A MINI-COURSE ON THE

PRINCIPLES OF PLASMA DISCHARGES

Michael A. Lieberman

c Michael A. Lieberman, 2003.

All rights reserved.

OUTLINE

Introduction to Plasma Discharges and Processing

Summary of Plasma Fundamentals
Break
Summary of Discharge Fundamentals
Analysis of Discharge Equilibrium
Inductive RF Discharges

ORIGIN OF MINI-COURSE
45 hr graduate course at Berkeley =
12 hr short course in industry =
4 hr mini-course

INTRODUCTION TO PLASMA DISCHARGES

AND PROCESSING

-1-

PLASMAS AND DISCHARGES

Plasmas:
A collection of freely moving charged particles which is, on the
average, electrically neutral
Discharges:
Are driven by voltage or current sources
Charged particle collisions with neutral particles are important
There are boundaries at which surface losses are important
Ionization of neutrals sustains the plasma in the steady state
The electrons are not in thermal equilibrium with the ions

Device sizes 30 cm 1 m
Driving frequencies from DC to rf (13.56 MHz) to microwaves
(2.45 GHz)
-2-

TYPICAL PROCESSING DISCHARGES

-3-

RANGE OF MICROELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS

Etching
Si, a-Si, oxide, nitride, III-Vs
Ashing
Photoresist removal
Deposition (PECVD)
Oxide, nitride, a-Si
Oxidation
Si
Sputtering
Al, W, Au, Cu, YBaCuO
Polymerization
Various plastics
Implantation
H, He, B, P, O, As, Pd

-4-

ANISOTROPIC ETCHING



Wet Etching
Plasma Etching




Ion Enhanced Plasma Etching

-5-

ISOTROPIC PLASMA ETCHING

1. Start with inert molecular gas CF4
2. Make discharge to create reactive species:
CF4 CF3 + F
3. Species reacts with material, yielding volatile product:
Si + 4F SiF4
4. Pump away product
5. CF4 does not react with Si; SiF4 is volatile

ANISOTROPIC PLASMA ETCHING

6. Energetic ions bombard trench bottom, but not sidewalls:
(a) Increase etching reaction rate at trench bottom
(b) Clear passivating lms from trench bottom
Plasma
Ions
Mask

-6-

UNITS AND CONSTANTS

SI units: meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), coulombs (C)
e = 1.6 1019 C, electron charge = e
Energy unit is joule (J)
Often use electron-volt
1 eV = 1.6 1019 J
Temperature unit is kelvin (K)
Often use equivalent voltage of the temperature:
Te (volts) =

kTe (kelvins)
e

where k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 1023 J/K

1 V 11, 600 K
Pressure unit is pascals (Pa); 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Atmospheric pressure 105 Pa 1 bar
Often use English units for gas pressures
Atmospheric pressure = 760 Torr
1 Pa 7.5 mTorr
-7-

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

Quantity

Symbol

Value

Boltzmann constant
Elementary charge
Electron mass
Proton mass
Proton/electron mass ratio
Planck constant

k
e
m
M
M/m
h
h = h/2

c0

0
0
h2 /e2 m
a0 = 4
0
a20

1.3807 1023 J/K

1.6022 1019 C
9.1095 1031 kg
1.6726 1027 kg
1836.2
6.6262 1034 J-s
1.0546 1034 J-s
2.9979 108 m/s
8.8542 1012 F/m
4 107 H/m
5.2918 1011 m
8.7974 1021 m2

Speed of light in vacuum

Permittivity of free space
Permeability of free space
Bohr radius
Atomic cross section
Temperature T associated
with T = 1 V
Energy associated with
E=1V
Avogadro number
(molecules/mol)
Gas constant
Atomic mass unit
Standard temperature
(25 C)
Standard pressure
(760 Torr = 1 atm)
Loschmidts number
(density at STP)
Pressure of 1 Torr
Energy per mole at T0
calorie (cal)

