etn ene:
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
second edition
Tony WalthamFoundations of
Engineering Geology
TONY WALTHAM
BSc, DIC, PhD
Civil Engineering Department
Nottingham Trent University
Second Edition
London and New York.Preface
Civil engineering is an exciting combination of science, art,
professional skill and engineering achievement which always
has to rely on the ground on which its structures stand,
Geology is therefore vital to success in civil engineering, and
this book brings to the reader those many aspects of the
‘geological sciences specifically relevant tothe profession
This book is structured primarly for the student of civil
engineering who starts with no knowledge of geology but is
Fequired to understand the ground conditions and geological
processes which, both literally and metaphonecally. are the
foundations of his future professional activites. It'also
Provides an accessible source of information forthe practising
‘civil engineer.
Al the material is presentod in indwvidual doubie-page
‘spreads. Each subject is covered by notes, diagrams, tables
and case histories, all in bite-sized sections instead of being
lost in a long continuous text. This style makes the infor:
mation very accessible; the reader can dip in and find what
hhe needs, andis also visually quded into relevant associated
topics. There is even some intended repetition of small
sections of material which are pertinent to more than one
aspect within the interrelated framework of a geological
understanding
The contents of the book follow a basic university course
in engineering geology. The free-standing sections and sub-
‘sections permit infinite flexibility, so that any lecturer can use
the book as his course text while tailoring his programme to
his own personal styl. The single section summarizing soi
strength has been included for the benef of geology students
wo do not take a comprehensive course in soll mechanics
within a normal civil engineering syllabus.
Preface to the Second Edition
The second edition of this book has been carefully
updated and improved with additional paragraphs while
keeping to the format and structure that has proved s0
accessible and so popular.
‘The one new section is #37, Understanding Ground
Conditions, which has been included in an attempt at
Persuading the engineer to stand back and take a broader
View ofthe overall g2ology at a site. Though this may seem
to lack relevance in assessing the smaller details of a
single urban building site, it does have real benefits in
‘assessing ground conditions and evaluating potential
\geohazards on larger construction projects, The concept of
the big picture is always useful, and this is very much the
‘modern approach to engineering geology. Keeping to the
‘same theme of contemporary geology, a Dax on browntield
sites has been included in the new section.
This book was never intended to be a handbook with all
the answers and all the procedures. It is aimed to
introduce the critical aspects of geology to the student of
‘engineering, though it does appear to act as a convenient
‘The sectionalized layout makes the information very ac-
Cessible, so that the practicing engineer wil find the book to
be a useful source when he requires a rapid insight or re~
minder as he encounters geological problems with dificult
‘ground. Reterence material has therefore been added to
‘many sections, mainly in tabulated form, to provide a more
‘complete data bank. The book has been produced only in
the inexpensive sof-bound format inthe hope that it will each
as large a market as possible,
‘The mass of data condensed into these pages has been
drawn from an enormous variety of sources, The Book is
unashamedly a derived text. relying heavily on the world:
wide records of engineering geology. Material has been
accumulated over many years in a lecturing role. A few
‘concepts and case histories do derive from the author's
personal research; but forthe dominant pan, there is a debt
of gratitude acknowledged 10 the innumerable geologists and
Civil engineers who have described and communicated their
‘own experiences and research, All the figures have been
newly drawn, and many are derived from a combination of
‘disparate sources. All he photographs are by the author,
except for the Meridian air photograph on page 39,
Due thanks are atforded to the Department of Civil and
Structural Engineering at the Nottingham Trent University
where the engineering and teaching experience was gained,
to Neil Dixon for his assistance with the gentle art of soi
mechanics, to the staff of Blackia in Glasgow who made the
innovative style of the book possible, and to the many
colleagues and friends without whom nothing is possible.
™.
reminder to the practising engineer. To enhance its role as
source book, a long list of further reading nas been
‘added to this edition. It cites the useful key texts in each
‘subject area, and also the primary papers on case studies
used within the text, in both cases without any need to
include conventional references that can disrupt a text
‘As in the first edition, there are no cross references to
‘other pages in order to oxpiain terms being used. The
index is intentionally comprehensive, so that itcan be used
as a glossary. Each technical term in the text does appear
im the index, so that the reader can check for a definition,
usually atthe first citation of aterm,
Sincere thanks are recorded to Peter Fookes, lan
Jefferson, Mike Rosenbaum, Jerry Giles and various
‘others who have contributed to the revisions within this
‘second edition, and aiso to the students of Nottingham
Trent University who have road-tested the book and made
the author appreciate the minor omissions and irtations
that could be smoothed out.
Tw.Contents
Geology and Chil Engineering
Igneous Rocks
Surface Processes
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Goological Structures
Geological Maps and Sections
Geological Map Intorpretation
Pate Tectonics
Boundary Hazards
Rocks of Britain
Rocks ofthe United States
‘Weathering and Soils
Floodplain and Aluvium
Glacial Deposits
Ciimatic Variants
Coastal Processes
Groundwater
Ground Investigation
Desk Study
Ground Investigation Boreholes
Geophysical Surveys
“Assessment of Dificult Ground
Fock Strength
Fock Mase Strength
Soll Strength
Ground Susidence
‘Subsidence on Clays
‘Subsidence on Limestone
Subsidence over Old Mines
Mining Subsidence
Stope Failure and Landslides
Water Landstias
Soil Falluros and Flowslides
Landside Hazards
Slope Stabilization
Understanding Ground Conditions
Rock Excavation
“Tunnels in Rock
‘Stone and Aggragate
‘Appendices
lock Mass Quality Q System
‘Abbreviations and Notation
Further Reading
SSSLSHLBRASBENSORSRVVSEISTESS AS 0evoTaune
Index
701 Geology and Civi
‘THE GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Earth is an active planet in a constant state of change.
Geologles! processes continually modily the Earth's
surface, destroy old rocks, create new rocks and add 10
the complexity of round conditions.
{Cycle of geology encompasses al the maior processes,
‘which must be cycle, or they would grind to an inevitable
halt
Land: mainly erosion and rock destruction
‘Sea: mainly deposition, forming now sodimonts
Underground: new rocks created and deformed,
Earth movements are vital 16 the cycle; without them
the land would be eroded down to just blow sea level.
Plata toctonics provide the mechanism for nearly all cart
‘movernens (section 0). The hotinterior ofthe Earths the
Ultimate energy source which drives all geological
processes.
| Engineering
Geological time is an important concept. Earth s 4000M
years old and has evolved continuously towards Its
present form,
Most rocks oncountored by ongincors aro 10-500M
yoars old. They have been displaced and deformed over
time, and some are then exposed at the surtace, by
‘rosional removal of rocks that once lay above ther
Underground structures and the ground surface have
‘volved staal trough geological timo.
Most surface landforms visible today have been
‘carved out By erosion within the last few millon years,
While olor landtorms have been destroyed.
‘This time diference is important: the origin ofthe rocks.
al the surface may beat no relationship to the present
‘environment. The classic example is Mi Everest, whose
‘Summits imestono,formod in soa 300M years ago.
‘Geological time Is dificult to comprehend but it must be
accepted as the lime gaps account for many of the
Contrasts in ground conditions.
“Goncepie of soale aro inportantin geology:
senor | Beds of rook extending hundreds of kilometres across country.
Focke upited thousands of motes by eath movements
Fock structures reaching 1000 m below the ground surface
Strong Imestone erumpled ko plastiche by plato tectonics.
= “| [ie
a
thon —
NN seang <— Loses]
‘SIGNIFICANCE IN ENGINEERING
Civil engineering works are all carted out on or in the
‘ground. Iis properties and processes are therefore
Significant ~ both the strengths of rocks and sols, and
the erosional and geological processes which subject
them to.continual change.
