad filler metal requirements. If stripping is not done, the root face and root opening must be designed’ to limitSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1958 MM O7842b5 0530398 63] CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 371 c T c r per a2) be (a) 8) oop OY 7 wo (D) rr) J MIN, i TL (e) (Cy paral © (H) Note: A= in, (0 mm), B = tein. (1.6 mm), E= ein. (6.4 mm), F= "in, (8.3mm), J= 5 in, (15.9 mm), R= Aaxin,(2.4 mm). Wein. (3.2 mm), D =%sin. (48 mm), fn. (9.5 mn), H'= Ya in. (12.7 mm), 7—Butt Figure 6. Designs for Welding Clad Steel from Both SidesSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 0510399 776 Mm 372 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS z c ne YY eB MIN 8) Note: A= Oiin. (0 mm), B = Wein. (1.6 mm), C= Ye in, (2.2 mm Figure 6.28—Comer Joint Designs for Welding Clad ‘Steel from Both Sides penetration by the steel-weld metal. In any case, the root of the steel weld must be gouged or machined to sound metal. The effects of dilution must be considered when welding the clad side of the joint. Some cladding metals have low tolerances for dilution by steel. Therefore, one ‘or more buttering layers of a selected filler metal should be applied before depositing any of the cladding weld ‘metal over the buttering layer. The buttering filler metal must be tolerant of some dilution by the base steel In practice, special equipment for weld-cladding operations is not always available when making joints in clad steel. Without this equipment, special. procedures must be used to minimize dilution. The following, measures are recommended: (1) Use small diameter electrodes and deposit stringer beads (2) Use more highly alloyed electrodes than the cladding to allow for dilution. (3) Allow for several layers of weld metal, and remove part of the first layer if necessary. (4) With automatic welding, oscillate the welding head, as in surfacing. (5) Where possible, use direct current, electrode negative, with the arc on the molten weld pool as it is advanced, and directed against the previously deposited bead. When the cladding is not stripped back prior to welding, the steel weld should be back-gouged to sound metal in order to produce a groove in the stecl. This, procedure permits the deposition of several layers of cladding weld metal to control dilution in the final layer. One condition that should be avoided with sub merged arc welding, or other deeply penetrating welding processes, is excessive penetration and melt-through of the steel weld. Proper control of penetration is necessary to avoid dilution of steel weld metal by the cladding metal. An appropriate flux for submerged arc welding is one that permits welding with direct current, electrode negative, or alternating current for minimum, dilution. Silicon pickup from submerged arc fluxes has been detrimental to the corrosion resistance of alloys, such as C-276, and the process should not be used to weld the clad side unless test results verify its adequacy. When welding the first pass on the steel side of a joint where the cladding forms part of the root face, the best practice is to use low-hydrogen welding procedures. Low-hydrogen steel weld metal is less likely to crack if some cladding metal is inadvertently melted and alloyed with it. Although not recommended, some dilution of carbon steel by a stainless steel cladding can be tolerated, but limited dilution by other metals, such as copper or its alloys, must be avoided. In some struc: tures, partial penetration welds in clad plate are adequate. Such welds simplify control of dilution. The root of the steel weld can be back-gouged with an aircarbon are torch, by chipping, or by grindingSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 OSLO400 217 mm CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 373 SS Chromium Stainless Stools W542 3,410, 4105, Nickel Al faa Nicke-copper ‘Nickel Chromim-Iron Copper Alloys Copper Copper-nickel Copperaluminum Coppersiicon Copperzine Coppertinzine FilPasses Covered lectrode ‘Bare Electrode or Rod 508, E308. ERGOG ERGOEL, Ea, ERB. 0, E309, ERI, ERISA, Ema, ER. 310, 63100 ER3IO E316, ESI6L, E918 ERST6,ERGUGL, ERGIB E2061, £318 ERGTBL ERSTE 7, S17 R317, ERAT Ei ei EM Ra EMT ERG = RAB ENiCrFe-20r-° ERNICe3, ERNICiFe-5 or 6** Ese Ere? Table 6.13 Filler Metals for Welding the Cladding Layer of Clad Stool Burtoring Passes CoveredElectrode Bare Electrode or Rod EEX FCs, EROOML. Seem Es eee. 0a eRooaL 510, E3100 ERGO E080 R08 E3091, E91EMo ERCOSL E50aM0 cn) 5001, E08Mo ERcoaL Enc EL EEC EL = ER, EROIOL ENigffe2or-3* ——_-ERNiCr3, ERNiCiFe-Sor-6*° oe ar bop ERA ENCife-2or-3? ——_ERNiCr3,ERNCiFe-Sor-6°° Bi FRI I I Ea? ERG? ene ERM ENiCu7 ERNICUT ENiGrFe-1,2.0°3 ERNICrFe-5 or ERNiCe'3 ENCuT ERNICU? ECUAI-A2 ERCUAT-AZ ENE ERNE ENCuT ERNICUT ERNT ECuAL-A2 ERCUAT-AZ ECuSi ERCUS-A ECUAL-A2 ERCUAT-AQ RBCuZn-C* ECuSn-A ERCuUSn-A Exot ERSIOP Eg? FR? ENGfe2ore ENC ERWo Sor- ee 108 i ERI EH ea to EsIONiMo! TON! a aah ENA RNAI ENCuT ERNICu7 ENICrFe-1 or 3 ERNICeFe-5 or ERNICE-3 = ERCU ECuN ERCUN ECuAI-AZ ERCUAL-A2 ECuSi ERCUSLA ECUAI-AD ERCUA RBCuzn- ECuSn-A ERCUSn-A, ‘Welding on materia colder than 0°F (10°C)is not recommended, b. Preheat of 20 °Fimin t49°Cimin}is recommended, particulary with plate more than On, (127 men thick ¢._ERNICiFe-6 weld metals age-hardenale, Consuthe supper. 