Bipolar junction transistor - Basics

Introduction
Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley invented the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in 1949, while working for Bell Telephone
Laboratories.
This revolutionary invention changed the world.
The invention of the BJT followed the invention of the point-contact
transistor by Walter Brattain and John Bardeen.
The point-contact transistor has several problems that prevented it from
becoming a viable device.
BJT is a three-terminal device.
BJT is used as amplifier and switch.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Circuit diagram of pnp transistor consisting of two

diodes

The two n-type regions merge to form a very thin base.

EB junction: Forward bias
CB junction: Reverse bias

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Band diagram (PNP)

Junction bias?
Major current flows?

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Basic amplifier circuits

Common-base configuration

IC
IE

(1)

= current amplification in common base circuit

Typical values: > 0.99 (for state-of-the-art transistor)

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Common-emitter configuration

= amplification in common-emitter circuit

IC
IB

IC
IE IC

= 1

(2)

> 100 for state-of-the art transistors

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Common-collector configuration

IE
IB

IC /
IB

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(3)

Nature of bipolar transistor

BJT is a current amplifier (not a voltage amplifier).
BJT is current-controlled current source.
BJT base current controls the emitter current and thereby the collector
current.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Qualitative discussion of pnp transistor

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Basic ideas
EB junction is asymmetric:

I Ep

>>

I En

(4)

The emitter hole current is controlled by EB junction.

The base width is small.

WB << Lp

(5)

Most holes diffusing into the base will reach the collector if condition of
Eq. (5) is met.
Thus the base current controls collector current.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Discussion of currents

EB junction currents (EB junction is forward biased)

(1) Holes diffusing from the E into the B
(2) Electrons diffusing from the B into the E

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Base currents
(3) Recombination of holes injected into base
(4) Most holes reach C since LP >> WB
BC junction currents (BC is reversely biased)
(5) Electron minority carrier current from C to B
(6) Hole minority carrier current from B to C
We know that current (5) and (6) can be neglected for most practical
purposes.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Basic equations
What is the fraction of the emitter hole current that reaches the
collector?

IC

= B I Ep

(6)

B = Base transport factor

B = Probability that a hole injected into B reaches C
B1

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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What fraction of total emitter current is emitter hole current?

EEp

= IE

= I En + I Ep

= Emitter Efficiency

= Ratio of I Ep to I E

(7)

I Ep
I En + I Ep

I
En

= 1 +

I
Ep

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

I En
1
I Ep

(8)

13

Current amplification

IC
IE

I Ep
IE

(9)

We will later calculate B and in two ways:

1. Approximate calculation
2. Exact calculation

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Approximate hole distribution in base (PNP)

Long base (WB >> Lp)

p ( xn ) = p e xn / LP

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(10)

15

Short base (WB << Lp)

Exponential function can be linearized

(
( eeV

)
1 ) = pn

At

xn = 0 it is p = pn 0 eeVBE / kT 1

At

xn = WB

That is

it is p = pn 0

p (xn = WB ) = 0

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

CB

/ kT

(11)

(12)
(13)

16

Can you identify the diffusion triangle in the figure?

Equation for diffusion triangle:

p( xn )

xn

= p 1
WB

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(14)

17

Note
Diffusion Current:

Jp

dp
= e Dp
dx

Jp

slope (i. e. dp / dx )

(15)

Short base changes slope (i. e. dp / dx)

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Approximate calculation: Emitter efficiency (PNP)

Recall the Shockley equation:

DP
eV kT
Dn
pn 0 +
= e A
np 0 e
1
Ln
LP

(16)

where first summand within first parenthesis is due to hole injection

where second summand within first parenthesis is due to electron
injection
Emitter is long, and therefore the electron current from base into
emitter is given by

I En

Dn
= eA
np 0 eeV kT 1
Ln

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(17)

19

Base is short, and therefore the hole current from emitter into base is
given by

I Ep

= eA

Dp
Lp

pn 0 e

eV kT

)W

Lp
B

(18)

where last term, i. e. ( Lp / WB ), is correction due to increase in slope

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

20

One obtains the emitter efficiency using Eqs. (8), (17), and (18)

I En
= 1
I Ep

using
and

np 0
pn 0

= 1

= ni2 p =

Dn
np 0
Ln
DP
pn 0
WB
ni2 N A

(19)

(20)

= ni2 n = ni2 N D

(21)

Dn WB N D
Dp Ln N A

(22)

one obtains:

= 1

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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How can we attain high emitter efficiency?