11605 K
1.6022 1019 J
NA
R = kNA

6.0220 1023
8.3144 J/K-mol
1.6606 1027 kg

T0

298.15 K

1.0133 105 Pa

2.6868 1025 m3
133.32 Pa
2.4789 kJ/mol
4.1868 J

RT0

-7a-

PLASMA DENSITY VERSUS TEMPERATURE

-8-

RELATIVE DENSITIES AND ENERGIES

-9-

NON-EQUILIBRIUM
Energy coupling between electrons and heavy particles is weak
Input
power

Electrons
weak
Walls

weak

Ions

weak

strong Walls

strong

Neutrals

strong Walls

Electrons are not in thermal equilibrium with ions or neutrals

Te Ti

in plasma bulk

Bombarding Ei  Ee

at wafer surface

High temperature processing at low temperatures

1. Wafer can be near room temperature
2. Electrons produce free radicals = chemistry
3. Electrons produce electron-ion pairs = ion bombardment

-10-

ELEMENTARY DISCHARGE BEHAVIOR

Consider uniform density of electrons and ions ne and ni at
time t = 0

Warm electrons having low mass quickly drain to the wall,

setting up sheaths

Ions accelerated to walls; ion bombarding energy Ei = plasmawall potential Vp

-11-

CENTRAL PROBLEM IN DISCHARGE MODELING

Given Vrf (or Irf or Prf ), , gases, pressure, ow rates, discharge

geometry (R, l, etc), then
Find plasma densities ne , ni , temperatures Te , Ti , ion bombarding energies Ei , sheath thicknesses, neutral radical densities, potentials, currents, uxes, etc
Learn how to design and optimize plasma reactors for various
purposes (etching, deposition, etc)

-12-

CHOOSING PLASMA PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

How about inductive? (gure published in 1991)

-12a-

SUMMARY OF PLASMA FUNDAMENTALS

-13-

POISSONS EQUATION
An electric eld can be generated by charges:


dA = Qencl
or

E
E=
0
0
S

E
Qencl

For slow time variations (dc, rf, but not microwaves):

E =
Combining these yields Poissons equation:
2 =

0

Here E = electric eld (V/m), = charge density (C/m3 ),

= potential (V)
In 1D:
dEx

= ,
dx
0

Ex =

d
dx

yields
d2

dx2
0
This eld powers a capacitive discharge or the wafer bias power
of an inductive or ECR discharge

-14-

Vrf

FARADAYS LAW
An electric eld can be generated by a time-varying magnetic
eld:
E=
or

E dl =
t
C

B
t


A

Irf

B dA

E
Here B = magnetic induction vector
This eld powers the coil of an inductive discharge (top power)

Irf

~
E

-15-

AMPERES LAW
Both conduction currents and displacement currents generate
magnetic elds:
H = Jc + 0

E
= JT
t

Jc = conduction current, 0 E/t = displacement current, JT

= total current, H = magnetic eld vector, B = 0 H with
0 = 4 106 H/m
Note the vector identity:
( H) = 0

JT = 0

In 1D:
JT x (x, t)
=0
x
so
JT x = JT x (t), independent of x

-16-

REVIEW OF PHASORS
Physical voltage (or current), a real sinusoidal function of time
V (t)

V0

V (t) = V0 cos(t + )
0

Phasor voltage (or current), a complex number, independent

VI

of time

V0

V = V0 ej = VR + jVI
Using ej = cos + j sin , we nd
VR = V0 cos ,
Note that

VI = V0 sin

V (t) = Re V e

jt

= V0 cos(t + )
= VR cos t VI sin t
Hence
V (t) V

(given )
-17-

VR

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM PROPERTIES

Electrons generally near thermal equilibrium
Ions generally not in thermal equilibrium
Maxwellian distribution of electrons

fe (v) = ne

m
2kTe

3/2

mv 2
exp
2kTe

where v 2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2

fe (vx )

vT e =
(kTe /m)1/2

Pressure p = nkT
For neutral gas at room temperature (300 K)
ng (cm3 ) 3.3 1016 p(Torr)