4. Deposted by oxyacetylene weldingSTD-AWS UHB-4 PART 2 CH L-ENGL 374 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS ‘The gouged groove must be cleaned of any residue before buttering is done. Thin Clad Plate WHEN WELDING CLAD steel plates of 3/8 in (9.5 mm) thickness or less, it might be more economical to weld the entire joint with a filler metal that is similar to the cladding. However, the welded joint must have the required mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. A square-groove or single-V-geoove weld can be used, depending upon joint thickness. Buttering of the steel faces should be considered. Austenitic Stainless Steel Clad Steel SOME AUSTENITIC STAINLESS steels, such as Types 304 and 316, contain sufficient carbon to form stable chromium carbides when cooled slowly through the 1500 to 800 °F (815 to 426 °C) range. When this takes place, the stainless steel is susceptible to intergranular Corrosion in some environments. Low-carbon stainless steels, such as Types 3041 or 316L, and stainless steels stabilized with niobium or titanium are usually immune to this behavior. ‘When a stainless steel that is prone to carbide precipitation is slowly cooled, it must be reheated to above 1800 °F (982 °C), to redissolve the carbides, and then rapidly cooled t0 restore corrosion resistance. Such treatment may be detrimental to the base steel. When joining a steel that is clad with an intergeanu- lar corrosion-sensitive austenitic stainless steel, some steps can help to maintain corrosion resistance. The cladding should be stripped back from the joint edge. Preheat and interpass temperatures should be kept to a suitable low level while welding the steel base plate to avoid overheating the cladding. The clad layer should then be restored by welding. ‘When depositing austenitic stainless steel filler metal on the steel, welding heat input should be low and the joint allowed to cool between passes. With thin plate, some means of removing heat during cladding may be appropriate. Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Clad Steel FERRITIC AND MARTENSITIC stainless steel clad steel may be welded to itself with an austenitic stainless steel or an NiCrFe filler metal to avoid the low ductility of chromium stainless steel weld metal (see Table 6. Where this is not suitable, a matching chromium stainless steel filler metal should be used together with a preheat of about 300 °F (149 °C). In this case, the welded joint should be stress-relieved at a temperature that is 2998 MM 0784265 OS10401 156 mm both compatible with the steel base plate and ensures good corrosion resistance and ductility in the cladding. Alternatively, Type 430 clad steel can also be heat treated at 1600 to 1650 °F (871 t0 899 °C) followed by air cooling, This treatment transforms any grain bound- ary martensite, increases the ductility of the stainless steel cladding, and normalizes the carbon steel. For optimum corrosion resistance, the 1600 to 1650 °F (871 to 899 °C) heat treatment should be followed by a carbide stabilization treatment at 1250 °F (676 °C).. The clad plate should not be given the 1450 to 1500 °F (787 to 815°C) annealing heat treatment recom: mended for Type 430 stainless steel. This temperature range will partially transform the carbon steel and will alter its mechanical properties, particularly toughness. Copper And Copper Alloy Clad Steel STEEL PLATE 1S usually clad with either deoxidized or oxygen-free copper. The best method of welding copper and copper nickel alloy cladding is with one of the gas shielded arc welding processes. Suitable joint designs, are those used for welding other types of clad steel (see Figures 6.27 and 6.28). For copper cladding thicknesses over 1/8 in, (3.2 mm), a preheat of about 300 °F (149°C) or higher is recommended when suefacing, with consumable copper electrodes smaller than 1/16 in, (1.6 mm) in diameter, When preheat is used with relatively thin cladding, part of the first surfacing layer should be removed prior to deposition of additional layers of filler metal to control low iron dilution and maintain corrosion resistance. Where the cladding is less than 3/32 in. (2.4 mm) thick, copper weld metal may be deposited directly on the steel with care, Semiautomatic gas metal arc welding with the backhand technique can provide first-layer, iron contents of less than 5 percent, when the arc is directed onto the molten weld pool rather than on the steel. It might be advantageous to cover the steel with a buttering layer of nickel-copper cladding. Nickel-copper and nickel filler metals are more tolerant of iron dilution than is deoxidized copper or copper-nickel filler metal. Furthermore, buttering avoids possible cop. er penetration of the steel grain boundaries, which can cause cracking. Silver-Clad Steel STEEL CAN BE clad with silver to take advantage of its corrosion resistance. For welded fabrications, the silver cladding should be at least 1/16 in, (1.6 mm) thick One method of cladding is to vacuum furnace braze sil ver sheet of desired thickness to the base plate. Lithium- deoxidized silver sheet and Type BAg-8A brazing fillerSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 OS10u02 O42 me metal are recommended. Silver-clad plates also can be produced using roll bonding techniques. ‘When welding silver-clad steel plates together, contamination of the silver must be avoided. Iron and silver have very limited mutual solubility, and the melting temperature of iron is several hundred degrees above that of silver. These conditions help to maintain the integrity of the silver cladding. The sequence recommended for welding other clad metals is followed generally with silver clad plates since gas tungsten arc welding is recommended for depositing the silver filler metal. A low temperature preheat can be used to reduce the required welding heat. Welding should be performed in the flat position for best control of the molten silver. Titanium-Clad Steel TITANIUM AND STEEL are not metallurgically compatible metals. Therefore, steel, and titanium cladding must be welded independently.” Joint designs shown in Figures 6.27 (B, D, and F) are suitable. The titanium cladding must be stripped back to