For a high value of :
1. WB must be very short
2. NA >> ND

(23)

That is,
Emitter doping >> Base doping

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Example:
Problem: Assume a PNP transistor with the following parameters:
Emitter doping: NA = 1 1018 cm3
Base doping: ND = 1 1017 cm3
Dp = Dn
WB = 100 nm
Ln = 1 m
Calculate emitter efficiency.
Solution:

Dn WB N D
= 1
Dp Ln N A

1
= 1
100

= 0.99

The problem assumed reasonable parameters. For such reasonable

parameters, we obtain a high current gain.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Approximate calculation: Base transport factor (PNP)

Thought experiment: Lets assume that the BC junction would not

influence the hole distribution. Warning: Strictly speaking, this is
incorrect assumption!

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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In this case, the following hole distribution would be obtained:

Base recombination current Q1 / p WB

(24)

Collector current Q2 / p Lp

(25)

(Note: In Eqs. 24 and 25, we use that WB << LP)

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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It is

IC
Q2
Q1

B =
=
= 1 +
I Ep
Q1 + Q2
Q2

1 Q1 Q2

(26)

Using Eqs. (24), (25), and (26) one obtains:

WB
B = 1
Lp

(27)

End of thought experiment.

Warning: This thought experiment is an oversimplification and the
result (Eq. 27) must not be used.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

26

Exact hole distribution in the base (PNP)

Hole concentration at the emitter side of base

pE = p ( xn = 0 ) = pn 0 eeVBE kT 1 pn 0 eeVBE kT

(28)

Hole concentration at the collector side of base

pC = p (xn = WB ) = pn 0 eeVBC kT 1 pn 0

(29)

note that VBC is negative

Eqs. (28) and (29) are the boundary conditions for the hole
concentration in the base

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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There is no electric field in the neutral region of the base. Therefore,

transport can be described by the diffusion equation

d2

p (xn ) =
2
dxn

p (xn )
Lp 2

(30)

General solution of this equation is given by

p ( xn ) = C1 e

xn Lp

+ C2 e

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

xn Lp

(31)

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The constants C1 and C2 will be determined by using the boundary

conditions

p ( xn = 0 ) = C1 + C2

= pE

p ( xn = WB ) = C1 e

+ C2 e

WB Lp

WB Lp

(32)

= pC

(33)

Solving Eqs. (32) and (33) for C1 and C2 yields

C1 =

pC pE e WB LP
eWB LP e WB LP

(34)

pE eWB LP pC
eWB LP e WB LP

(35)

C2

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Insert the constants C1 and C2 into Eq. (31)

For

pC 0 , the hole concentration in the base is given by

p ( xn ) p E

eWB LP e xn LP e WB LP e xn LP
eWB LP e WB LP

This function has an exponentially

exponentially increasing part.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

decreasing

(36)
part

and

an

30

 E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

31

Discussion of slopes
Recall that the slope

[ dp( xn ) / dxn ] determines the diffusion current.

Slope is larger at xn = 0 as compared to xn = WB.

The difference in slope is due to recombination in base.
Approximation for exponential function:
For WB << LP, we can expand the exponential function into a power
series:

ex

x
x2
= 1 +
+
+ ...
1!
2!

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

32

Inserting this approximation into Eq. (36) and neglecting all quadratic and
higher terms in Eq. (36) yields

p( xn )

xn

= pE 1
WB

(37)

This equation represents the diffusion triangle in the base.

The strictly triangular shape is valid for negligible recombination in the
base.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

33

Mathematics of exponential functions

Exponential function = Natural decay function
For the next section, we need some mathematical relations for
exponential functions and they are summarized below:

e = lim 1 +
n
n
ex

= 2.718 ...

x
x2
x3
= 1 +
+
+
+ ...
1!
2!
3!

Give some examples of natural (i. e. exponential) decays!

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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y0 e x x0

Function :

y =

Slope :

dy
dx x = 0

Integral :

y0
=
x0

y0 e x x0 dx =

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

y0 x0

35

Mathematics of hyperbolic exponential functions

For the next section, we need some mathematical relations for
hyperbolic exponential functions and they are summarized below:

Hyperbolic sin function :

cosh x =

tanh x =

sinh x
cosh x

coth x =

cosh x
sinh x

sinh x =

1 e x e x
2

1 e x + e x
2
(Note: Hyperbolic cos function is also called chain function. Why?)

