Steel Structure

Basic Conceptes
Statics

Applied Forces All external forces that act on a structure or member

Center of Gravity A point of balance where the tendency of forces to rotate one
side of an object are countered by equal and opposite forces located on the other
side of the object
Center of Mass In an object or system of objects in motion, the center of mass
is one point that moves in the same path that a particle would if subjected to the
same net force
Centroid The center of gravity for a two-dimensional shape
Collinear Forces Forces that act along the same line of action
Component of a Force - Two or more forces that compose a single force
Composite Shapes Refers to a combination of 2 or more built up shapes
Concurrent Forces - Forces that pass through the same point or intersect at a
common point
Coplanar Forces - Forces that act along lines that lie in the same plane
Couple The effect produced from two forces that have the same magnitude,
parallel line of action and opposite sense
Elastic Deformation - Temporary deformation of a material where the material
subjected to a load or force returns to its original dimensions once the load or
force is removed
External Force - The applied forces that cause an object to translate, rotate or
stay at rest
Elastic Range Range on the stress/strain curve in which a material will return to
its original state once the stress is removed
Fixed Support - A fixed support resists translation and rotation of a member at the
connection point The reactions of a fixed support compose three unknown
forces, including both a vertical and a horizontal component and a resisting
moment.
Force - The action of one object exerted on another
Free Body Diagram - A simplified and conceptual diagram that isolates a
structural member under investigation from the rest of the structure
Internal Force Forces that are developed within an object in response to the
external loads
Modulus of Elasticity - The ratio of the stress inflicted on an element to the strain
that is produced
Moment - The tendency to make an object or a point rotate
Moment Arm - The perpendicular distance between the line of the action of the
force and the point
Moment of Inertia A mathematical concept that incorporates the effect of cross
sectional shape and orientation to study the strength of a structural member
Non-Collinear Forces Two or more forces that act along different lines of action
Non-Concurrent Forces - Forces that do not pass the same point or do not
intersect. Parallel forces are an example of non-concurrent forces.

Non-Coplanar Forces - Forces that do not lie in the same plane and have a have a
three dimensional arrangement
Parallel Axis Theorem A mathematical method by which the moment of inertia of
a shape with respect to its centroidal axis can be transferred to a prescribed
parallel axis that is normally the centroidal axis of the composite shape
Pinned/Hinged Support A pin or a hinge support resists translation of a member
in both horizontal and vertical directions. The reactions of a pin support represent
two unknown force components
Plastic Deformation - Deformation that remains permanent in a material subjected
to load or force and remains in place even after the load or force is removed
Plastic Range Range on the stress/strain curve where a material permanently
deforms once stress is removed
Radius of Gyration Defined as the square root of the moment of inertia divided
by the cross sectional area of the shape; a shape factor that measures the
resistance to bending about a defined axis
Reaction Forces - Equal and opposing forces that resist applies forces
Resultant of a Force A single force that replaces a system of concurrent forces
Roller Support A roller support resists translation of a member in the
perpendicular direction to the contact surface. This reaction of a roller connection
represents one unknown force component.
Static Equilibrium The state when the net effect of all the forces acting on an
object equal zero
Statics One of three branches of mechanics that deals with the study of forces
that are in a state of balance
Stiffness Measure of a materials rigidity; a materials ability to withstand
deformations under stress; slope of the stress/strain curve
Strain Deformation of the physical dimensions of an object subjected to a stress
Stress Describes the intensity of a force and is expressed by the amount of
force acting per unit of area
Transmissibility of Forces Law that states that the point of application of an
external force acting on a body can be moved anywhere along the line of action of
the force without creating a change in the overall external forces applied on the
body
Ultimate Strength The maximum force that can be applied to a material without
breaking the material
Yield Stress The point at which stress causes a material to permanently deform
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Loads