a point where welding heat will not overheat the titanium. Titanium reacts with oxygen when heated above 1200 °F (648 °C) in air with a resulting decrease in ductility. Figure 6.29 shows the arrangement for making a groove joint. The stee! is welded first from that side of the joint. The root of the steel weld is back-gouged to sound metal, and a back weld is made from the clad side. This back weld is then finished flush with the steel surface A titanium filler strip is placed in the shallow groove formed by the cladding and steel base. The strip is tack welded to the cladding at intervals of 4 to 6 in. (102 to 152 mm) by gas tungsten arc welding. The tack welds must not penetrate and melt the steel. Welding procedures suitable for titanium must be used. A titanium cover strip is placed over the filler strip and positioned to overlap the cladding on both sides of the joint. Air in the cavities underneath the strip must be displaced with argon prior to welding the cover strip to the cladding, This can be done through holes in the steel weld, as shown in Figure 6.29. The filler strip should be scored along its length before the cover strip is installed to provide for gas passage along the joint. The titanium cover strip is fillet welded to the tita- rium cladding with the gas cungsten arc welding process and a suitable titanium filler metal. The welding, torch gas nozzle must be large enough to adequately shield the titanium weld metal and the tip of the titanium welding rod from air contamination. A gas tr ing shield might be needed on the welding torch. The 22, See Chapter 9 for more information on the weldabily of sta ium and titaiom alloys CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 375 TITANIUM FILLER STRIP TITANIUM STRIP FILET “9 SSS OO STEEL BACK WELD GROUND FLUSH GAS PURGE HOLE GAS PASSAGE IN FILLER STRIP Figure 6.29—Design of a Titanium-Clad Steel Welded Groove Joint titanium weld must not extend to the steel. Two or ‘more small weld passes should be used to make the fillet weld, It is good practice to isolate each weld joint in a structure from the voids underneath adjoining titanium cover strips. For example, the voids behind the cover strips on each circumferential joint and cach longitudinal joint of a vessel should be isolated from each other. Each isolated void should be provided with a minimum of two 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) diameter gas purge holes through the steel weld. The holes should be located as closely as possible to the high and low points of longitudinal joints and to the ends of each cover strip seg- ment of a circumferential joint. These holes also are used for leak testing the titanium fillet welds prior to and during service. AA suitable design for entrance nozzles for titanium- clad vessels is shown in Figure 6.30. Long weld-neck nozzles usually are preferred for pressure vessels to facilitate the installation of titanium liners. The inner end of the nozzle is prepared with a smooth transition radius and is installed flush with the vessel cladding. The void behind each nozzle liner is provided with two 1/4 in, (6.4 mm) diameter gas purge holes extending through the base metal to the liner. The flange face and nozzle attachment areas are protected from corrosive fluids by titanium components. The titanium flange facing is braze welded to the steel flange face. A titanium sheet having the same diameter as the flange facing should be braze welded to the steel cover plate for the nozzle.STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 0520403 T29 mm 376 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS TITANIUM FILLER RING LOOSE TITANIUM LINER CIRCUMFERENTIAL TITANIUM WELD [| Ain. (102 men) MIN. -| Ra. SS TITANIUM CLADDING \ / \ wenn / 1S W STEEL WELD: STEEL SHELL GAS PURGE HOLE ‘AND NOZZLE TITANIUM BACKING RING. : 'BRAZE WELD WITH SILVER FILLER / woo (A) Design with Circumferential Weld at Vessel Wall Hop a Zi \\ \enaze wero FLANGE FACING (B) Design with Circumferential Weld at Flange igure 6.30—Typical Nozzle Designs for Titanium-Clad Steel VesselsSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 3598 MM O7842b5 OSLOWO4 965 a Titanium can be braze welded to steel with pure silver (BVAg-0) or silver-copper-lithium (BAg-19) brazing filler metal. The alloy filler metal may be easier to control because it melts over a range of 1400 to 1635 °F (760 to 890 °C), while silver melts instantly at 1760 °F (960 °C), Heat for braze welding is applied with a gas tungsten arc welding torch using argon shielding. The shielding gas nozzle and gas flow rate must be large enough to prevent oxidation of the titanium during the operation. The steel flange face should be precoated with the brazing filler metal to improve wetting during the braze welding operation. Alternatively, the titanium component can be furnace brazed to the steel component in high purity argon or vacuum. CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 377 Designs for lap and T-joints in titanium clad steel are shown in Figures 6.31 and 6.32, respectively. The principles of these designs are the same as those for a butt joint (Figure 6.29), FABRICATION CONSIDERATIONS ACCURATE ALIGNMENT OF any joint is essential to the maintenance and continuity of the cladding. Care ‘must be taken with alignment in the forming operations on mating parts and the accuracy of edge preparation. Mechanical shearing should be done with the clad side uppermost, to throw the burr onto the steel side, Even so, there will inevitably be some deag or smearing TITANIUM WELD. YE= 7 ™ STEEL WELDS: sss AP. [TITANIUM BACKING STRIP TITANIUM STRIP © TITANIUM WELD ‘GAS PURGE HOLE Figure 6.31—Design of a Lap Joint in Titanium-Clad Stool STEEL WELDS) \ ‘TITANIUM WELD TITANIUM BACKING STRIP