Unstable ground does exist, Some ground is not terra
fra’ and may lead to unstable foundations.
Site Investigation Is where most civil engineers
encounter geology. This involves the interprotation of
‘round conaibons fotten from minimal evidence), some
3D thinking, and the recognition of areas of aficut
‘round or potential geohazarct:
Untoreseen ground conditions can still occur, as
ground geology can be almost infinitely variabio, but
they are often unforescen due to inadequate’ site
invostigation,
Civil engineering design can accommodate almost
‘any ground condlions which are correct assessed and
Understood.
‘SOME ENGINEERING RESPONSES TO GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Landslides wih over 100M tons of fang rock.
Earthquakes a millon times more powerul than an atom bomb,
the milions of years of goological tim.
‘Components of Engineering Geology
‘The main flelds of study ‘Sections in this book
Ground materials and stuctures 02-06
Regional characteristics ooi2
Surface processes and materials 18-18
‘Ground investigations 07,08,19-29,37'
Material properties be-26,40
Difficult ground conditions 27-36,98,99
Other aspects — fossils and historical goology, mineral
100 MPa UGS < 10 MPa
Lite fracturing Fractured and bedded
Miieal weathering Deep weathering
‘Stable foundations: ‘Settlement problems
Stand in stoop faces.
Aggregate resource
Fall on ow slopes
Flequire engineering care
uary,
STRENGTH OF THE GROUND
Naturat ground materials, rocks and soll, cover a great
range of strengths: granite Is 4000 times stronger than
peat soi.
Some variations in rock strength are summarized by
Contrasting strong and weak rocks inthe tabla
‘Assessment of ground conditions must distinguish:
+ Intact rock strength of an unfactured, small block;
raler fo UCS.
+ Rock mass ~ properties ofa large mass of fractured
Tock in the ground: refer to rock mass
‘lasses (section 25),
Note ~ a strong rock may contain so many fractures in a
hillside that the rack mass is weak ang unstable
{Ground conditions also vary greatly due to purely local
features such as underground cavities, incined shear
surfaces and arificial disturbance,
fe
vcs
rok
SaP
ues:
ye] Uncontined (or
aan uniaxial) compressive
Ze
wy
ty
‘strength load to cause failure ofa cube ofthe
material crushed batween two flat plates with
fo lateral restraint, (Strong and weak limits
‘aro simpliieg: see section 24 for BS criteria.)
‘sap:
Sale (or acceptable) bearing pressure: load
‘hat may safely be imposed Upon rock in the
|
icaeng
‘ground: the estimated (or measured) ultimate
1. | bearing pressure to tall the rock (allowing for
fractures and local zones of weakness)
lived by a Safty factor between 3 and 5.
ROCKS AND MINERALS.
Focks: mixtures of minerals: variable properties.
Minerals: compounds of elements: xed properties.
Rock properties broadly depond on:
* strength and stably of constituent minerals;
* interocking or weaknosses of minoral structure;
* fractures, Bedaing and larger rock structures.
‘Ail rocks fall into one of three familes,
teach with broadly deinable origins and properties.
Most rockforming minerals are siicates —
compounds of cxygen,silcon and other elements.
Fock propartes can show extreme variations. Its useful
to generalize, a in the table below, in order to bulé an
Understanding of geology, butt must be accepted that
rocks are not engineered materials and ther properties
do vary rom ste to sie
For example: most sedimentary rocks are quite weak,
land limestone is a secimentary rock, but some of the
limestones are very stong.
Rock family | Igneous [ Sedimentary Metamorphic
Maloral origin | Crystalized rom maton magma | Eroioal debris on Ee wrfaco | Aller by heal andi pressure
EEnvronment | Underground: and as va fowe | Depostonbasine: main Mosty dap nse mountain chains
Mosaic of neiocking estas | Most granuat and coment Modal of narocking estas
Nassive(eructuriess)
nor igh strenath
Granite, basal
Layered bedded bedeng planes
Variable low planar weaknesses
‘Sandstone, mestone, ey
Crystal erentaton duet pressure
‘arabe high; pana’ weaknesses
Seis lle
( Majoctpes
802 Igneous Rocks
‘Magma is generated by local heating and meting of
rocks within the Earth's crust, mosty at depths betwoen
10 and around 100 km. Mosi compositions of rock melt
at temperatures of 860~1200°C. When the magma
ool, it solicifies by crystallizing into a mosale of
minerals, to form an igneous rock
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS.
Eruptions may be violent and explosive if a viscous
magma has a high gas pressure, or may be quiet and
‘eftusive f the magma is very fluid. There is a continuous
fange of eruptive styles between the two extremes, and
4 single volcano may show some variation in the
Vilonee of ts individual eruptions,
Pyroctastle rocks (meaning fire fragmenta) are formed
‘of material, collectively known as tophra thrown into the
air from an explosive volcano. Most tephra is cooled in
fight, and lands to form various types of ash, tf and
‘agglomerate, all wth the properties of sedimentary cocks.
Some tephra, erupted in turbulent, high-temperature,
pyroclastic flows, lancs hot and welds Into ignimbrite, ot
Welded tlt
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
‘These form where magma is extruded onto the Earth's
‘surface to create a voleano,
{Lava is the name for both molten rock on the surlace,
nd also the solid rock formed wen i coos,
Fluid basaltc lavas flow easily to form low-profile shlels
\voleandes, or near-horizontal sheets of flood basal
More viscous lavas, mainly andesite, ould up conical
‘composite, strato-volcances, where lava is interbedded
‘with ash and debris, that are thickest close tothe vent.
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
These are formed when magma solidifies below the
surface of the Earth. They may later be oxpocod at the
surface when the cover rocks are eroded avy,
Batholiths are largo bloo-shaped intrusions, roughly
equidimensional and commonly 5-50 km in dlameter
Most are of granite.
Dykes aro emaor shoot intrusions formed where magma
has flowed into a fissure. Mostly 1~50 m wide; may
‘extend for many kilometres; ganeraly of dolar. ils are
sheet intrusions parallel to the bedding of the county
Tocks into which the magma was intruded.
Forms of Igneous Rocks
shield volcano
prastic cone
composite volcano
explosion crater |
‘Molten lava ejected from the summit
vont of Strombol volcan.
GRANITE
TPE.
MINERALOGY
‘OCCURRENCE
EXAMPLES
‘STRUCTURES
WEATHERING
STRENGTH
FOUNDATIONS
HYDROLOGY
VALUE
VARIETIES
‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: clear quartz, cloudy feldspar, cleaved mica,
‘Acid igneous; coarse grained, large scale intrusive (plutonic)
Coarse interlocking crystal mosaic with no textural orientation,
‘Quartz 25%, felaspar 50%, micas 15%, matics 10%,
Large bathoths, exposed at surface by subsequent erosion
‘Cooled a large bodies 3-15 km benoath surface.
Ban: Land's End, USA: Yosemite
‘Commonly massive and very uniform. Widely spaced sheet jointing,
‘Guved due to large extolition (caused by cooling and sress rele)
‘Siow decay o feldspar to clay leaving quartz to form sandy sols
‘Spheroidal weathering leaves rounded corestonas in soll matrix.
High strength wih all physical properties good
UGS: 200 MPa, "SBP: 10 MPa.
Very strong rock, except where partially decayed to clay near the
surfaco or along some deep join zones,
Groundwater only in fractures.
Excellent dimension, decorative and armour stone and aggregate.
Syenite and dont: have less quartz and are sighty darker.
Gaboro: basic, and is much darker
LLanvite: a dark coarse syenite with distinctive internal reflections.