-18-

vx

AVERAGES OVER MAXWELLIAN DISTRIBUTION

Average energy
 12 mv 2 

1
ne

d3 v 12 mv 2 fe (v) = 32 kTe

Average speed
1
ve =
ne

d3 v vfe (v) =

Average electron ux lost to a wall

8kTe
m

1/2

e
y

x

e =

dvx

dvy

dvz vz fe (v) =
0

1
ne ve
4

[m2 -s1 ]

Average kinetic energy lost per electron lost to a wall

Ee = 2 Te

-19-

FORCES ON PARTICLES
For a unit volume of electrons (or ions),
mne

due
= qne E pe mne m ue
dt

mass acceleration = electric eld force +

+ pressure gradient force + friction (gas drag) force
m = electron mass
ne = electron density
ue = electron ow velocity
q = e for electrons (+e for ions)
E = electric eld
pe = ne kTe = electron pressure
m = collision frequency of electrons with neutrals
pe
pe (x)

pe
pe (x + dx)

x x + dx

-20-

Drag
force

Neutrals

ue

BOLTZMANN FACTOR FOR ELECTRONS

If electric eld and pressure gradient forces almost balance:
0 ene E pe
Let E = and pe = ne kTe :
=

kTe ne
e ne

Put kTe /e = Te (volts) and integrate to obtain:

ne (r) = ne0 e(r)/Te

x


ne
ne0

x
-21-

UNDERSTANDING PLASMA BEHAVIOR

The eld equations and the force equations are coupled

Fields,
Potentials

Maxwell's
Equations

Newton's
Laws

Charges,
Currents

-22-

DEBYE LENGTH De
The characteristic length scale of a plasma
Low voltage sheaths few Debye lengths thick
Lets consider how a sheath forms near a wall:
Electrons leave plasma before ions and charge wall negative

ne = ni = n0
Electrons

x
n ni = n0
ne
x

x
0
Assume electrons in thermal equilibrium and stationary ions

-23-

DEBYE LENGTH De (CONTD)

Newtons laws
ne (x) = n0 e/Te ,

ni = n0

Use in Poissons equation

en0 
d2
/Te
1e
=
dx2
0
Linearize e/Te 1 + /Te
d2
en0
=

dx2
0 Te
Solution is

(x) = 0 ex/De ,

De =

0 Te
en0

1/2

In practical units
De (cm) = 740

Te in volts, n0 in cm3

Te /n0 ,

Example
At Te = 1 V and n0 = 1010 cm3 , De = 7.4 103 cm
= Sheath is 0.15 mm thick (Very thin!)
-24-

ELECTRON PLASMA FREQUENCY pe

The fundamental timescale for a plasma
Consider a plasma slab (no walls). Displace all electrons to the
right a small distance xe0 , and release them:

Charge/area +

en0 xe

Ions
+
Electrons
+
+

Charge/area

en0 xe

0 xe
E(x)
x

Maxwells equations (parallel plate capacitor)

E=

en0 xe (t)
0

Newtons laws (electron motion)

d2 xe (t)
e2 n0
m
=
xe (t)
dt2
0
Solution is electron plasma oscillations

pe =

xe (t) = xe0 cos pe t,

Practical formula is fpe (Hz) = 9000 n0 ,

e n0
0 m

1/2

n0 in cm3

= microwave frequencies (>

1 GHz) for typical plasmas
-25-

1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION

(Te = 1 V, ne = ni = 1013 m3 )
Electron vx x phase space at t = 0.77 s

Electron number N versus t

-26-

1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION (CONTD)

Electron density ne (x) at t = 0.77 s

Electric eld E(x) at t = 0.77 s

-27-

1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION (CONTD)

Potential (x) at t = 0.77 s

Right hand potential (x = l) versus t

-28-

PLASMA DIELECTRIC CONSTANT p

RF discharges are driven at a frequency
ejt ),
E(t) = Re (E

etc

Dene p from the total current in Maxwells equations

= Jc + j0 E
jp E

H



Total current J
e is mainly due to electrons
Conduction current Jc = ene u
Newtons law (electric eld and neutral drag) is
mm u
jm
ue = eE
e
Solve for u
e and evaluate Jc to obtain

p = 0 1

2
pe

( jm )

For  m , p is mainly real (nearly lossless dielectric)

For m  , p is mainly imaginary (very lossy dielectric)

-29-

RF FIELDS IN LOW PRESSURE DISCHARGES

Consider mainly lossless plasma (  m )

p = 0

2
pe
2

For almost all RF discharges, pe 

= p is negative
Typical case: p = 1000 0
Sheath

Plasma

Sheath

0

p

0

J (continuous)

=
E
J
j0

=
E
J
jp

=
E
J
j0

Electric eld in plasma is 1000 smaller than in sheaths!