TITANIUM STRIP an WELD war GAS PURGE HOLE Figure 6.32—Design of a TJoint in Ttaniur Clad SteelSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 378 CLAD AND. DISSIMILAR METALS of the cladding onto the steel substrate, and this should be allowed for in joint edge preparation, especially of thicker plates. Figure 6.33 illustrates a typical joint edge reparation of a cladded sheared plate, The usual joint preparation and welding sequence when the cladding is not stripped back is shown in Figure 6.34, Bead #1 should be partially or completely removed by back gouging or grinding. Any mixing of carbon steel with the alloy cladding will normally be metallurgically deficient; thus the removal of Bead #1 is a sound safety precaution to remove cracks and hard zones. Design considerations may result in one side of a weld joint being inaccessible. In this case, all welding must be done from only one side. Though a bit more demanding, of welder skill, welding clad steel from one side is possible using conventional procedures. Figure 6.35 shows a variation in normal procedures to ensure continuity on the clad side during fabrication and welding. The joint is prepared by machining or grinding a 70-degree V-butt joint with a 1/16 to 1/8 in. (1.6 to 3.2 mm) land. The first bead is deposited using either shielded metal arc welding 1998 MM O7842b5 OS2O405 87] mm (SMAW), with either an alloy electrode or a deep-penetrating steel electrode such as AWS F6010, or by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The joint is then filled with fallalloy welding products that match or overmatch the cladding. If a full-penetration joint must be made from the steel side, an inert gas back purge and the GTAW process must be used for the first several passes. Following these passes, the welding process may be changed, but full-alloy welding products that match or ‘overmatch the cladding should be used. Ifa full-penetration joint must be made from the steel side, an inert gas back purge and the GIAW process must be used for the first several passes. Following these passes, the welding process may be changed, but full alloy welding products that match or overmatch the cladding are required for the complete weld joint. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to detail all the sequences and joint types that might be contrived, but the essential requirements always are continuity of the cladding, optimum joint strength, and the avoidance of brittle layers where steel weld metal penetrates into the cladding, CLADDING STEEL (A) Sheared Only € STEEL (B) Sheared and Beveled [LEZZZZZZZZZZZEZZZZIZZZZZZ STEEL {C) Sheared, Beveled and Square-‘Machined Figure 6.33—Joint Edge Preparation of Cladded Sheared Plate Courtesy of nce Alloys Internation. neMETALS 379 STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1958 MM O78425 USLONOL 738 Mm CLAD AND DISSIMILAR Edge preparation for material hs to Sin. (4.8 to 16 mm thick. \ we step 1A STEELS + yin 1800) CLADDING srer1A a 10 Step 18 Eig preparation fr material greater than Sin (16 mm thick an Shin, (mm) cust Ys in, (1.6 mm) CLADDING sre 18 step Plat t-up before welding, The lp of stel above lading protects eel weld rom Righ aly pckap, srer2 stop Stee side welded using steal letrode. Not tha steel weld fas not penatated into he cladding, STEPS Step 4 Clad side prepared for welding by air carbon are gouging, chipping, or grinding. Steps ‘Welding the clad side, first pass completed. ish pass completed, cad side. STEPS Stop 6 Completing the joint. Fi Courtesy of nce Alloys Internation, ne. STEP 6 Figure 6.34—Welding Sequence When Cladding Is Not Stripped BackSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 380 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 2998 MM@ 0764265 0510407 674 am SS CLADDING STEEL. TEP STEP 2 STEPS Step 1 Bevel joint design to minimize grinding, Step2 Deposit root pass using GTAW or SMAW, Step 3 Deposit second pass using SMAW to fully penetrate first bead Step 4 Deposit third and fourth beads to fil the joint. Courtesy of neo Alloys Internationa, ne Figure 6.35—Welding Sequence When Welding from Glad Side Only APPLIED LININGS IN COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS where pressure and temperature fluctuations are negligible, corrosion resis tant metals and alloys can be applied not only to existing equipment, but also to new tanks and vessels of steel, wood, or concrete. However, numerous failures in linings have been reported over the years, especially in plug welds. When temperature fluctuations are great, pressure varies such that a vacuum pulls the lining away from the steel vessel wall, or gross differences in thermal expansion between the lining and the steel substrate places fatigue forces on the attachment welds. Welds with inherent notches, as found in lining design, do not perform well in cyclic service. PREPARATION FOR LINING BEFORE LINING NEW or existing equipment, all scale, paint, products of corrosion, processing, chemicals, or other foreign materials should be removed.STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MH O7842,5 0510408 SOO mm CHOICE OF LINING THICKNESS TO PROVIDE CORROSION resistance of a structure, a sheet or strip, generally 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) thick or heavier, is welded to existing steel or alloy structures. This process is referred to as alloy lining, sheet cladding, or wallpapering. Several different welding procedures have been developed. The severity of the environment and equipment available for fabrication will determine the optimum procedure. The welding process chosen is left to the discretion of the fabricator; shielded metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, or gas metal arc welding, processes are all capable of