Many strong rocks ae referred to as granite witin the construction trade,
4MAIN MINERALS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
mineral__| composition ‘colour | _H D__| common morphology and features
‘Quartz | SiO, clear | 7 ‘mosaic; no cleavage: glassy lustre
Feispar | nNa.caya1si,0, | wnte | 6 | 26. | mosaicor las: pes onhodase and plagioclase
rancor] aainsieion, lace | 2% | 28 feterownaenn an peretcntay
Bictte | Kia.Fe)A'S,0,(0r9, | lack | 2%e | 29 | {members ofthe mee gro o minerals
Mates _|Fe-Mgsicats" —‘[biack | 5-6 | 80" | lnglsnon proms: hemblence,aupte, olvne
‘Matic minerals is a convenient torm for a group of black
silicates whose individual properties are of little
significance inthe context of most engineering
Cleavage is the natural splitting of a mineral along
Parallel planes dictated by weaknesses In the atomic
Structure
Mineral strength is a function of hardness and lack of
cleavage, slong with effects of dacay or orientation,
lized, and exceptions do occur;
eplayed on museum specimens of
‘most minerals, but aro rarely seen in normal rocks.
H = hardness, on a scale of 1=10, from talc the sottest
mineral of hardness 1, to diamond the hardest of
hardness 10. Stee! and giass have hardnesses botwoon
6 and7.
= density, measured in gramsiem? or tonnasim®=
CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
This simple classification covers the great majorty of
igneous rocks. tis based on two parameters which are
Doth signifeant and recognizable. The main types of
Igneous rocks can theretore be idenified by just colour
and grain size.
The form of occurence determines the stucture ofthe
Chemical composition is determined by what rocks had
‘melted to form the original magma; siicavich magmas
are referred to as acidic (unrelated to pH) ana are
‘generally low in iron, so have few black fron mine
{and are tharefre lighter in colour than basle rocks,
Porphyritc rocks have scattered larger, older crystals
rock in the groun
says whi
4 batholith may take
also, lavas may coo! in hours or
million years to
| crystalize, and the cooling rato determines tho grain
(called phenocrysts) n a finer grounémats.
In fine grained rocks, grains cannot be seen with the
‘haked eye; the limit of 0-1 mms effectively the same as
| crscope ve 5 mm across cea fedspar as, dark mats, ine groundinass of same minerals
sizo of the rock. the imi of 0.08 mm used n sols and sediments.
cccurrence form __cooing grain sue
| [Fiyotto[AndosRe [Basalt [—extusions lavas fast__ fine <0. mmm
Porphyry Dolerte | —smallintusions dykes medium _medum _ 01-2 mm
Granite [Diorte | Gabbro | large intrusions —batholths slow coarse _<2 mm
50% ‘SiO, content
basic astifeation Granite and basall_are most abundant
fd ‘magma viscosity because magma viscosity determines the
eftsive | voleano type ‘0350 of migration, Acid magma ls viscous, 30
12% Fe content ‘most stays in Datholts fo form granite, while
50% matic minorals Basie’ magma is so fluid that most of i
{dare colour escapes tothe surface to form basalt lava.
BASALT
TPE Basic igneous; fine-grained, extrusive (vleanic),
MINERALOGY — Fine interlocking crystal mosale with no textural orientation
May have open vesicles or minerallled amygdales (old gas bubbles)
Felespar 50%, matics 50%. |
OCCURRENCE Lava lows in bedded sequences. Cooled ate flowing from voleano. |
EXAMPLES Britain: Skye and Mul. USA: Columbia Pateau and Hawai |
STRUCTURES Sheets orlonses, maybe interbedded with ash ort.
Comment with weathered or vesicular scoria tops on each flow.
‘Yung lavas have smoath pahoehoe of enkery aa surfaces.
Compact basat may have columnar jinting (Kom coating contraction)
WEATHERING — Rusts and decays to clay sols; maybe spheroidal weathering,
STRENGTH Compact basalts are very strong.
UCS: 250 MPa.” SBP: 10 MPa (less on young lava).
FOUNDATIONS Variable stengin, especialy in younger lavas, due 10 ash beds,
coriaceous of clinkery layers, lava caves and other voids
HYDROLOGY Young avas are general good aquifers.
VALUE Good aggregate and valuable roadstone.
VARIETIES Andes: intermediate lava, dark or light grey, olten weathered re.
Dolente: medium grained inrusive dyke rock; looks similar to basalt
Fhyolt: palo grey acd lava, commonly associated with frothy pumice
‘and dense black absidian glass,
503 Surface Processes
Sediments largely material derived trom the weathering
(of rocks on the Earth's surface (the remainder is mostly
‘organic material).
‘Alrocks weather on exposure to alr and water, and siowly
‘break down to form in situ sols.
Jn most land environments, the soil material is
‘subsequently transported away from its source, and may
thon be regarded as sediment; this includes the sold
‘debris particles and also material in solution in water.
Natural ranapor prosesses are dominated by wator, which
can sor and selectively depos ts sediment oad,
Untimatey all sediment is posted, mostly inthe sea, and
mostly as stratified layers or beds of sorted material
Burial ofthis loose and unconsolidated sedimant, by more
layers of material subsequentiy deposited on top of i,
‘eventually turns It into a sedimentary oc, By the Various
processes of tification.
The land is essentially the erosional environment, it
is the source of sadiment, which forms the temporary
sols before being transported away.
‘The sea is essentially the depostional environment,
sediment is buried beneath subeaquent layers, and
‘eventually forms most ofthe sedimentary rocks
Subsequent earth movements may raise the beds of
sedimentary rock above sea level; erosion and removal
Of the overiying rocks (to form the source material for
another generation of sediments and sedimentary rocks)
then exposes the old sedimentary rocks in outcrops in
a landscape far removed fram contemporary eoas and
In an environment very different trom that of the
sedimentation.
‘SEDIMENTARY MATERIALS Most codimentary rocks are variat
Mineral grains: mostly quart, also muscovite (the physically and chemical stable minerals) ]
Rock fragments and voleanie debris (nol yet broken down to their constituent minerals) t
Breakdown products: clay minerals (formed by reaction of wator wit feldspar or matic minerals) — CLAYS
‘Organic debris: plant material to form peat and coal (animal soft parts form ol)
(Organic debris: dominated by calcite from marine shell debris
‘Solutes: dominantly calcite precipiaed ftom soa water largely due to biological activity
SSolutes: including gypsum and salt, and othor less abundant soluble compounds
‘of sandstone, clay or limestone
~ SANDSTONES
= minor rocks |
}-LimesToNes
= minor rocks.
[Grading Curves particle size alerbutlons
Tor pial sediments
#
il
7
4
eA
‘SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
‘The most abundant sedimontis clastic or dotital material
Consisting of partces of cay, sand and rock debris.
Water Is far the most important agent of sediment
Iransport, Rivers move the majorty of sediment on lard
(Coarser debris is rolled along the river beds; ner particles
fare carried in suspension, Water's ability to anspor.
‘sediment depends on ts velocity larger particles can only
‘be moved by faster Hows. Sediment is therefore sorted
(G0 one size) during water ransport.
‘Sediment is algo moved in the sea, mainly I coastal
‘waters where wave action reaches the shallow sea bed.
(Other transport processes have only limited scope:
‘+ Gravity alone works mainly onthe steeper slopes,
producing landslides and colluvium.
+ Wind moves only fine dy partici.
+ Ice transpor is powertl, but restricted by climate.
‘+ Volcanoes may blast debris over ited distances.