Although eld in plasma is small, it sustains the plasma!
-30-

PLASMA CONDUCTIVITY p

Useful to introduce the plasma conductivity Jc p E

RF plasma conductivity
e2 ne
p =
m(m + j)
DC plasma conductivity (  m )
dc

e2 ne
=
mm

The plasma dielectric constant and conductivity are related by:

jp = p + j0
Due to p , rf current owing through the plasma heats electrons
(just like a resistor)

-31-

OHMIC HEATING POWER

Time average power absorbed/volume
pd = J(t) E(t) =

1
)
Re (J E
2

[W/m3 ]

to nd pd in terms of E

Put J = (p + j0 )E
2
m
1 2
pd = |E| dc 2
2
2
+ m

= J/(
p + j0 ) to nd pd in terms of J.

Put E
For almost all rf discharges (pe  )
pd =

1 2 1
|J|
2
dc

-32-

SUMMARY OF DISCHARGE FUNDAMENTALS

-33-

ELECTRON COLLISIONS WITH ARGON

Maxwellian electrons collide with Ar atoms (density ng )
dne
= ne = Kng ne
dt
= collision frequency [s1 ], K(Te ) = rate coecient [m3 /s]
Electron-Ar collision processes
e + Ar Ar+ + 2e

(ionization)

e + Ar e + Ar e + Ar + photon
e + Ar e + Ar

(elastic scattering)

(excitation)
e

e
Ar

Ar

Rate coecient K(Te ) is average of cross section [m2 ] for

process, over Maxwellian distribution
K(Te ) = vMaxwellian

-34-

ELECTRON-ARGON RATE COEFFICIENTS

-35-

ION COLLISIONS WITH ARGON

Argon ions collide with Ar atoms

Ar+

Ar+

Ar+ + Ar Ar+ + Ar

(elastic scattering)

Ar+ + Ar Ar + Ar+

(charge transfer)

Ar
Ar
Ar

Ar+
Ar

Ar+

Total cross section for room temperature ions i 1014 cm2

Ion-neutral mean free path
i =

1
ng i

Practical formula
i (cm) =

1
,
330 p

p in Torr

Rate coecient for ion-neutral collisions

Ki =
with vi = (8kTi /M )1/2

-36-

vi
i

THREE ENERGY LOSS PROCESSES

1. Collisional energy Ec lost per electron-ion pair created
Kiz Ec = Kiz Eiz + Kex Eex + Kel (2m/M )(3Te /2)
= Ec (Te )

(voltage units)

Eiz , Eex , and (3m/M )Te are energies lost by an electron due to
an ionization, excitation, and elastic scattering collision
2. Electron kinetic energy lost to walls
Ee = 2 Te
3. Ion kinetic energy lost to walls is mainly due to the dc potential
Vs across the sheath
Ei Vs
Total energy lost per electron-ion pair lost to walls
ET = Ec + Ee + Ei

-37-

COLLISIONAL ENERGY LOSSES

-38-

BOHM (ION LOSS) VELOCITY uB

uB
Plasma Sheath

Density

Wall

ns

Due to formation of a presheath, ions arrive at the plasmasheath edge with directed energy kTe /2
1
kTe
M u2i =
2
2
At the plasma-sheath edge (density ns ), electron-ion pairs are
lost at the Bohm velocity

ui = uB =

-39-

kTe
M

1/2

AMBIPOLAR DIFFUSION AT HIGH PRESSURES

Plasma bulk is quasi-neutral (ne ni = n) and the electron
and ion loss uxes are equal (e i )
Ficks law
= Da n
with ambipolar diusion coecient Da = kTe /M i
Density prole is sinusoidal