producing acceptable weld: ments. Itis recommended that linings not less than 1/16 in, (1.6 mm) thick be used for floor and walls of tanks, where the welding will be done in the downhand, verti- cal and horizontal positions. If overhead welding is required, as in heads, 5/64 in, (1.98 mm) is the mis ‘mum thickness recommended. Thinner linings can be used but they require a very high degree of welding skill and precision fitting. This added labor cost, in most cases, will be higher than the cost of heavier linings. SELECTION OF LINING SHAPES AND SIZES SHEETS AND STRIPS are the two basic shapes used in lining vessels. Wide sections are used for vessels subject to static weight, such as storage tanks. Most linings are installed by a strip-lining procedure using strips 3 to 12 in, (76 to 305 mm) wide. Because of poor experience with plug-weld breakage, many areas of industry forbid their use but, more recently, specialized procedures have been worked out. Simply aligning flat sheets to cover the surface is an acceptable method. The sheets are welded together in a square butt joint. Because of dilution of the weld metal by the metal to which the alloy sheet is affixed, itis best to overlay the attachment weld with a second pass to minimize the effect of weld dilution. If an extremely severe environment exists, one in which dilution of the weldment by lesser alloys cannot be tolerated, three acceptable procedures exist. As before, the welding process may be varied to suit the particular job. ‘When sheets to be welded are of a practical mill form size (width and length) and thin enough to be reasonably formed, an overlap technique can be used. In this concept, sheets of alloy are simply overlapped (such, as laying shingles on a roof). The edges are pressed together elastically by clamps for welding. A typical procedure isto intermittently weld the edge of one sheet to the substructure (usually steel). A second sheet over- CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 381 laps the attached sheet [about 1 in. (25.4 mm)] and is continuously welded to it, as is shown in Figure 6.36(A). A third sheet overlaps another adjacent edge of the first sheet and is welded. A second procedure is to plastically deform the edge of one sheet to overlap the edge of another prior to installation, as is shown in Figure 6.36(B). One sheet is welded at its edge to the steel substructure; a 1/2 U- shaped connection bend on a second sheet overlaps the edge of the first sheet covering the diluted weld. The second plate is then joined to the first plate. If the corrosive environment is too severe for a diluted weldment of a composition similar to the alloy lining, then a higher alloyed filler metal should be explored. For example, Type 300 series stainless steel liners frequently are welded with nickel alloy filler metal as discussed in an earlier section. Sometimes an alloy strip is welded across the weld and joined to the alloy lining on each side of the diluted weld, taking care not to penetrate the alloy sheet. Usually, if workable, the use of an over-alloyed filler metal is a more economical fabrication sequence. Figure 6.37 shows various shapes used in lining operations to cover comers, rivet heads and flanges Preforming of strips will aid in obtaining good contact between the lining and vessel wall. This operation is SHEET EDGE NOTFORMED CONTINUOUS WELD x aie) WELD (A) No Preforming of Lining Edge Foren OFFSET CONTINUOUS UNING | ae Ste aaa WELD {B) Preformed Offset on Lining Edge Courtesy of Inco Alloys International Ine. Figure 6.36—Lap Joints for Welding Strip Linings to StoolSTD-AUS UHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 WB 078425 OS5304D4 47 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS particularly helpful in lining small tanks. Installation procedures involve the use of air or screw jacks, shores and wedges, or other holding devices to hold the lining sections in place during welding. PLUG WELDS THE ATTACHMENT OF sheets to vessel walls may be further reinforced with plug welds. The spacing of the plugs will be determined by the strength required to hold the sheets to the vessel wall. Factors such as sheet weight, thermal expansion, and potential system vacuum must be considered. Plug welds may not be needed for sheets that are less than 48 in, (1219 mm) wide. Plug welds may be made with any of the previously discussed processes. Those most commonly used, however, are gas metal arc welding, using pulsed spray transfer (GMAW-P) or short circuiting transfer (GMAW-S), and shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) ‘Welding conditions are adjusted to produce the desired nugget size and penetration. Tables 6.14 and 6.15 list some typical welding conditions in two process variations for joining Alloy 625 sheet to steel. set [A] sew Set (A) ini a x Nh suancen ram aa / BOTTOM LININGS ky Va STEEL BOTTOM (A) Flat Head-to-Shell Joint INTERMITTENT OR CONTINUOUS WELD UNING + STEEL SHELL {C) Flange Cover eae [conn SNR cee SK Ngee sTeeL WELD Rivet Cover vee sees, = NOZZLE LINING STEEL NOZZLE~~ THis tapes Nozze UNE Sree Musee WELL ta own _—_ BEerORE WELDING SHELL UNI 05 in, (13 mm) {D) Nozzle Lining to Sheet Lining Overlaying Flange Face Note: Rivet cover (B) should have square corners for circumferential joints Courtesy of neo Alloys International, Ine Figure 6.37—Suggested Joint Designs for Welded Linings in Steel Vessels and TanksSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH G-ENGL 2998 MM O7842b5 OS204L0 169 mt el Table 6.14 ‘Typical Welding Conditions for Joining Alloy 625 ‘Shost to Steel Using the GMAM-P Process* Parameter Value Wire diameter (046i. (1.14mmm) Wire feed speed 200-240 nmin (85-102.mers) ‘Average voltage m5215V Background votage Wav Average current 1SOITOA