‘Some minerals are transported by solution in water
(Organic sediments rarely caried far from its source.
ee
(@iuciow ana tit are well graded: une sand and scree are well sorted)
that bulls a steep alluvial fan
‘SEDIMENT DEPOSITION
Water on land Sorted and strattied, mostly sand and
clay, Aluvium in river valleys is mostly temporary Iter
‘eroded away, except in eubsidng deltas. Lake eodimont
includes salts precipitated due to desert evaporation
‘The sea Final destination of most clastic sediment Sorted
and stratified in beds, mostly in shallow shelf seas.
‘Turbidity currents carry Sediment nto deeper basins. Shel
debris in shallow seas, wih no land detitus, forms the
main limestones,
‘Slopes Localized poorly sorted scree and side debris
‘Wind. Very well sorted sand and sit, mosty in or nea dry
source areas, so only signicant in desert regions.
Ice Unsorted debris dumpedin the melt zones of glaciers.
Localized today but extensive in past Ice Ages.
Voleanoes Fine, sorted aia ash, wind-blown over large
areas; also coarse unsorted flow and surge deposits,
‘mostly on volcano slopes. Collectively known as
DByrociastc sediments (= fire fragmenta)MAIN MINERALS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Units and trms as for igneous minerals in section 02
[mineral _|composition [colour | H | D | common morphology and features ae
fan —fo6 cat 7 [| gouies oeeree ghoyiate
Immcorteleatuayoor, ora [zt 2a| sirenecw andamee eperttcowaga ica
Kaointe |1,6,0,(0%), | white) te clay minerals) [stable type; Includes china clay
lime feanetngise, [ara {ramen yest oe
Fs Onset PEE rl | Breelieneg termed oateretetreeee ra
caste [caco, Velac | 3127) somle ad deat tno comes on pen
ete [ecto vtae | | 28] moracanc one
ee cecal See |sleee
ea leer eee e
taocme [read Ben) 2 | sa) oneness
fae” [rs rotor] | 83] nacho uses fete gacs comet bes
Siructures in Sedimentary Rocks = |
eee SS = =
LSS |_ = SS
ee a
===
tenses sanssore
jaan, rs ——
oseag | ame
urunexnon
‘The prososses by which a weak loose sociment fs tumed
into a stronger sedimentary rock. induced by burial
pressure and slighty Inceased temperature beneath &
Flomete or more of overying sediment. The processes
of ithification ‘are also known as diag
Geologists, relrring to the changes whlch
Stter depositon. The resus of ification, notably the
inceaaa i stent ae rls o as caretaaton by
enginoors
‘Tree main processes of itieation:
Camentation Te fing ofa intrgranuar pore spaces
by dopostion ofa mineral cement breughtin by culating
roundwator. Rock strength Is largaly dependant on the
{ype of coment, which may be silica (Strongest), on
fie, cal o cay weakest, The dormant pacesin
sandstones.
Recrystallization Smal ecale solution and redepostion
of mineral, s0 that some grains become smalier and
Some become larger. Result may be simi to cemonta:
ton, but may produce stronger mosaic texture, Can also
include change of sate and growth of new more stable
minerals. The dominant process in Imestones
Compaction Resinuctuing and change a rain packing,
with Gecrease in volume, due fo tural pressure, wth
onsequent reduction of porsiy as wator Is squeezed
‘ut. nrease in strength is cue to more grain to grain
oniact. The dominant process in cays
CONSOLIDATION general refors to the inereaso in
‘Strength in clays, due fo their restructuring, improved
packing, loss of water and reduced porosity caused by
Sompaction under load: it aiso includes. some
‘omentation and new mineral grown.
Normaly consolidated clays have never been under a
higher load tan thelr exsing overburden; these clude
most clay sai,
‘rer-coneadated clays have been under a higher fad in
the past. imposed by cover rocks since removes By
frosion; these Include nearly all clays within rock
‘Sequonces. They have lower porosity and higher strength
08 fo thei history of but and exposure.
Clay sols and clay rocks related to their metamorphic
‘and igneous derwvatives. The eight rocks (and sediment
Sols) n the core of tis cyiic diagram are related by
processes (ehown inthe outer ring) which actin the
Clockwise direction. Bulk composition is roughly
Constant, except forthe water content which decreases
from mud to granite. Only weathering increases the
Water content, and weathering of any rock may short-
Circuit the processes by producing mud. Only the main
Iminerals are shown; quartz is present in all the rocks
and sols,
(Consolidation also rofers tothe effect of soil compaction
Under structural loading, and may be applied specifically
to changes taking place when clays are compacted}
704 Sedimentary Rocks
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
[A CLasTiC ROCKS B_NON-GLASTIC ROCKS
|
1, Pudaceous: coarse grained, 41. Carbonates, consisting mainly of calcite
‘Conglomerate = rounded fragments. <2 mm Limestone and aled rocks
Breccia ~ angular fragments
2, Nen-carbonates
2. Arenaceous: medium grained, 0.06-2 mm Flint and chert ~ nodular or banded siica
‘Sandstone and allied rocks Coal and ignite — Iihifed peat and plant material
Ironstone — any onion sedimentary rock:
3. Argllacoous: fine grained, <0.08mm ‘and, clay or ool texture
Siltstone ~ quartz particles ‘Salt ané gypaum ~ monominerakc rocks doposited
Clay and allied rocks by evaporation of wator
ovary ‘comPosiTion
OF THE MAIN
sondsone, SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Electron microscope view of sandstone with quartz
‘grains and weak flaky clay mineral cement. An original
arial calcite coment has been removed by weathering.
LIMESTONE
TYPE Sedimentary, organic or chemical carbonate.
MINERALOGY —Vatlable sized calcite moselc, usually with shel fragments
Caleit 95%, dolomite 3%, clay minerals 2%,
OCCURRENCE Marina shell debris and chemical peciptate, hited by recrystaization.
Upited and expased by erosion, in folded or unfolded bods,
EXAMPLES: Bhan: Pennine dales. "USA: Mammoth Cave Piateau,
STRUCTURES Massive or thin bedded: commonly with thin shale partings.
May include large lenticular foe's of massive strong limestone.
‘May contain nodules and ienses of silica: int in chalk, chert in imestones.
Soluble in rainwater, leaving minimal or no sol,
and alloing formation of open fissures, sinkholes and caves.
Forms distinctive karst landscapes with underground drainage
dy valleys and commonly many bare rock outcrops.
Karstic collapse into caves may occur, bul as rare events;
limestone gorges are common, but most are not collapsed caves.
STRENGTH Oidr Imestones are more completely ecrystalized and stronger.
UCS: 20-100 MPa. SBP:0.5~4 MPa,
FOUNDATIONS Extreme varabilty etvong rock with open fissures and cavities.
May shear along thin shale beds.
HYDROLOGY — Efficient aquifer wih difuse and conduit fw.
VALUE Valuable dimension and aggregate stone. Burn with clay to make cement,
VARIETIES Colt: consists of sand-sized spnoical calcite concretions.
Chalk: woak,tiable, pure, white mestone.
Travertine, tua: so, porous, banded caldte precipitated in flowing water
Dolomite: recrytalized with magnesium content (in dolomite mineral).
Clete: compact, strong, fine grained limestone
Microscope view, § mm across: calcite forming shell ragments, in coarse and fie cement matrix.ef TYPE
: MienaLooy
ce)
2) occurrence
OG
ex.s
2 Bes
"Zo wesnsenne
| TSP ese Srenerh
FOUNDATIONS.
HYDROLOGY
VALUE
VARIETIES
‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: mesly quartz grains, wo coment types.