n0
wall

wall
ns

l/2

l/2

Loss ux to the wall is

wall = hl n0 uB
where the edge-to-center density ratio is
hl

ns
uB
=
n0
l i

Applies for pressures > 100 mTorr in argon

-40-

AMBIPOLAR DIFFUSION AT LOW PRESSURES

The diusion coecient is not constant
Density prole is relatively at in the center and falls sharply
near the sheath edge

n0
wall

wall
ns

l/2

l/2

For a cylindrical plasma of length l and radius R, loss uxes to

axial and radial walls are
axial = hl n0 uB ,

radial = hR n0 uB

where the edge-to-center density ratios are

hl

0.86

hR

,
1/2
(3 + l/2i )

0.8

Applies for pressures < 100 mTorr in argon

-41-

1/2

(4 + R/i )

ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGE EQUILIBRIUM

-42-

PARTICLE BALANCE AND Te

Assume uniform cylindrical plasma absorbing power Pabs

Pabs

Plasma
ne = ni = n0
l

Particle balance
Production due to ionization = loss to the walls
Kiz ng n0 R2 l = (2R2 hl n0 + 2RlhR n0 )uB
Solve to obtain
Kiz (Te )
1
=
uB (Te )
ng de
where
de =

1
Rl
2 Rhl + lhR

is an eective plasma size

Given ng and de = electron temperature Te
Te varies over a narrow range of 25 volts

-43-

ELECTRON TEMPERATURE IN ARGON DISCHARGE

-44-

ION ENERGY FOR LOW VOLTAGE SHEATHS

Ei = energy entering sheath + energy gained traversing sheath
Ion energy entering sheath = Te /2 (voltage units)
Sheath voltage determined from particle conservation in the
sheath
i

i
e

Plasma Sheath Insulating

wall
Density

ns
+ Vs

i = n s u B ,

e =

ns ve eVs /Te
4

with ve = (8eTe /m)1/2

The ion and electron uxes must balance
Te
Vs =
ln
2

M
2m

or Vs 4.7 Te for argon

Accounting for the initial ion energy, Ei 5.2 Te

-45-

ION ENERGY FOR HIGH VOLTAGE SHEATHS

Large ion bombarding energies can be gained near rf-driven
electrodes embedded in the plasma
s
Vrf Clarge

Vs 0.4 Vrf

Plasma

Vs +

+ Vs

Low voltage
sheath 5.2 Te

Vrf

Vs 0.8 Vrf

Plasma
Vs +

The sheath thickness s is given by the Child Law

4
Ji = ens uB = 0
9

2e
M

1/2 3/2
Vs
s2

Estimating ion energy is not simple as it depends on the type

of discharge and the application of bias voltages
-46-

POWER BALANCE AND n0

Assume low voltage sheaths at all surfaces
ET (Te ) = Ec (Te ) + 2 Te + 5.2 Te

  
  
Collisional Electron Ion
Power balance
Power in = power out
Pabs = (hl n0 2R2 + hR n0 2Rl) uB eET
Solve to obtain
n0 =

Pabs
Ae uB eET

where
Ae = 2R2 hl + 2RlhR
is an eective area for particle loss
Density n0 is proportional to the absorbed power Pabs
Density n0 depends on pressure p through hl , hR , and Te

-47-

PARTICLE AND POWER BALANCE

Particle balance = electron temperature Te

(independent of plasma density)

Power balance = plasma density n0

(once electron temperature Te is known)

-48-

EXAMPLE 1
Let R = 0.15 m, l = 0.3 m, ng = 3.3 1019 m3 (p = 1 mTorr
at 300 K), and Pabs = 800 W
Assume low voltage sheaths at all surfaces
Find i = 0.03 m. Then hl hR 0.3 and de 0.17 m
From the Te versus ng de gure, Te 3.5 V
From the Ec versus Te gure, Ec 42 V. Adding Ee = 2Te 7 V
and Ei 5.2Te 18 V yields ET = 67 V
Find uB 2.9 103 m/s and nd Ae 0.13 m2
Power balance yields n0 2.0 1017 m3
Ion current density Jil = ehl n0 uB 2.9 mA/cm2
Ion bombarding energy Ei 18 V