Area Load A uniform load that acts across the entire area or surface of a structural
member
Center of Mass A point on an oject or system of objects in motion that moves in the
same path that a particle would if subjected to the same net force
Concentrated Load Loading that is applied on a particular portion of a structural member
Dead Load Loads that consist of the weight of permanent and fixed components of a
structure
Deflection - The deviation of a structural member from its original position due to applied
loading
Gravity Load Loading that is the result of the earths gravitational pull
Lateral Load Loading that occurs in the horizontal direction with respect to the ground
Live Load non-permanent and movable loads on a structure
Occupancy Load Live, gravity loads that consist of the weight of people, furniture,
equipment, and stored materials.
Overturning A structural failure that is normally associated with tall and slender
buildings with relatively small foundations
Seismic Load Earthquake forces that result from the slippage of rock plates along the
fault line
Sliding Structural failure caused from the effect of lateral forces on inadequately
designed foundation systems
Snow Load A gravity live load caused from the accumulation of snow on a horizontal
surface
Torsion A twisting effect induced by the action of lateral forces
Uniformly Distributed Load Loading that occurs along a portion or the length of a
structural member
Uniformly Increasing Load A load that is increased at a constant rate
Wind Load A lateral load caused from wind force

Mechanics of Materials

Bearing Stress Stress produced by the pressure or intensity of a force at the

contact point of two bodies or structural members
Breaking Point The maximum point in which a material can elongate; the point
at which a material fails or breaks when subjected to a stress
Compression Force A force caused from the compacting or pushing in of
structural fibers
Creep Deformation of a structure over an extended time
Elastic Deformation Temporary deformation of a material where the material
subjected to a load or force returns to its original dimensions once the load or
force is removed
Flexure The bending of a material under load application
Hooks Law Law discovered by Robert Hook in 1678 that describes the linear
and proportional
relationship of stress and strain in elastic materials subjected to moderate
loading.
Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus) A measure of stiffness of a material
that is measured by the slope of the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve
Normal (Axial) Stress Stress produced by a tension or compression force acting
perpendicular to the surface area under stress
Plastic Deformation Deformation that remains permanent in a material subjected
to load or force and remains in place even after the load or force is removed
Shear Force An effect that produces shifting of horizontal or vertical parallel
plains of a material
Shear Stress Stress that is produced by a force applied parallel to the stressed
area. Shear stress is calculated by dividing the shear force by the parallel area
resisting the force.
Stiffness The ability of a material to withstand deformation under stress
Strain The deformation of the physical dimension of a body under stress
Strain Hardening A stage beyond yield stress where steel goes through
structural changes that result in increased strength and resistance to further
deformation
Stress Describes the intensity of a force and is expressed by the amount of
force acting per unit of area
Stress Concentration The accumulation of stress on a small section or area of
an object
Tension Force A force that pulls or stretches the fibers of a material away from
each other
Thermal Strain The change in material dimensions as a result of temperature
changes
Thermal Stress The expansion and contraction of a material due to thermal
change
Torsion The twisting and distortion of a materials fibers in response to an
applied load
Ultimate Stress The maximum stress level of a material at which it breaks or
ruptures
Yield Stress The point at which stress causes a material to permanently deform
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Structural Materials

Angles steel members used fro truss members and connection elements;
designated by the letter L
Built-Up Section steel section formed by welding or bolting various rolled
shapes
Cast Iron a hard, brittle and nonmalleable alloy composed of iron, 2-4.5%
carbon, and 1-4% silicon; strong in compression, weak in tension
Cementiferous Spray a concrete-vermiculite like substance that is sprayed on
steel members for fireproofing
Channels C-shaped steel members mostly used for purlins and structural
fascias; designated by the letter C
Concrete a mixture of sand, cement, aggregate and water used in construction
Corten (Weathering) Steel a type of steel that contains high levels of copper and
phosphorous that form a thin protective layer of brown rust on the surface that
stops further corrosion when exposed to weather
Glu-Laminated Lumber wood that is composed of an assembly of wood
laminations
I-Beams steel member that has a lower depth to width ratio than wide flanges;
designated by the letter S
Intumescent Coatings thin film coatings that are sprayed or brushed on metal
surfaces to provide fire protection
Posttensioned Concrete prestressed concrete in which steel tendons are
tensioned after the concrete has cured
Prestressed Concrete concrete in which forces are applied prior to loading that
counteract the effect of subsequent loads
Pretensioned Concrete prestessed concrete in which steel tendons are
stretched and tensioned prior to the casting of the concrete
Reinforced Concrete concrete that is supplemented with steel bars that make it
more efficient in resisting tensile forces as well as compressive forces
Reinforcing Steel steel that is used to add strength to concrete
Sawn Lumber wood that is cut directly from a log
Stainless Steel steel that contains 10-30% chromium that provides resistance to
rust
Steel an iron alloy with low carbon that is strong in both compression and
tension
Tee Sections T shaped steel members used for truss chords and structural
lintels
Thermal Sprayed Metal Coatings aluminum or zinc alloys that are melted and
sprayed onto a metal surface to prevent corrosion
Wide Flange steel member that has a high depth to width ratio; designated by
the letter W
Wrought Iron an alloy of iron that contains carbon and silicon that was used
throughout the 19th century in bridge and building construction
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2002-200