8 fe SANDSTONE
‘Sedimentary, clastic, arenaceous
Medium grained, with sand grains mostly of quartz,
set in coment of quartz, calcte, cay or other mineral
‘Quartz 80%, clay minerals 10%, hers 10%,
‘Sand of marina rer or dese origi, Ithiied by cementation.
Uplited and exposed by erosion, in folded or unfolded beds,
Balin: Penning moors and edges. USA: Canyonlands.
Massive or thin bedded: commonly interbedded with shale
May have cross bedding inherited from deltaic or dune origin.
‘Grumble to sand, forming sandy well-drained sols.
CGider sandstones tend to be better comonted and sironger.
Clay cements are notably weak; quartz coments are generally song
UCS: 10-90 MPa SBP! 11 MPa,
Generally srong material, unless poorly cemented or with weak cement
Productive aquler with dite fon.
‘Most sandstones abrade too easy for use as aggregate:
some may yield good dimension stone.
Flagstone: thinly bedded due to partings rich in mica fakes,
Gai imprecise colloquial trm for strong sandstone.
Groywacke: od, parly metamorphosed, strong; interbedded with slate
Flysch: young and weak; interbedded with shale or clay
Tuff voleanie ash ol sand grain sie: lied or unithie,
—————SSS}j
Eroded remnants
In Monument
Vail, northern
‘Anzona, USA
‘Amassively
forms te vertical
sided buttes, and
vers a thinly
‘mith many shale
layers.
bedded sandstone
‘of once continuous
eas of sandstone
bedded sandstone
TRE
MINERALOGY
occuRRENCE
EXAMPLES:
STRUCTURES
WEATHERING
‘STRENGTH
FOUNDATIONS
HYDROLOGY
VALUE
VARIETIES.
Sedimentary, laste, argilaceous.
Fina grained structuretess mass of clay mineral,
commonly with a proportion of smal sit grains of quart
Ite 60%, kaotinke 20%, smectite 10%, others 10%.
‘Mus, mainly of marine origi, ithiied by compaction and water expulsion.
Upifted and exposed by erosion, in folded or unfolded beds.
Britain: London Clay. USA: Dakota Badlands.
Commonly featureless and unbedded, but may be bedded
wth variable sit and organic content
‘May have nodules (hard rounded lumps) with stronger mineral comment
Revers to mud, arming heavy clay sos.
Older, more lithfied ang unweathared clays have higher strength.
Younger clays have properties transitional to those of low strength sols
UGS: 1-20 MPa, SBP: 0.1-1 MPa,
Weak material with low, variable strength related largely to water content;
prone to slow creep and plastic deformation;
high potantial compaction may causa high and diferental sottoment
Under structural laa.
‘Aguiclude
‘Watertight fit bricks, cement
Mudstono: more ltiied, massive and stronger.
Shale: more lihifed, laminated and fissile.
Mart clay or mudstone wih significant calcite content
Silstone: mainly quartz grains, essentially a fine grained sandstone.
| mcroscope wow. 5 mm across cay acundas, sty ayers
°05 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks ate created by changes Induced at
high temperature (up to about 600°C) and/or high
preseures (around 500 MPa at 20 km depth). These
Changes (metamorphism) take place in the sold state,
The type of metamorphic rock produced depends on
the orginal rock material that was metamorphosed and
the temperature and pressure conditions which were
imposed.
METAMORPHIC CHANGES IN ROCK
Recrystalization forms a strong mineral mosaic, notably
inmarbie,
[New minerals grow atthe expense of ess stable minerals
in the new condtions of high temperature and pressure
‘Most important changes are clay minerals —> micas ~>
feldspars and matics. Micas are the most significant
minerals in motamorphic rocks and only chango to
feldspars atthe highost grade of metamorphism,
green colours typical of low grade metamorphic rocks
that contain significant chiorte and epidot.
Directional pressure within the solid stat croatos mineral
otentation within the regionally metamorphosed rocks.
New minerals grow in the line of least resistance —
perpendicular to the maximum pressure ~ to cause
fotation, or banding, within these rocks,
Planar weaknesses in the foliated metamorphic rocks
are created by the paralel micas spitting. along thot
‘mineral cleavage - causing rock cleavage (also known
8s slaty cloavage)-and schistosiy ~ both of which are
Independent of ary original bedsing,
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have stronger isolropic
structure, These include hornels, formed by thermal
‘metamorphism of lay without high pressure; alse marble,
land gne'ss with Rte or no mica.
METAMORPHISM OF DIFFERENT ROCKS
Limestone —+ marble: by recrystalization of calcite, forming
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
Regional metamorphism invoives high temperature
and pressure. Occurs in mountain chains cue to
Centipetalcoison on pate boundaries. Exonds over |
large areas.
‘Thermal or contact metamorphism involves high
temperature only. Occurs in metamorphic aureoles,
each 0.001-2 km wide, around igneous intrusions
‘where rock has been Daked.
Dynamic metamarphism at high pcessure only is rae,
“Temperatures and Pressures of Metamorphism
rans enna
Grade of metamorphism is the overal extent of change,
notably in the sequonco (within regional metamorphism)
from slate to schist fo gneiss. Sequence of changes ean |
be seen in the rock cycle diagram in section 03.
strong mosaics.
Sandstone —> quartzite: by recrystallzation of quar, forming very strong mosaics.
Basalt. greenstone: by mite grown of new green minerals
Granite shows ite change: stable in metamorphic conditions
Clay (and rock mixtures) > homfels, slate, schist or gneiss:
‘depending on type and grade of metamorphism.
[MAIN METAMORPHIC ROCKS Derived rom cay or
iRtures of rocks
Alteration includes various processes which affect
rocks, usually involving water at ower temperatures and
pressures than metamorphism
Weathering involves rainfall water coming from above;
a near-surface feature (see section 13)
Hydrothermal alteration involves hot water esing from
below, commonly rom voleanie source.
Metasomatism involves chemical replacement by
elements carted in solution
Aeration is commonly localized win a few metres of
‘major fauits or fractures; it may occur throughout zones,
a klometro or more across.
[name man niverie ___[ orvae Torengn Pues vray | |
Horns mica, quartz, lay minerals | uniform | very strong 200
Siate mica, quarz, clay minerals | cleavago | low shear, high flexural | 20-120
Scnist mica, quartz schistosty | very low shear 20-70
Gnoiss quartz, feldspar, mates, mica | folaton | strong 100
ROCK ALTERATION I
New nate, weak minerals athe main poset of
Aeration procosset normaly the cered Tock
hove scanty wear fants ona
heron ey be ilcted 6) tea or changes,
no geen yon
Chocton vary ow grade meanonie grown ot | |
Wea grosn cht,
Kaclrizaton: Sori leper 6 kale (day
mmocra
Sareitzaion: tera of elisa to sect takes
{Mintaro ces masse)
von aeration: sing andaecay ran neato | |
enon obo iseMAIN MINERALS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
tinal eompostion calor | HB conmnan nerphotogy and Tears
uanz | SiO, clearhnito | 7 | 27 | moc, no cleavage assy sre
| Fottepar | (nlacaya.si,o, — | white 8 | 26 | mosaic or shor proms
Muscowte| KALAIS,OW(0%,- | clear | ave | 28 [finn ance and takes; prec eavage
Bitte | KIMGFS,AS,0-(0H), | back | 2% | 29 ||momborso th mica group of minerals
Chorio | M5,A,5,0,(0%),." | biuo-groon | 2° | 27 | small fake; perect eave
Enidote | Calairagio,'0% | green 8 | 53 | smaliahe
Calcio | Cabo, wnt 3 | 27 | mosaic; mombohecral cleavage on 3 planes
Kaointe | A.S,0,(0H), vite 2 | 26 | tne powcery cay mineral
Limonte_| Foor trom | 5 | 38 | nastystaning
(Other metamorphic minerals, such as homblonde, garnet and andalus, may be present, but have
Iie influence on rock properties. Uns and terms as explaines for igneous minerals in section 02,
SCHIST
rye Regn metamorp, madum grade laa,
THINERALOGY Couve grnedmoeae wit band ano onepicuus paral vento,
Mics 8% corte 2°, quarts 25% ohare She
OCCURRENCE Regenal metamorphism a cae and mxed rote aig temperate
\ {nt pram acura complex cores of moun uts
gr coneror ate bounces
2 pampces __ Sitain Seaton ighans: USA: ier gg of Grand Cann,
STRUCTURES Promnerachitosty due to paalon ot abundant mic,
Conmony wit oiaton banding and compl feng nd mpg
a? WesrHEANG Sow ateaton to cays
~~" STRENGTH Anoop compressa suengh varies by lator of
| trees oebiquosonsony
‘ary ow seat song weakost with higher clot or mic conten
Ueki Socronea Saeco ura
FOUNDATIONS Comneniy wes, easiy shared,
FYDAOLOGY Aqvetute,
vata O°” fn |
VARIETIES Sate ter grained ith excotent rock ceavage |
Pra eomecisi Btweon sw and scat
ot: oa mc, mare gate ardighr sooth
‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: subparalel mica fakes, patches of quartz mosaic.