-49-

EXAMPLE 2
Apply a strong dc magnetic eld along the cylinder axis
= particle loss to radial wall is inhibited
For no radial loss, de = l/2hl 0.5 m
From the Te versus ng de gure, Te 3.3 V
From the Ec versus Te gure, Ec 46 V. Adding Ee = 2Te
6.6 V and Ei 5.2Te 17 V yields ET = 70 V
Find uB 2.8 103 m/s and nd Ae = 2R2 hl 0.043 m2
Power balance yields n0 5.8 1017 m3
Ion current density Jil = ehl n0 uB 7.8 mA/cm2
Ion bombarding energy Ei 17 V
= Signicant increase in plasma density n0

-50-

ELECTRON HEATING MECHANISMS

Discharges can be distinguished by electron heating mechanisms
(a) Ohmic (collisional) heating (capacitive, inductive discharges)
(b) Stochastic (collisionless) heating (capacitive, inductive discharges)
(c) Resonant wave-particle interaction heating (Electron cyclotron
resonance and helicon discharges)
Achieving adequate electron heating is a central issue
Although the heated electrons provide the ionization required
to sustain the discharge, the electrons tend to short out the
applied heating elds within the bulk plasma

-50a-

INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES

DESCRIPTION AND MODEL

-93-

MOTIVATION
Independent control of plasma density and ion energy
Simplicity of concept
RF rather than microwave powered
No source magnetic elds

-94-

CYLINDRICAL AND PLANAR CONFIGURATIONS

Cylindrical coil

Planar coil

-95-

EARLY HISTORY
First inductive discharge by Hittorf (1884)

Arrangement to test discharge mechanism by Lehmann (1892)

-96-

HIGH DENSITY REGIME

Inductive coil launches electromagnetic wave into plasma
Decaying wave

Plasma
z

Coil

Window

Wave decays exponentially into plasma

=E
0 ez/p ,
E

p =

c
1
Im(p1/2 )

where p = plasma dielectric constant

2
pe
p = 1
( jm )

For typical high density, low pressure (m  ) discharge

c
=
p
pe

m
e2 0 ne

-97-

1/2
12 cm

TRANSFORMER MODEL
For simplicity consider long cylindrical discharge
N turn coil
b

Irf

Ip

Plasma

Current Irf in N turn coil induces current Ip in 1-turn

plasma skin
= A transformer

-98-

PLASMA RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE

Plasma resistance Rp
Rp =

1 circumference of plasma loop

dc cross sectional area of loop

where
dc

e2 nes
=
mm

= Rp =

2R
dc lp

Plasma inductance Lp
Lp =

magnetic ux produced by plasma current

plasma current

Using magnetic ux = R2 0 Ip /l
0 R2
= Lp =
l

-99-

COUPLING OF PLASMA AND COIL

Model the source as a transformer

Vrf = jL11 Irf + jL12 Ip

Vp = jL21 Irf + jL22 Ip
Transformer inductances
L11

magnetic ux linking coil

0 b2 N 2
=
=
coil current
l

L12 = L21

magnetic ux linking plasma

0 R2 N
=
=
coil current
l
L22

0 R2
= Lp =
l

Put Vp = Ip Rp in transformer equations and solve for impedance

Zs = Vrf /Irf seen at coil terminals
2 L212
Zs = jL11 +
Rp + jLp

-100-

SOURCE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Equivalent circuit at coil terminals