Connections

Arc Welding a process of welding that passes an electric current through a

metal electrode that produces intense heat that melts and fuses the electrode rod
as well as a small portion of the connecting elements
Beam Hangar a steel connection that is used to anchor a flush/face beam
connection
Bolt a type of fastener that can resist withdrawal and lateral loads significantly
more than nails and screws
Common Bolts (Unfinished Bolts, ASTM A307) structural steel bolts composed
of low carbon steel that have a smaller load capacity than high strength bolts
Direct Tension Indicator Bolts a type of high strength steel bolt that releases
silicone that is embedded in the depressions of the washer when the desired
amount of torque is applied
Filet Weld a type of weld that is used to join overlapping elements
Framing Anchors
Groove Weld a type of weld that is used between adjacent members
High Strength Bolts (A325, A490) structural bolts composed of high strength
steel that are tightened with an impact wrench to produce friction type
connections
Impact/Torque Wrench a wrench that can be calibrated to apply a specific
amount on torque
Joist Hangar a steel connection that is used to anchor a flush/face joist
connection
Nail a type of simple wood fastener used in small-scale construction that resists
shear but does not resist tension forces
Post Base/Cap a steel fastener used to anchor a post or column into the
foundation and/or ceiling
Rebar Jacket
Rigid Connection a type of structural joinery that resists both shear forces and
bending moments
Rivet a smooth, screw like fastener that is pushed through adjacent members
and pneumatically hammered and heated to produce an anchoring head on the
opposite side of the rivet head
Screw - a type of simple wood fastener that is somewhat more efficient than nails
used in small-scale construction that resists shear but does not resist tension
forces
Semi-Rigid Connection a type of structural joinery that restrains translation and
permits partial rotation of the connecting members
Simple Connection a type of structural joinery that resists shear forces but does
not resist bending moments
Twist Off/Tension Controlled Bolts a type of high strength bolt that releases the
splined extension of the bolt when the optimum amount of torque is applied
Welding a method of joining steel elements by heat
Withdrawal Load
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Lateral Systems

Braced Frames truss structures that provide diagonal paths for moving the
lateral loads through the structure in vertical planes
Building Configuration the form, geometry, scale, arrangement of the building
mass and structure
Cross Bracing bracing used in frames that resist lateral forces in two or more
directions
Diaphragms structural elements that resist and collect lateral forces in the
horizontal planes of a structure and transfer them to the vertical bearing elements
Drift deflection of a building under lateral loads
Earthquake (Seismic) Forces lateral forces caused by the shifting of plates
below the earths surface that act mostly at the base of a structure
Knee (K) Bracing short diagonal bracing linking horizontal and vertical
members that effectively makes a rigid connection where two members are
pinned
Moment Resistant Frames structural systems that are constructed with rigidly
connected joints
Re-Entrant Corners differential stiffness in a structure caused by irregular
geometries
Shear Walls structural elements made of rigid materials that resist lateral loads
in the vertical plane
Soft Story the result of insufficient strength and stiffness of a specific floor
structure that is inconsistent with the rest of the building floors
Torsion a twisting effect that results when applied loads located at the center of
mass of a structure do not coincide with the center of stiffness
Wind Forces lateral forces caused by wind that affect the exposed surface area
of a structure