& HORNFELS. |
Vee a conic ie
| "4 MINERALOGY Fine gralned mows, thro miner entation orf,
| Wicas coe, quate SO, tere 40%
aN OCCURRENCE Thermal (contact) metamorphism of clay at high temperature,
es in metamorphic aureoles up to 1 km wide around major igneous
ot intrusions,
~) EXAMPLES Britain: Dartmoor margins. USA: Sierra Nevada margins
STRUCTURES Commonly closely jointed wth sharp tractus and local kregularti.
oo ‘May have Inherited structures trom original rock.
fone ~7 WEATHERING Vor slow aeration o cays,
STRENGTH Fine grained matotals aro generally very strong.
UCS!250 MPa. SBP: 4 MPa,
FOUNDATIONS Strong rock
HYDROLOGY Aquiciude.
VALUE Good aggregate stone of high strength and low abrasion.
VARIETIES Marble: motamorphosed imestone, consists of recystallzed calcite.
(Quartzte: metamorphosed sandstone, consists of recrystallized quartz,
Greenstone: metamorphosed basalt, with some new green minerals.
Microscope view, 5 mm across: fine groundmass of quartz and mica; large andaluste and mica fakes.
"06 Geological Structures
FRACTURES
Faults ae fractures which have had displacement of the
‘rocks along ther,
Throw is the vertical component of faut displacements.
Faults are described by reference to thelr downthrow si
this is relative movement and may be due othe other side
having moved up.
enomente
Normal fault Reverse faut
+ Revers
FEATURES OF FAULTS.
Faults commonly ereate zon9s o broken ground — weaker
and less stable than the adjacent rock — with implications
for foundation bearing capacity, slope siabiity and tunnel
‘oof integty.
Sudden movements along faults (when tectonic stresses
accumulate to overcome frictional resistance) cause
earthquakes ~ vibrations transmitted through the
surrounding ground (section 10).
(Old faults (including all those in Britain) cannat sisplace
ground surface which has evolved subsequent to any fault
avement. Fault ine soarps and valeys may appear ina
landscape duo to diferontal oresionagross the fault zone
and adjacent contrasting rocks.
2
Fault types are recognized ty relationship of downthrow to dip o the faut plane
“+ Normal faults form under tension; downttrow is on downalp side.
faults form under compression; dowthrow aide is oppoate to dip.
+ Vertical faults are not easly distinguished as nocmal or reverse.
+ Thrust faults or trusts,
fear faults have horizontal csplace
__Tear faut + Grabens are downfauited blocks between two norm fault
Earth movements involve plastic folging and brite
‘racture of rocks, as well as uplift and subsidence. These
tectonic featuros, caused by large scale movements
‘of crustal plates (section 08). Under the high confining
pressures at klomotres of depth, and over the long time
Scales of tectonic processes, most rocks may show
plastic deformation, an fractures oocur when and where
the plastic imits are exceeded
‘uterop is an exposure of rock atthe surface
{orthe area of arock ying diectly beneath a soll cover)
Dip is the angle in degroes below the horizontal
Direction of dip is down the dip.
‘Sikes erection of horizontal ine ona dipping surtace,
‘These reler to bedding or any geological structures,
Fock dip is used to avoid contusion with ground slope
Joints are rock fractures with no movement along ther,
‘They are formed by tectonic stressing and are developed
inant al rocks,
Joint densities and individual joint lengths are infinitely
varable,
Groups of sub parallel jints form oint systems.
The dominant fractures within sedimentary rc
usualy the bedding planes. Many bedding pla
very thin bands or partings of shale or clay between units
‘of stronger rocks. Others are clean breaks, or jolts,
{aveloped tectonicly along te sightest of contrasts within
the depostion sequence.
Say deavag and schists ar also efetvty Woes
tots.
Alloints are structural weaknesses, whose density, extent
‘and orientation are major invences on rock mass srength
(Gecton 25),
Massive rocks have less fractures, joints or structural
waaknesses,
0 roverse faults with low angles of dip.
i (with apparent throw in dipping rocks),
Fault breccia: coarse angular broken rock debris in
Zone (0-1 ~100 m wide) along fault; commonly @ zone ot
{groundwater ow,
finely ground rock paste in thin zone
sturbance and folding of rock near fault
Slickensides: scraiches. and polishing on taut planes,
‘and on bedding plane faults within tight olds
Veins: sheets of mineral infill deposited by hydrothermal
water in fractures oF fissures in rock. They octurin joints
OF fauits. Most voins are of quartz or calete ~ white
‘streaks in rock faces. Larger veins (most on faults) can
‘contain valuable minerals ~ may have been mined out“strong folding
weak folding
antitine
ara planes of stings
> Thereasing compression ——e—
recumbent fold. nappe
Major Fold Types
FoLDs
Folds are upward anticines (“Yor downward syncines Sz
“They may be gentle ==, maderate or strong AY
Folds may be rounded /\\ o angular AY
‘Overolds and recumbent folds have dips past vertical
Isoctines have parallel dips on both sides.
'Nappes are recumbent olds sheared along the central line
with the development of a thrust faut, usually with large
displacement
Escarpments, or cuesias, are asymmettical hill of
dipping beds of strong rock, exposed by citferential
ferosion of weaker rocks above and below,
Succession of rocks Older rocks generally lio
Delow younger rocks, and are only exposed by erosion
Reference to old and young rocks avoids confusion with
igh and low outerops refering o topographical postion.
Inlier is an outcrop of old rocks surrounded by the
outcrops of younger rocks: its presence on a’ map
Indicates ether an eroded antcine ora vay.
mS
Cutler is an outcrop of young rocks surrounded by old,
due to ether an erodd syncine ora hil
Uncontormity is the plane or break between two
sequences of racks with diferent dips. I indicates a
period of earth movements and tectonic deformation
Between the times of sediment deposition. It forms a
major structural break ~ the older rocks must be more
lined and folded, and perhaps mare metamorphosed,
‘tan the younger rocks above the unconformity.
NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURES:
Localized structures formed in shallow rocks and sols,
by erosion procosses and shallow ground detormation,
Unrelated to regional tectonic structures.