Peak current BOSSA + Filler metalisERNICrMo-3 with shielding gas of 100% argon or 75% argon and 5% eum. SS Table 6.15 Typical Welding Conditions for Joining Alloy 625 Sheet to Stoel Using the GMAW Process with Pulsod GMAW Power Suppty* ‘Wire Diameter Parameter {UO in (08mm) _COBin (14 en) ‘Startcurent 0A 08 Background curent mA A Pak curent HA «A Peakime 3ms 34ms Welding curont 1008 180A Wire speed at 00 S10indmin ——_17Dindvin sims) mms) * Flr metal is ERNICrMo-3 with shielding gas of 10% argon or 75% argon and 25% helium. CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 383 For sheet thicknesses of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) or less, the heat of the weld arc may be used to penetrate the lining sheet into the underlying structural member. While this is readily accomplished in the flat position, it is questionable for other positions. For out-of-position welding, it is advisable to drill or punch holes in the alloy sheet to produce more consistent penetration and plug size. A 3/8 in, (9.5 mm) diameter hole often is found to be optimum for most welding processes. Care should be taken to reinforce these weldments so as to minimize dilution. LINING FAILURE PREVENTION FAILURES IN LININGS have been found to be caused by one or more of the following factors: a (2) (3) (4) Improper preparation of the vessel surface Careless fir-up Inadequate inspection or testing Inadequate attachment procedure If pressure testing cannot be done, then a very thor- ‘ough visual inspection should be carried out. It is extremely difficult to repair a lining that has leaked and allowed process chemicals between the lining and vessel wall. The only recourse is to remove enough lining sections to get beyond the area of the vessel wall that has been contaminated. In some cases, it is less expensive to strip out the lining and apply a new one. SAFE PRACTICES COMPOUNDS OF CHROMIUM, hexavalent chromium, manganese, nickel, and other metals may be found in the fumes generated by welding processes.’> The specific compounds and concentrations will vary with the welding processes and the chemical composi 23. For a thorough and more general coverage of welding processes, inchading safety recommendations, refer to the chapter in the Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, Sth Ed. that describes the desiced process. Safe practices also are included in Chapter 16 of the Welding Handbook, Nol. 1, Sth Ed. Also see ANSVASC ZA9.L, Safety in Welding Cutting and Allied Procesees, Miami, Fla: American Welding Society latest edition), tions of the weld metal, che base metals, and fluxes, if any." Some immediate effects of overexposure to welding fumes containing metals and metallic compounds are the symptoms of nausea, headaches, and dizziness. Some persons may develop a sensitivity to chromium or nickel that can result in dermatitis, or skin rash. The fumes and gases should not be inhaled, and the face should be kept out of the fumes. Sufficient 24, Consult the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provided by the ‘manufacturer for each material involved inthe welding procedure to be usedSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0764265 0510411 OTS mm 384 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS ventilation or exhaust at the arc, or both, should be tused to eliminate fumes and gases from the welder’s breathing zone and the general area. In confined spaces, it may be necessary to. provide fresh-air-supplied breathing masks to accomplish this. In some cases, nat ural air movement will provide enough ventilation, Where ventilation may be questionable, air sampling should be used to determine if corrective measures should be applied. Nickel and chromium must be considered possible carcinogens under OSHA? Long-term exposure to manganese may produce neurological damage. Long- term exposure to welding fumes, gases, and particulates, 25. Occupational and Health Administration (25CFR1910.1200) Safery APPLICATIONS may result in skin sensitization, neurological damage, and respiratory disease such, as bronchial asthma, lung fibrosis, or pneumoconiosis.” Local exhaust should he used when one is cutting, grinding, or welding stainless steels, alloys containing, nickel or chromium, and other materials that may pro duce damaging fumes. Exposure to fumes, gases, and dust generated by welding should nor exceed. permissi ble exposure limits. Confined spaces require special attention. Welders always should wear correct eye, eat, body, and respiratory protection, 26. See American Welding Society publications on safety and health, especially ANSUAWS FI.1, Methods for Sampling Airborne Partcw lates Generated by Welding and Allied Processes and. ANSUAWS F1.3, A Sampling Strategy Guide for Evaluating Contaminanis in the Welding Frvtronment WELDING DUCTILE CAST IRON TO STEEL DUCTILE CAST IRONS are useful engineering alloys that have better mechanical properties than the gray and white cast irons. The unique nodular graphite inclusions in a matrix of ferrite or pearlite plus ferrite enhance both the ductility and the predictable tensile strength of ductile cast iron. The ductility can range from 6 to 20% in irons that have tensile strengths of 60 ksi (414 MPa) to more than 80 ksi (552. MPa), Therefore, the ductile irons are now being considered for new applications where strength and ductility are needed, and where cast parts can be made more eco- nomically than wrought parts. Ductile irons also are easily weldable. Welded fabrications are made by welding ductile iron castings to steels parts. For example, a carbon-steel tube is welded to a cast header of ductile iron, shown in Figure 6.38, to make a small tube-and-shell heat exchanger. Two choices of filler metal are the bare filler metal ERNiFeMn-Cl or the flux cored ENiFeT3-CI.”’ For the heat-exchanger component shown in Figure 6.38, the flux cored wire was used for the production welding of the part. The welding conditions are listed in Table 6.16. 27, See ANSVAWS 5.15, Specification for Welding Electrodes and Rods for Cast rom, Courtasy of neo Alloys Internationa, Ine Figure 6.38—Carbon-Steel Tube Welded to a Cast Ductileron Header to Make a Small Tube-and-Shell Heat ExchangerSTD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM 0784265 OSL04l2 13) mm Table 6.16 Welding Conditions for Joining CarborrStee! Tube to Cast Ductileron Header* Pram Value Filer metal ERNFeTS-CT We diameter ‘382in. (24mm) Travel speed Tindmin 02mm) ‘Shielding gas Carbon desde Shielding gas flow rate 40 ft hn (19 Un) Current A Votage 28 (direct current, electrode postive) * Ductile rons ASTM AS36-Grade 6545-12 CLAD AND WALLPAPER LININGS IN POWERPLANT FABRICATION THE NEED FOR flue-gas desulfurization equipment around the world requires the use of nickel-chromium- molybdenum-tungsten alloys that have excellent resistance to extremely aggressive environments. To meet increasingly stringent clean air requirements, power- plants install flue-gas desulfurization equipment to remove sulfur dioxide gases from their effluent. This equipment often is exposed to high-chloride and highly acidic environments that lead to pitting and crevice attack. To resist these aggressive forms of localized corrosion, high-nickel alloys often are used. While a design using the full thickness of such an alloy occasionally may be justified, a more cost-effective solution typically will use either alloy-clad steel or applied linings (called wallpaper). Applications at three power utilities willbe described. The first application uses wallpapering, and the second uses alloy-clad steel. A unique leak-testing procedure will be described in the last application, which also uses wallpapering, Mount Storm Power Station THIS UNIT OF Virginia Electric Power selected linings of UNS N06022 and welded the sheets in place using pulsed gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding with ERNiCrMo-10. Lining thicknesses were Vi6in. (1.6 mm) and 1/8 in, (3.2 mm). Figure 6.39 shows workmen installing the alloy in the overhead CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 385 position using intermittent fillet welds for attachment and plug welds. Figure 6.40 shows the domed caps welded in place to cover the diluted plug welds. Wallpa- pering was used extensively in the scrubbers and ducting at this power station. Opatovice Power Utility ‘A POWER UTILITY in Opatovice, Czech Republic, uses alloy-clad steel in its flue-gas desulfurization equip” ment. Figure 6.41 shows a structure clad with 1/16 in. (1.6 mm} NiCrMoW alloy C-276 (UNS N10276). The structure was fabricated using the gas tungsten arc welding process with the over-matching NiC:MoW filler metal ERNiCrMo-14 (UNS N06686). (See Figure 6.42.) The use of the filler metal having the higher alloy content avoids the possibility of corrosion in the weld metal due to dendritic segregation, Lambton Station Powerplant TO CONTROL EMISSIONS of sulfur dioxide from this coal burning powerplant in the Ontario Hydro Sys- tem, Lambton Station installed high-nickel-alloy wallpaper lining using UNS N10276 welded with ERNiCrMo-4. Gas metal arc welding was predomi- nantly used for attachment welds, seam welds, and plug welds, Some gas tungsten arc welding also was used. To facilitate leak-tight testing without contamination con- cerns for any needed repairs, a unique system of leak testing was employed. First the scrubber-absorber was subdivided into sections that were continuously welded to the carbon-steel vessel. Then each of these sections was drilled, tapped through the steel shell, and fitted with vents to allow atmospheric pressure to equalize between the lining and steel vessel. These vents also would provide early detection to disclose any leaks that might occur in service. However, during installation and testing, the vents allowed ingress of air during vac- uuum-box testing of the seam welds. Figure 6.43 shows the vacuum-box testing apparatus used for testing the seam welds of the lining. A light soap solution was applied to the seam to be tested, the vacuum box was placed over the area, a light vacuum was drawn inside the box, and the appearance of bubbling indicated a leak to be repaired. Wallpapering was used for the scrubber- absorber, demisting section, and ducting. Figure 6.44 shows the interior of the scrubber- absorber vessel with wallpapering installed and the inlet and outlet ports.STD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH G-ENGL 2998 MM 0784265 0530413 978 Ml 386 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS ‘Courtesy of Inco Alloys Intemational, ne Figure 6.39—Workers Installing Alloy “Wallpaper” Linings in the Construction of Flue-Gas Desulfurization Equipment for Powerplant On eee Figure 6.40—Domed Caps on Plug Welds Used in Wallpapering Construction in Flue-Gas Desulfurization Equipment for PowerplantSTD-AWUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 OSLO414 604 Ml CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 387 TT ‘Courtesy of Inco Alloys International Ine Figure 6.41—Structure for Flue-Gas Desulfurization Equipment Clad with 1/16-in. (1.6 mm) NiCrMoW Allloy (UNS 10276) (Courtesy of Nickel Development Institut Figure 6.43—Vacuum-Box Testing Apparatus: ‘Courtesy of Inco Alloys Internationa, Ine Figure 6.42— Fabrication of Clad Structure for Flue- Gas Desulfurization Equipment by Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Overmatching NiCrMoW Filler MetalSTD-AUS WHB-4 PART 2 CH b-ENGL 1998 MM O7A42b5 OSLO415 740 Oe 388 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS re 6.44—Interior of the Scrubber Absorber Vessel with Wallpapering Installed ‘Courtesy of ino Alloys Iternstional ne SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST Avery, R. E., and Plant, W. H. D. “Welding and Fabri cation of Nickel Alloys in FGD Systems.” Proceed- ings of NACE Air Pollution Seminar, NIDI Reference Book Series No, 10027. Toronto, Ontario: Nickel Development Institute, October 1987. Avery, R. E, and Tuthill, A. H. “Guidelines for the welded fabrication of nickel alloys for corrosion resistant service.” NIDI Reference Book No. 11012. Toronto, Ontario: Nickel Development Institute October 1994, Avery, R, E. “Welding as it affects service perfor mance.” Proceedings of Materials Engineering Work- shop, NIDI Reference Book Series No. 11001 Toronto, Ontario: Nickel Development Institute, October 1985. Baeslack, W. A., Lippold, J. C., and Savage, W. E “Unmixed zone formation by dissimilar liquid weld metal.” Welding Journal 58(6): 168s-76s, 1979. Bowman, H. M., Kiser, S. D., and Stiltner, G. L. “Weld- ing product helps to rebuild America’s highways.” Welding Journal 72(9): 55-7, 1993. Briant, C. L., and Hall, E. L. * The microstructure and corrosion resistance of nickel-based filler metals with high chromium contents.” Welding Journal 69(2): 605-75, 1990. Brosilow, R. “Berter fillers for nuclear welds.” Welding Design and Fabrication: 52-3, December 1993. Case, C. W. “Dissimilar metal weld properties can be predicted.” Welding Engineer: 42-5, January 196: Castro, R., and De Cadnet, J. J. Welding metallurgy of heat resisting steel. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1974STD-AWS WHB-4 PART 2 CH B-ENGL 1998 MM O7842b5 OSLONLL bd? a Cox, C. W,, and Kiser, §. D. “Fusion welding of dissimilar metals for high temperature strength.” Welding Journal 71(5): 67-70, 1992. Dalcher, A. W., Yang, T. M., and Chu, C. L. “High temperature thermoelastic analysis of dissimilar metal transition joints.” Journal of Engineering Material and Technology 99(1): 65-9, 1977. Eckel, J. F. “Diffusion across dissimilar metal joints.” Welding Journal 43(4): 170s-8s, 1964. Espy, R. H. “Weldability of Nitrogen-Strengthened Stainless Steels.” Welding Journal 61(5): 1495-568, 1982, Funk, W. H. “Interpretative report on welding of nickel clad and stainless clad plate.” Bulletin 61. New York: ‘Welding Research Council, June 1960. Garner, A. “High performance austenitic stainless steels in the pulp and paper industry.” NIDI Reference Book No. 10006. Toronto, Ontario: Nickel Develop- ment Institute, December 1988. Gorin, 1. G. “Welding of titanium to nickel base alloys.” Welding Production 11(12}: 46-53, 1964, Hibner, E. L., Hinshan, E. B., and Lamb, S. “Weld fabrication of a 6% molybdenum alloy to avoid corrosion in bleach plant service.” NIDI Reference Book No. 14020. Toronto, Ontario: Nickel Development Institute, May 1992. Irving, B. “Dissimilar metal welding paves the way to new ventures.” Welding Journal 71(5): 27-32, 1992. Karlson, L. Anderson, $. L.,. and Huhtala, T. “New Ni- base Consumables for welding duplex and superdu- plex stainless steels,” Paper No. 42. Glasgow, Scot- land: The Welding Institute, November 13, 1994. King, J. F, Sullivan, M. D., and Slaughter, G. M. “Development of an improved stainless steel-to-ferritic steel transition joint.” Welding Journal 56(11): 354-85, 1977. Kiser, S. D. “Dissimilar welding with nickel alloys.” Canadian Welding and Fabrication: 30-3, January 1980. *Nickel-alloy consumable selection for severe service conditions.” Welding Journal 69(11): 30-5, 1990. “Repair welding of nickel alloys.” Cana- dian Welder and Fabrication: 20-4, December 1980. ———.. “The pulp and paper industry depends on nickel alloys.” Welding Journal 76(11): 53-7, 1997. —... “Welding high nickel alloys: Different but not difficult.” Welding Journal 67(10}: 55-7, 1988 CLAD AND DISSIMILAR METALS 389 Kiser, S. D., and Cox, C. W. “Understanding the mys- teries of stress corrosion cracking.” Welding Journal 71(12): 55-7, 1992. Kotecki, D. J., and Rajan, V.B. “Submerged arc fillet welds between mild steel and stainless steel.” Weld- ing Journal 76(2): 575-66s, 1997. Lang, F_N., and Kenyon, N. “Welding of maraging steels.” Bulletin 159, New York: Welding Research Council, February 1971. Matthews, S. J., and Savage, W. F. “Heat-affected zone infileration by dissimilar liquid weld metal.” Welding Journal 50(4): 174s-82s, 1971. Mitchell, D. R., and Kessler, H. D. “The welding of tita~ nium to steel.” Welding Journal 40(12): 5465-52s, 1961. Morse, $. L., and Shoemaker, L. E. “Inconel alloy 625 clad sheets for application in wet scrubbers.” Corro- sion Forum Proceedings, Paper No. 310, April 1984. Olson, D. L., Siewart, T. A., and MeCowen, C. N. “Fer- rite ‘number prediction to 100 FN in stainless steel weld metal.” Welding Journal 67(12): 289s-98s, 1989, Omar, A. A. “Effects of welding parameters on hard zone formation at dissimilar metal welds.” Welding Journal 77(2): 865-92s, 1998. Osokin, A. A. “Technological characteristics of fusion welding aluminum alloys to titanium.” Welding Pro- duction 23(2): 14-5, 1976. Reynolds, S. D., Je, Spahr, W. L., and Poole, L. K. “Development of nickel ‘alloy surfacing techniques for feedwater heaters.” Welding Journal 42(8): 635-43, 1963. Schillmoller, C. M. “Solving high-temperature corrosion problems in oil refineries.” Chemical Engineer- ing 93(1): 1986. Tuthill, A. H., and Avery, R. E. “Corrosion behavior of stainless steel and high alloy weldments in aggressive oxidizing environments.” Welding Journal 72(2): 4s-95, 1993, Wilson, R. K., Kelly, T. J., and Kiser, S. D. “The effect of iron dilution on Cu-Ni weld deposits used in seawater.” Welding Journal 66(9): 280s-7s, 1987.

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