Foundations

Battered Pile a type of pile that is used when lateral forces exceed the loading capacity
of vertical piles
Bearing Pile a type of pile that is used to resist lateral loads and uplift forces
Cantilever Wall a type of foundation wall that consists of a stem and a base slab that is
held in equilibrium by self-weight, horizontal soil pressure, and the reaction of the base
structure acting upward
Combined Footing
Crib Wall a type of foundation wall
Deep Foundation a type of foundation that is used when the soil near the ground surface
is weak
Foundation the interface of a building structure with the ground
Foundation Wall a structural element that is constructed below grade to support the
earth and resist water pressure
Friction Pile a type of pile that resists gravity loads by friction and transfers loads to the
surrounding soil using the adhesive resistance between the pile surface and its
surrounding soil
Gravity Wall a type of foundation wall
Mat/Raft Foundation a type of shallow footing that is equal to the area of the building
footprint
Pile a long and slender prefabricated type of deep foundation that are driven into the
ground
Shallow Foundation a type of foundation that is used when the earth directly beneath a
structure has sufficient bearing capacity to sustain the loads from the structure
Sheet Pile - a type of foundation wall
Spread Footing the most widely used type of shallow foundation that are designed to
receive the concentrated gravity loads directly on their centroid to prevent unequal
pressure distribution and overturning of the footing
Table Wall Footing a type of shallow foundation

Structural System
Trusses

Baltimore Truss - A trapezoidal, flat truss

Bowstring Truss - A truss with an arched upper chord and a central triangual
configuration converging on the upper chord
Cambered Fink Truss - A triangular truss characterized by parallel diagonal compression
members that are perpendicular to the top chord and a cambered lower chord
Fan Truss - A simple or multi-paneled triangular truss where all of the diagonal members
radiate from one point on the lower chord
Fink Truss - A triangular truss characterized by parallel diagonal compression members
that are perpendicular to the top chord
Gusset Plate A common plate that is used to connect truss members at their ends
Howe Truss Truss in which the top chords and diagonal members are in compression,
and all vertical members and bottom chord members are in tension
Ideal Truss A truss that assumes that all members are connected with pinned joints, that
members will remain straight after loading, and that all loading is concentrated only at
panel points
K-Truss - A truss in which the vertical and diagonal members are arranged in the shape of
a "k"
King Post - A truss that is composed of a simple triangle with a central post
Method of Joints Method of analyzing trusses that uses the equilibrium of each truss
joint to determine the forces in the members
Method of Sections Method of analyzing trusses that conceptually cuts the truss into
sections and thus allowing the analysis of each section by using the equations of static
equilibrium
Open Web Joists a steel truss that is used and spaced like a joist to support floor or roof
decking
Panel Points Joints located along the top member of a truss that are directly connected
to the structure. The uniform load of the structure is concentrated at the panel points and
thus allows the truss to behave like a simply supported beam.
Parker Truss - A truss with an arched upper chord and a central triangular arrangement
converging on the bottom chord
Pins/Bolts Connection type used to join truss members
Pratt Truss A truss in which the top chords and vertical members are in compression,
and diagonals and bottom chord in tension
Scissors Truss A truss in which the bottom chord is raised to increase the clear height
near the mid span; top chords are in compression and vertical members in the center of
the truss are in tension
Static Equilibrium - The state when the net effect of all the forces acting on an object equal
zero
Statically Determinate Truss (Simple Truss) A truss in which the static equations of
equilibrium can be used to determine the force in each member
Statically Indeterminate Truss A truss that contains a series of redundant members that
cannot be resolved with the equations of static equilibrium
Tension Member - Structural member subjected to tension forces
Truss A structural system composed of short and straight structural members that are
arranged in a pattern of triangles
Two-Force Member A structural member that is hinged or pinned at each end and does
not carry any loads between the ends
Warren Truss A flat truss with parallel and equal length top and bottom chord members

Zero Force Member Members in a truss that do not carry loads that are used to provide
stability and insure triangulation