Camber folds develop in level or ow-dip rocks where a
clay (or soft shale) underlies a strong sandstone or
limestone. The clay is plastcly squeezed out from
beneath the hil ue othe efferent loads uponit Valley
bulge isthe floor it (eroded away) and the structural
disturbance left beneath i. Mast clay is squeezed out
‘rom close tothe valley side (or scarp edge), co that
overlying stonger rocks sag and camber towards the
valley.
Gulls ae open or soiled fissures in the strong rocks
ol cambered valey sides, opened camberrolation and
Perhaps also by slicing
Postglacial cambered ground, or foundered strata, is
‘common inthe sedimentary rocks of England; it causes
fissured rock masses and potential landslides along
many valley sides and scarp faces.
Glaclal drag: shallow local disturbance, with fold
‘overfolds and faults in solls ané weak rocks overriaden
by Pleistocene glaciers
Unloading joints: stross-roit fractures close to and
parallel to ground surtace due to erosional removal of
‘Sverburden cover racks.
Landslip fissures: open fissure and normal faults
davelepad in head zones of slopes prior to alu,
Contraction joints: cooling joints in igneous rocks,
Including columnar basalt
a
| Camber ong around an English vay07 Geological Maps and Sections
Goological maps show outcrops (where the rocks meet
the surface). Shapes of outcrops depend on the shape at
the surace and the shape ofthe rock structure. Suriace
shape is known (Irom tepagraphie contours}: therefore
rock structure can be interpreted.
‘An important rule: ware more than one interpretation is
possible, the simplest is usually correct.
‘Map interpretation is therefore logical and straightforward
iNapproached systematcaly. Maps remain the best way of
epleting 3-D rock structure ona piece of paper.
Oe —
Relationships between a geological map, geological
crose-sectione and the three-dimensional structure.
‘The north-south section is drawn along the strike, and
therefore does not demonstrate the dipping geological
structure
STAGES OF MAP INTERPRETATION
4. Identity faults and uncontormites (structural breaks)
2 Inentiycips by Vin Valley Fle.
3. Determine succession (unless already given).
44 entity fold axes (rom alps and outcrop bends),
5, Draw stratum contours (ideal 's needed}
6. Draw cross-section to show sub-surface structure
GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS
34 dip, direction, and amount in degreas
$ borzontal beds 4} varical beds
7 fault, tick on downthrow side
=e aniciine ‘eynctine
fg sandstone. shale or day
EEE limestone ary. Igneous rock
alia “ol
“
OUTCROP PATTERNS
‘Sx basio concepts cover all outcrop pattems, and enable
‘mast geological maps tobe intorpreted successful,
Horizontal beds have outcrops which folow the contours
because they are at constant alttude (limestone on the
Sear Hil map).
Vertical beds have straight outerops which ignore the
contour (the dyke onthe Tan Vale map)
Dipping beds have curved outcrops which cut across
‘and respond to the contours because outcrops shift
‘ownalp as erosion lowers the surface (sandstone on
both maps)
Dip direction ie rocognized by the V in Valley Rule: an
‘utero of a ipping rock bends round a V shape where
i crosses a valley, and tho V of the outcrop points (Ike
fan arrowhead) in the direction of dip, regardiass of tho
irocton o valley slope and drainage.
‘Tris works because the outcrop is shited furthest
downdip at Ks lowest point where it crosses the valley
floor (see tho Tan Vale map and diagram).
(The rule doos not apply in areas of iow dip, were
buterops nearly follow contours, so point upstream)
(On love! ground, sipping beds have siaight outcrops
along the direction of stk.
Suecession is recogrized by younger rocks coming to
Cuterop In direction of dip. Corwersely, if succession is
Known, the dip is in the crection of younger outerops =
the easiest way to racognize aia on most maps.
koa
‘Width of outerop is greater on thicker beds and at
lower cps.
RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURES
Unconformity is recognized where one outerop (of &
younger bed) cuts across the ends of outcrops of older
beds, as does the mestone on the Scar Hill map.
Faults are usually marked and keyed on maps. They
ay cut out, offset or repeat outcrops of beds. Fault dip
Is recognized by V in Valley Rule. Downthrow side of a
fault isthe side wth youngor outerop because the oldar
rocks have bean downttvown to beneath surface level.
nom ke Sh —
= po SS
fy carmodiged
Folds are recognized by changes in aip direction, and
also by outers and inlers not Sue to topography. Most
important, folds are cacagnized by bends in outcrop: any
‘outerop bend must be due (0 either @ fold or a
topographic ridge or valley. Each outerop bend should
be interpreted, as on the Sear Hill map.Fpl
aS
Interpretation of the Scar Hill map, using bends In
outcrop to identity elther topographical features,
direction of dip where crossing a valley, or fold axes it
not explained by any topographical feature,
‘STRATUM CONTOURS.
These are tines drawn on a map joining points of equal
height on a bed (or stratum). They are Ike topographic
contours, except that they show the shape of buried
{geological structures. Each contour is leboliod with lis
allude and the bed boundary to which kt refers,
‘They are drawn by jlning pointe of known equal height
(on one geological boundary ~ where its outcrop crosses
{2 topographie contour. Tho surtace information of the
map is therefore used to construct the stratum contours,
which provide data onthe underground gaology
With uniform dip, stratum contours are straight, paralll
and equidistant
‘Stratum contours have been drawn on part of the Tan
Vale map, lower down this column:
* they elend right across the map:
* some apply to two boundaries and are double labelled;
* every boundaryicontour intersection has a stratum
‘contour drawn through it
+ Tabols refer to the babe of a bed,
‘Stratum contours on part ofthe Tan Vale map
| Information can be read from the stratum contours:
* Dip direction is east, 080 (90° rom contours};
| + Dip amountis1 in (10 m contours are 50 m apa);
+ Sandstone has vertical thickness of 10 m
(Gandstone base 20s sama contour as clay base 40};
«True thickness = vertical thickness x cosine dp:
* Depths to any rock can be read of at any point.
‘The stratum contours indicate that a borehole at point
‘A would pass through 20 m of clay, then reach the
sandstone which would continue to @ depth of 30 m,
Below which ies the mudstone,
DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION
‘A cross-section is drawn by projacting the data trom a
‘single line on the map onto a profie of the same scale
(or with vertical exaggeration it required).
‘The topography and each geological boundary are
constructed individually from the relevant contours,
whose intersections on the section Ine are projected to
their correct height onthe profile,
Three stages in drening a profile across the Scar Hill
map are shown bolow. The projection linos and ringed
points are only included to demonstrate stages 1 and 2.
Atos ater
Tonpiies Section
[Note two features of stratum contours only shown on
the Scar Hill map: they do-not cross the fault: they do
‘ot rete to the imestone above the unconformity,
1808 Geological Map Interpretation
Most published maps have scales between 1:10 000
‘and 1:100 000.
Low relict cannot be shown accurately at these scales,
‘and therefore stratum contours cannot be drawn to
‘show the geology
Principles of outcrop shape, bed relationships and
structure recognition (rom section 07) sill apply, but
Interpretation and section drawing cannot rely on stratum
contours.
Geological Map of Oakunder
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
Most outcrops are laterally uniform sedimentary rocks.
‘These ae in paralel beds of roughly constant thickness.
‘They are fold and crumpled into parale curves.
Bed thinning and spiting is rarely seen in small
‘Beds do not form pattorniess wedges and blocks.
ily fauted areas can provide local complexity
Intrusions and volcanic cocks have more varied shapes.
Dit sediments form thin, but variable, surface layers.
‘This is @ fypical example ofa geological map: it shows allrock outcrops, and has some dip arrows;
‘statigraphic column shows succession and bed thicknesses; topography is only shown by ver valeys,
INITIAL INTERPRETATION
Follow stages 1-4 (in section 07).