Zs = Rs + jLs
2R
Rs = N 2
dc lp
0 R2 N 2
Ls =
l

b2
1
R2

Power balance = Irf

Pabs =

1 2
I Rs
2 rf

From source impedance = Vrf

Vrf = Irf Zs

-101-

EXAMPLE
Assume plasma radius R = 10 cm, coil radius b = 15 cm, length
l = 20 cm, N = 3 turns, gas density ng = 1.7 1014 cm3
(5 mTorr argon at 300 K), = 85 106 s1 (13.56 MHz),
absorbed power Pabs = 600 W, and low voltage sheaths
At 5 mTorr, i 0.6 cm, hl hR 0.19, and de 17.9 cm
Particle balance (Te versus ng de gure) yields Te 2.6 V
Collisional energy losses (Ec versus Te gure) are Ec 58 V
Adding Ee + Ei = 7.2 Te yields total energy losses ET 77 V
uB 2.5 105 cm/s and Ae 350 cm2
Power balance yields ne 5.6 1011 cm3 and nse 1.0
1011 cm3
Use nse to nd skin depth p 1.7 cm; estimate m = Kel ng
(Kel versus Te gure) to nd m 1.4 107 s1
Use m and nse to nd dc 113 1 -m1
Evaluate impedance elements Rs 14.7 and Ls 2.2 H;
|Zs | Ls 190
Power balance yields Irf 9.0A; from impedance Vrf 1720 V

-102-

PLANAR COIL DISCHARGE

Magnetic eld produced by planar coil

RF power is deposited in ring-shaped plasma volume

Irf

N turn coil

p
Ip
Plasma

Primary
inductance
Coupling
inductance
Plasma
inductance

As for a cylindrical discharge, there is a primary (L11 ), coupling

(L12 = L21 ) and secondary (Lp = L22 ) inductance
-103-

PLANAR COIL FIELDS

A ring-shaped plasma forms because
 0,
Induced electric eld =

on axis
max, at r 12 Rwall
0,
at r = Rwall

Measured radial variation of Br (and E ) at three distances

below the window (5 mTorr argon, 500 W)

-104-

INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES

POWER BALANCE

-105-

RESISTANCE AT HIGH AND LOW DENSITIES

Plasma resistance seen by the coil
2 L212
Rs = Rp 2
Rp + 2 L2p
High density (normal inductive operation)
Rs Rp

dc p
ne

Low density (skin depth > plasma size)

Rs number of electrons in the heating volume ne

Rs
ne

p plasma size
ne

-106-

1
ne

POWER BALANCE WITHOUT MATCHING

Drive discharge with rf current

Power absorbed by discharge is Pabs = 12 |Irf |2 Rs (ne )

Power lost by discharge Ploss ne
Intersection gives operating point; let I1 < I2 < I3
Ploss
Pabs = 12 I32 Rs
Power
Pabs = 12 I22 Rs
Pabs = 12 I12 Rs
ne

Inductive operation impossible for Irf I2

-107-

CAPACITIVE COUPLING OF COIL TO PLASMA

For Irf below the minimum current I2 , there is only a weak
capacitive coupling of the coil to the plasma
Capacitive
coupling

+
Vrf

Ip
Plasma
z

A small capacitive power is absorbed

= low density capacitive discharge
Ploss
Pabs = 12 I32 Rs
Ind
Power
Cap

Cap Mode

Pabs = 12 I12 Rs

Ind Mode

-108-

ne

MEASURMENTS OF ARGON ION DENSITY

Above 100 W, discharge is inductive and ne Pabs

Below 100 W, a weak capacitive discharge is present

-109-

SOURCE EFFICIENCY
The source coil has some winding resistance Rcoil
Rcoil is in series with the plasma resistance Rs
Power transfer eciency is
=

Rs
Rs + Rcoil

High eciency = maximum Rs

Rs
ne

1
ne

p plasma size
ne

Power transfer eciency decreases at low and high densities

Poor power transfer at low or high densities is analogous to
poor power transfer in an ordinary transformer with an open
or shorted secondary winding

-112a-

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma discharges are widely used for materials processing and

are indispensible for microelectronics fabrication
The coupling of the equations for the elds and the charged
particles is the key to plasma analysis
Neutral particles play a key role in ionization, energy loss, and
diusion processes in discharges
The particle and energy balance relations are the key to the
analysis of discharge equilibrium
The particle balance determines the electron temperature; the
energy balance determines the plasma density
A transformer model along with the particle and energy balance relations are the key to the analysis of inductive discharges

-111-