Beams

Beam Deflection The deviation of a beam from its original position due to
applied loading
Bearing Stresses Forces that exist when forces are transferred from one
member to another
Bending Deformation of a horizontal structural member that is a result of the
application of external loads
Bending Stresses Stresses that are produced in a structural members cross section when subjected to bending. Compressive stresses are generated at
concave fibers and tensile stresses are generated at convex fibers.
Cantilever Beams Beams that are fixed or anchored at one end and free at the
other end
Center of Gravity A point of balance where the tendency of forces to rotate one
side of an object are countered by equal and opposite forces located at the other
side of the object; the resultant force of the earths gravitational forces acting on
individual particles composing an object
Centroid The center of gravity for the area of a two dimensional shape
Centroidal Axis Also called the neutral axis; a line that passes through the
centroid of a beams cross- section where beam fibers are neither shortened
under compression or elongated under tension
Compression Forces Forces that tend to crush or buckle an element; forces act
inwardly on an object
Concentrated Loads Loads that act on a single or concentrated point of a
structural member
Continuous Beams Beams that span over more than two supports
Equations of Static Equilibrium Equations used to determine unknown reactions
that assume all forces and moments in all directions sum to zero
External Forces Forces applied to a structure
Fixed End Beams A beam that is restrained from any movement or rotation at
both of its two end supports
Fixed Support A support condition that does not permit translation or rotation
and thus develops three unknown reactions, including a vertical and horizontal
component and a resisting moment
Fixed-Pinned Beams A beam that is fixed at one end and pinned at the other end
Free Body Diagram - A simplified and conceptual diagram that isolates a
structural member under investigation from the rest of the structure
Horizontal Shear Force Equal and opposite forces that are generated in adjacent
horizontal fibers of a structural member in response to applied loads
Horizontal Shear Stress Stresses produced by the movement of the adjacent
fibers of a member in the horizontal direction due to opposing and equal forces
Internal Forces Forces that occur within a structural member
Internal Resisting Moment Moment generated from tension and compression
forces in a beam cross section that counterbalance the external moment
produced by the applied loads
Lateral Buckling Buckling in the horizontal direction
Neutral Axis (see centroidal axis)

Open Web Joist - A steel truss that is used and spaced like a joist to support floor
or roof decking
Overhanging Beams A simply supported beam that has one or both of its ends
extending beyond the supports
Pin/Hinge Support A support condition that that can resist a single force in any
direction on the plane containing and thus develops two unknown force
components
Principle of Superposition Method that consists of finding the effect of several
loading conditions acting on a beam simultaneously by determining the effect of
each individual load on the beam separately
Resisting Moment A moment generated by tension and compression forces in
the cross section of a structural member that counterbalances the external
moment produced by the applied loads
Roller Support A support condition that develops a reaction force perpendicular
to the point of contact, thus restricting movement in that direction
Shear A force that is the result of opposing forces that cause the sliding of one
portion of a structural member along an adjacent portion
Shear and Moment Diagram Graphical diagrams that determine the intensity of
shear force and bending moment at any point along a structural member
Simply Supported Beams A beam in which one end is connected by a hinge and
the other end is connected by a roller
Statically Determinate Beams Beams that allow the application of the basic
equations of static equilibrium to determine up to three unknown reactions
Statically Indeterminate Beams A beam that contains more than three unknown
reactions and thus does not permit the use of the static equations of equilibrium
Tension Forces Forces that tend to pull an element apart
Torsion A twisting effect on an object
Tributary Area The portion of an area load that is carried by each beam in a
frame
Uniformly Distributed Loads An evenly distributed load that is applied over an
area
Uniformly Increasing Loads Loads that are applied over a given area that
gradually increase over or at certain portions of the structure
Vertical Shear Force Equal and opposite forces that are generated in adjacent
vertical fibers of a structural member in response to applied loads
Vertical Shear Stress Stress produced by the movement of the adjacent fibers of
a member in the vertical direction due to opposing and equal forces resulted from
the external loading
Wide Flange A rolled steel section in the shape of an I
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Columns