‘Add interpretation data to map,
Dips from Vin Valley rua
Dips from succession rule.
‘Outerop wiaths indicate dp.
Widinthickness = dip gradient
‘Three shale beds distinguished:
‘numbered in stratigraphic column, [5
‘and labelled on map.
Faultand dyke straight, so vertical.
Fault is minor ~ dies out to nort,
has small outerop dsplacements
Folds miror auterop sequences.
‘THREE-POINT INTERPRETATION
‘Subsurface structure canbe interpreted trom a minimum
of tree isolated point (usualy In boreholes) on a single
horizon
‘Assume locally uniform dip to draw stratum coat
‘Along linos drawn Botween any pair of boreholes,
stribute uniform altitudes ofthe selected boundary oF
bed. Lines joining these interpreted points of equal
altitude ae therfore stratum contours.
With three boreholes, can only interpret and draw
straight stratum contours.
\With more than three boreholes, can draw curved and
converging stratum contours to show folding and ner.
uniform dips. Reliabity depends on borehole spacing
Inrelation to structural compiexty.
Useful fr ital interpretation of site investigation data
‘Applicable to any rock or drift ayer, rockhead or fault
Drawn sanctus ar baeale ie
16DRAWING THE SECTION
‘Sequence of stages forthe Oakunder map is as folows:
{1 Ground prot is given (or is drawn from topographic map)
2 Outerops are projected onto ground sure (as in section 07),
3 Dips are obtained by using the given bed thicknesses (as on right)
4 Fault can be ignored at rst because tis interpreted as minor.
5 Oakunder Grt is drawn across bath folds, inking the tree outcrops,
8 Faultis added so base of Belvoir Git docs not outorop.
7 Cakunder Grit is adjusted across the fault within the syncino,
8 Other beds are added parallel, with constant thckneseas.
8 Parallel curves ae fitted to changing dips east of anticine
410 Slate marked below limostone thicknoss given in stratigraphic column,
11. Anlicine core is unknown beneath given slate thicknss.
12 Doleriteis added as vertical dyke cutting through beds
13 Aluvium is glven sonsibo thickness in valley floor.
14 Optional broken lines in the sky cay structure,
ips tte righ, so base of the
‘Goological Gross Section af the Oskunder Area
INTERPRETATION OF A STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN
Data is symbolize to cover variations across the area on the map.
nit deposits aro at the top; their thicknoseas are not chown,
Main rock sequence is drawn to scale to show moan thicknesses,
‘Sandstone E les unconformably on the Carboniferous rocks,
Middle Coal Measures include sandstones and coals marked individually.
Undiferentiated MCM is a mixture of shales, mudstones and thin sandstones
(this Iithological data is only obtained from an accompanying handbook),
Sandstone D Is locally absent where itis cutout by the unconformity
Sandstone C varies fom 6 to 16 m thick but is aWways present.
Sandstone B locally spits into two, and the upper unt may thin out,
‘Sandstone A varies from 0 to 12 m thick, and Is missing in par of the map area.
Coal 2 locally spits, but the upper leaf may be cutout by sandstone,
Coat has to leafs, with 5 m of shale between, over most of ihe map area.
‘Base of CM is not seen on the map, an unknown thickness continues down,
Igneous rocks ae atthe bottom, even though they intrude into higher rocks.
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY MAPS.
xtra data is availabe for some locations, with mutiple
map sheets covering the same area and individually
showing selectes features; these may include major
rock proporiee, slope stably, subsidence potent,
mine workings, dit thickness, cit bearing capacity,
tock resources and groundwater conditions.
Generalized engineering geology maps may be
summary compilations; mese show secondary.
Interpreted, data o give usetulbroad pictures ot ground
conditions, but servo only as guidelines towards spect
engineering site investigations,
v709 Plate Tectonics
Planet Earth consists of three concentric layers:
utor crust, < 100 km thick, various sold silicate rocks;
‘Mantle, 2800 km thick, hot plastic iron silcates;
Inner core, 3500 km radius, largely of molten ion,
CONTINENTS AND OCEANS
‘veanie crust is mainly basalt and dolerite, 5-10 km hick,
‘orming allthe ocean floor; itis created and dostoyed at
plate boundries.
Continental erustis mainly granite and gneiss, 20-20 km
thick; of lower density than oceanic crust, floats higher
‘on the mantle and forms all the continents, submerged
‘continental shelves and adjacent istands. Is too light to
be subducted, sols almost indestructible; it may be eroded
‘or added o by acretion of sediment and rock scraped off
‘subducting oceanic plates.
Individual plates may be either or both crustal types.
‘Continent coasts may or may not be plate boundaries.
‘THE MOHO
‘The boundary between the crust and the mantle is
known as the Mohoroviele Discontinuity (or the Moho)
recognized by retraction of seismic waves. No one
hha yet seen the rock beneath it. The American dling
project, the Moho, was abandoned before reaching it,
and the Russian borehole, 128 km deep by 1993, had
et yet reached the Moho.
PLATES AND PLATE MOVEMENT
Lithosphere is the relatively brittle outer rock layer,
Consisting ofthe crust and upper mant; tis broken Into
large slabs known as plates.
Convection currents circulate within the mantle ~
because it ls heated from below ~ and the convection
cals have horizontal movements over their ops.
Plate tectonics are tho relative movements ofthe plates
as they are shifted by the underlying marie flows.
Each plate Is relatively stable, but disturbances along
the plate boundaries cause most geological processes.
‘The formation of igneous, secimeniary and metamorphic
rocks, and their subsequent deformation oF erosion, can
be identiied on the cross-section diagram through two
plato boundaries.
So
Antarctic
PLATE BOUNDARY TYPES
Conservative boundary has sideways movement only,
‘8g. San Andreas Fauit. Major tear fauts are formed, and
intermittent movements create major earthquakes,
Divergent boundary is constructive, as new oceanic plato
is formed, o.9. Mid Atlantic Ridge, Basaltic magma is
produced as a silcate liquid separated from iron rich
mineral solids in parvally melted mantle; this produces:
humerous dykes. and submarine volcanoes, Excess
magia creates istands, ¢.g Icoland, wih ofusive basal,
voleanoes and high geothermal head; small earthquakes.
‘occur as rocks part under tension,
Convergent boundary is destructive, as oceanic
plate is subducted and melted, e.9. beneath the Andes
along western edge of South America. The over-riding
Continental plate 1s crumpled and thickened to form a
‘mountain chain, Involving a great range of geological
processes, collectively known as orogenesis (from the
Greek for mountain bulking),
“Type of convergence determines the style of orogenesis:
Continent-ceean: normal orogenic belt, ocean destroyed,
eg. Andes.
‘Ocean-ocoan: one plate destroyed, magma creates island
arc voleances, 0.9. Java,
Continent-continent. colision, orogenic maximum,
‘elds pates together, e.g. Himalayas
MOUNTAIN CHAINS.
Upiit of mountain chains occurs because the lightweight
‘raniticcrust, thickened within the orogenic bef, ows to
2 higher level on the mantle in order to maintain the
Isostate balance of equal loading all around the rolaing
sphere of Earth,
‘The highest mountain chains are the youngest. Th
Himalayas are < 10M years ol, formed largely of folded
sedimentary rocks; top of Mount Everest is lmestone.
‘Ola mountain chains are eroded down, The Scotish
Highlands nave been eroded for 400M years: they
Consist of granites and gneisses, rather similar to the
rocks on the floors ofthe deepest Himalayan valleys.
The works major crustal pat, with arows o show relative movement (mosty afew cryear)