Hyperbolic cos function :

Hyperbolic tan function :

Hyperbolic cot function :

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Hyperbolic secan function :

2

sech x =
e

+ e

1
cosh x

Hyperbolic cosecan function :

2
1
=
cosech x =
x
x
sinh x
e e

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

37

Exact E, B, and C currents

We have calculated the hole distribution in the base and can now
calculate the currents of the three terminals E, B, and C by using the
equation:

d
= e A Dp
p( xn )
dxn

(38)

Emitter current
Emitter current is obtained by using Eqs. (31), (34), (35), (38)

I Ep

I p ( xn = 0 ) = e A

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

Dp
Lp

(C2

C1 )

(39)

38

I Ep

Dp
WB
WB

pE coth
= eA
pC cosech
LP
Lp
LP

(40)

Collector current

I C = I p ( xn = WB ) = e A

IC

Dp
Lp

(C2 eW

LP

C1 eWB LP

Dp
WB
WB

= eA
pE cosech
pC coth

Lp
LP
LP

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(41)

(42)

39

Base current

IB

= I E IC

I Ep I C

IB

Dp
WB
= eA
(pE + pC ) tanh
Lp
2 Lp

(43)

(44)

Eqs. (40), (42), and (44) are generally valid, i.e. for any bias
configuration and bias condition of the transistor. The equations can be
simplified for a transistor under regular operating conditions, which are
VBE = forward bias
VCB = reverse bias

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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Appropriate E, B, and C currents

VBE = forward bias pE 0
VCB = reverse bias pC = 0
From Eqs. (40), (42), and (44) it follows that

Dp

I Ep

WB
= eA
pE coth
Lp
Lp

Using

coth x (1 / x) + ( x / 3) , one obtains

I Ep

Lp
W
B

= eA
pE
+

WB
Lp
3L
p

(45)

Dp

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(46)

41

Furthermore

Dp

W
pE cosech B
Lp
Lp

IC

= eA

Using

cosech x (1 / x) ( x / 6) , one obtains

IC

Lp
W
B

= eA
pE

WB
Lp
6L
p

(47)

Dp

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

(48)

42

Finally

IB

= IE IC

I Ep I C

1 WB

1
W
B

= eA
pE
+
3 Lp

Lp
6
L
p

(49)

Dp

(50)

It follows that

IB

= eA

Dp
2 L2p

WB pE

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

WB
= eA
pE
2 p

(51)

43

Base transport factor

Using Eqs. (45) and (47) we calculate

B =

IC
I Ep

cosech (WB Lp )
coth (WB Lp )

WB
= sech
Lp

(52)

2
sech
x

(
1
/
2
)
x
, one obtains
Using

1 WB
B = 1
2 Lp

2
(53)

We now have a good expression for B.

Compare this to Eq. (27)! (Recall: Do not use Eq. 27)

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

44

We now have (i. e. the emitter efficiency, see Eq. 22) and B (i. e. the
base transport factor, see Eq. 53).
Since = B, we can calculate the current amplification of a transistor:

Dn WB N D

= B = 1

D
L
N
p
n
A

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

W
1
B
2

2
L
p

(54)

45

Example
Problem:

Calculate the Base Transport Factor for WB = 0.1 m and for

the following diffusion lengths:
(1) Lp = 0.1 m and (2) Lp = 1 m.

Solution:

Calculating the base transport factor using

B = 1 (1 / 2) WB / Lp 2
yields
(1) B = 0.5 and (2) B = 0.995

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

46

Summary of operation regimes

Cutoff
VBE is too low to provide significant injection
Example:
Given is a transistor with

Lp

= 1 m, WB

Dp

= 10 cm 2 /s, N D, Base

ni

= 1010 cm3 ,

= 0.1 m
= 1017 cm3

A = 100 100 m 2

Calculate IEp for VBE = 0.3 V!

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

47

pn 0 eeV kT

pE

I Ep

DP
LP
eA
pE
LP
WB

ni 2 eV kT
e
ND

= 108 cm 3

= 1.6 109 A

Calculate IEP for VBE = 0.7 V!

pE

= 5.6 1014 cm 3

I Ep

= 8.9 mA

Forward active
Forward biased EB junction

pE 0

Reverse biased CB junction

pC = 0

Diffusion triangle in base

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

48

Saturation
CB junction is forward biased as well. Simultaneous transistor action in
both directions, i. e. both diodes are forward biased.
If | VBE | > | VCB |, one obtains the following hole distribution in the base:

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

49

It is useful to consider the following thought experiment: Consider a

transistor with VEB = 0.7 V = const..

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

50

Curves are displaced by 0.7 V.

The I-V curves can be identified as a diode characteristic plus a
current from emitter.

E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

51

Bridge between device physics and electrical circuit

Material parameters
Mobilities
Lifetimes
Diffusion constants
Doping
concentrations
Physical constants
Material constants

Device physics
Emitter
efficiency
()
Base
transport
factor (B)

Circuit parameters
Current
amplification
in common
base
configuration
()

Current
amplification
in common
emitter
configuration
()
E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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