Allowable Stress Maximum amount of stress a column can take before it fails
Beam Columns Columns that are subjected to moment and axial forces
Buckling The bowing or bending of a column when subjected to loading
Buckling Direction The direction that a column will tend to bend when subjected
to loading
Column Effective Length Column length subjected to buckling
Column End Condition The type of connection between the column and the
adjacent structural elements
Column Moment Diagrams Diagram that graphically depicts the moments of a
column under loading
Compression Elements Structural elements that collect loads from horizontal
spanning members and transfer them to the foundation or other structural
elements
Concentric Loading (Axial Loading) Loading that is directly applied at the
centroid of the column cross section along its long axis
Crushing Common failure mode of short columns
Critical Load The maximum load at which a column buckles
Eccentric Loading Loading that is applied at a distance from the centroid of a
column
Effective Length (Critical Length) - The length of a column that is susceptible to
buckling
Euler Elastic Theory Formula that predicts the value of critical load and critical
stresses for long columns
Fixed Columns - Columns that are fixed or restrained from movement at both
ends
Hinged Columns A Column that is hinged at both of its ends
Inflection Points (Contraflexure Points) Location of curvature changes in the
buckled column; the bending moment is zero at this point.
Intermediate Column A column that fails by a combination of crushing and
buckling
K Value A modifier that takes into account the end condition of the column and
thus effects the slenderness ratio; a larger k-value will increase the slenderness
ratio
Lateral Loads Loads applied in the horizontal direction such as wind,
earthquakes, and impacts
Leonard Euler A Swiss mathematician who recognized that a long columns
failure under axial loads is caused by buckling and not by strength failure.
Load Capacity The amount of load a structure or structural element can take
before failing
Long Column A column that is defined as having a small cross sectional area in
relation to its length
Masts A type of large column
Modules of Elasticity The ratio of the stress inflicted on an element to the strain
that is produced;
Moment of Inertia A mathematical concept that is used to study the strength of a
structural member by factoring the effect of cross sectional shape and orientation
of the member with respect to loading
Piers A type of large column
Pilasters A type of large column
Posts A type of smaller column
Pylons A type of larger column

Radius of Gyration Defined as the square root of the moment of inertia divided
by the cross sectional area of the shape; a shape factor that measures the
resistance to bending about a defined axis
Section Modulus A measure of bending resistance
Short Column A column that has a relatively large cross sectional area when
compared to its length; usually fails by crushing
Slenderness Ratio Defined as the columns effective length divided by the
radius of gyration; a dimensional property that identifies the critical length of the
column
Strong/ Major Axis The axis of a column about which there exists greater
resistance to buckling
Struts A type of smaller column
Weak/Minor Axis The axis of a column that will be initially subjected to buckling

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Frames

Cross Bracing Structural members that are configured between columns and beams that
stabilized a frame from lateral loads that are applied in both directions
Deflection The deformation or bowing of a structural member when subjected to a load
Knee Bracing A type of bracing used in frames that strengthens the joints and prevents
them from lateral deformation
Moment Resistant Joints Rigid joints that resist horizontal and vertical forces and
moments
Post and Beam Frames A frame in which the horizontal and vertical members of the
frame are connected with simple joints
Rigid Frames A frame in which the horizontal and vertical members are connected with
moment resistant joints that prevent independent action of the beam element from the
columns
Rigid Diaphragms (Panels) Structural systems that act as thin horizontal beam elements
spanning between vertical shear planes
Shear Walls Walls that are organized in the short dimension of a building that provide
lateral stability
Single Bay Frames Frames that are one story in height and one single unit spanned
along the ground plane
Stacked Frames A series of single bay frames repeated in the vertical and horizontal
direction producing a multi-story frame
Statically Determinate Frame A frame that has only three reaction components
Statically Indeterminate First Degree A frame that has four unknown reaction
components
Statically Indeterminate Third Degree A frame that has five or six unknown reaction
components
Three Hinged Frames A frame with three hinged connections; develops higher moments
and higher deflections than a two hinged frame
Two Hinged Frames A frame with two hinged connection

Cables

Cables Flexible structural elements often made of steel, polypropylene, nylon, or

fiberglass that carry tensile loads
Cable Net Systems A category of cable systems that includes cable-stayed systems and
double cable systems; refers to a system of cables designed to resist lateral loads
Cable Stayed Systems A structure in which a series of linear cables directly support
rigid horizontal members and masts under all anticipated loading conditions
Cold Stretching a process that produces high strength steel
Double Cable Systems A cable system that contains a linear main cable carrying the
gravity load that is stiffened by secondary cables
Parabolic Cables A cable that is subjected to a uniformly distributed load
Single Bolt Clam A connection used for joining cables in a net
Strand A composition of a number of wires that are helically formed around a central
wire
Two Force Member - A structural member that is hinged or pinned at each end and does
not carry any loads between the ends
U-Bolts A connection used for joining cables in a net

Arches

Arch a structural element that carries loads by developing compressive forces

Axial Thrust
Counter-Front Walls
Fixed Ended Arches Arches that have fixed end connections
Flying Buttress an external bracing system that resists the effect of outward thrust
Ideal Arch An arch that carries loads by compression only and cannot resist any lateral
forces
Shear Force
Statically Determinate Arches Arches with three or less number of reactions
Statically Indeterminate Arches Arches with greater than three reactions, including both
two-hinged and fixed arches
Struts
Three Hinged Arch An arch with three hinge connections
Tied Arch An arch that resists outward thrust by tying the two supports below the floor
level
Two-Hinged Arch (Parabolic Arch) An arch with two hinges at the supports that transfers
the axial thrust and the shear force as horizontal and vertical forces to the foundation

Surface Structures

Surface Structures non linear rigid or soft structural elements that are continuous in two
axes
Fabric Structure a soft surface spanning structure that can only resist tensile forces
Slab a monolithic surface spanning structure usually made of concrete that carry loads
by bending
One-Way Slab a reinforced concrete plate that is supported at two opposite edges and
that carries loads by bending in one direction only
Two-Way Slab a reinforced concrete plate that is supported at four corners and that
carries loads in two directions perpendicular to each other
Flat Plates a category of reinforced concrete two-way slabs that are reinforced in two
directions and transfer loads directly to vertical supporting elements without using beams
or girders
Folded Plates a type of two-way slab that is folded or corrugated thus providing stiffness
and a high moment of inertia
Shells thin, lightweight, curved structures that resist axial and shear forces
Cylindrical Shells a shell structure that is extended in the longitudinal direction
Shell Dome an arch that is revolved about its vertical axis forming a hemispherical shell
Hyper-bolic Paraboloids a structure that is composed of a double contour curved plane
that can carry surface tension, compression, and shear stress
Tension Structures structures that are composed of light weight materials such as
cables and fabrics
Cable Nets a type of tension structure that is composed of cable segments that are
connected to form a three dimensional framework
Fabric Structure a tensile structure where fabric is curved and stretched between
supporting elements to provide a continuous surface for the flow of tension forces
Air Supported Structures a tensile structure that uses air pressure to support and
stabilize fabric or other membranes

Basic Concepts

The basic concepts section contains terms that are fundamental in understanding statics,
strength of materials, and structural behavior. Many of the terms and definitions include
images, animations, and tabulated information to communicate the concepts.

Statics

Mechanics of Material

Connections

Structural Loads and Structural Behavior

Structural Materials

Lateral Systems

Foundations

Statics
Statics is one of three branches of mechanics that deals with the study of forces that are in a state
of balance. Topics that are examined in statics include force characteristics, equilibrium,
moments and reactions, and structural properties of areas.

Forces
Force Systems
Support Conditions
Cross-Sectional properties of areas
Moment and Couples

Forces

Type

Description

Image

Force

the action of one object exerted on another

Applied Forces

all external forces that act on a structure or member

Internal Forces

forces that are developed within an object in response to the external

loads

External Forces

the applied forces that cause an object to translate rotate or stay at

rest

Components of a
Force

a single force can be replaced by two or more forces that produce the
same effect. These forces are called components of the force.

Resultant of
Forces

a single force that replaces a32.- system of concurrent forces is called a

resultant force

law that states that the point of application of an external force acting
Transmissibility of on a body can be moved anywhere along the line of action of the force
Forces
without creating a change in the overall external forces applied on the
body

Reaction Forces

equal and opposing forces that resist applies forces

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Force Systems
Type

Description

Static Equilibrium

the state when the net effect of all the forces acting on an object equal
zero

Free Body
Diagram

a simplified and conceptual diagram that isolates a structural member

under investigation from the rest of the structure

Concurrent
Forces

forces that pass through the same point or intersect at a common point

Non-Concurrent
Forces

forces that do not pass the same point or do not intersect. Parallel forces
are an example of non-concurrent forces

Collinear Forces

forces that act along the same line of action

Non-Collinear
Forces

two or more forces that act along different lines of action.

Coplanar Forces

forces that act along the same plane

Image

Non-Coplanar
Forces

forces that do not lie in the same plane and have a have a three
dimensional arrangement

Support Conditions
Type

Description

Image

Fixed
Support

a fixed support resists translation and rotation of a member

at the connection point. The reactions of a fixed support
compose three unknown forces, including both a vertical and
a horizontal component and a resisting moment.

Rocker
Support

a rocker support resists translation of a structural member

in the perpendicular direction to the contact surface. This
reaction of a rocker connection represents one unknown
force component.

Pin/Hinge
Support

pinned/hinged support A pin or a hinge support resists

translation of a structural member in both horizontal and
vertical directions. The reactions of a pin support represent
two unknown force components

Roller
Support

a roller support resists translation of a structural member in

the perpendicular direction to the contact surface. This
reaction of a roller connection represents one unknown force
component.
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Free-Body
Diagram

Cross-Sectional Properties of Areas

Type
Center
Gravity

Description
of a point of balance where the tendency of forces to rotate one side of an object are
countered by equal and opposite forces located on the other side of the object

Centroid

the center of gravity for a two-dimensional shape

Composite
Shapes

refers to a combination of 2 or more structural shapes that compose a structural members

cross section

Moment
Inertia

of a mathematical concept that incorporates the effect of cross sectional shape and
orientation to study the strength of a structural member

a mathematical method by which the moment of inertia of a shape with respect to its
Parallel Axis
centroidal axis can be transferred to a prescribed parallel axis which is normally the
Theorem
centroidal axis of the composite shape

Radius
Gyration

of defined as the square root of the moment of inertia divided by the cross sectional area of
the shape; a shape factor that measures the resistance to bending about a defined axis
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Moment and Couples

Type

Description

Moment

the tendency of a force to make an object or a point rotate

Moment
Arm

the perpendicular distance between the line of the action of the force and the
point about which the moment is produced.

Couples

the of action and opposite sense

Moment

Image

Moment Arm

Couples

Structural Loads and Structural Behavior

Structural loads are defined as forces that tend to produce deformation in a structure. This
section includes concepts dealing with the classification and analysis of loads and how
structures withstand the effect of the applied loads with safety and adequacy.

Load Types
Load Distribution Categories
Structural Behavior under Loads

Load Types
Loads

Description

Table

Dead Loads

Loads that consist of the weight of permanent and fixed components of a

structure

Live Loads

non-permanent and movable loads on a structure

Wind Load

A live load caused from wind force

Gravity Load

Loads that are the result of the earths gravitational pull

Snow Load

A gravity live load caused from the accumulation of snow on a horizontal

surface

Occupancy
Load

Gravity live loads that consist of the weight of people, furniture, equipment, and
stored materials.

Seismic Load

Live load produced in Earthquakes that result from the slippage of rock plates
along the fault line

Lateral Load

Loading that occurs in the horizontal direction with respect to the ground

Load Distribution Categories

Description

Concentrated Load

Loading that is applied on a particular portion of a structural

member

Uniformly
Load

A load that is increased at a constant rate

Uniformly
Load

Area Load

Increasing

Distributed Loading that occurs along a portion or the length of a structural

member

A uniform load that acts across the entire area or surface of a

structural member

Image

Structural Behavior under Loads

Description

Animations

Sliding

Structural failure caused from the effect of lateral forces on inadequately

designed foundation systems

Torsion

A twisting effect induced by the action of lateral forces

Deflection

The deviation of a structural member from its original position due to

applied loading

Overturning

A structural failure that is normally associated with tall and slender

buildings with relatively small foundations

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Mechanics of Material

Forces and Stress

Stress/Strain

Force and Stress

Type

Animation/
Image

Description

Axial Stress

stress produced by a tension or compression force that acts perpendicular

(or normal) to the surface area under stress. Normal stress is calculated
-by dividing the tension or compression force by the cross-sectional area
resisting the force.

Bearing Stress

stress produced by the pressure or intensity of a force at the contact point

of two bodies or structural members

Compression
Force

a force that pushes the fibers of a material closer to each other

Creep

deformation of a structure over an extended time

Flexure

the bending of a material under load application

Lateral Forces

forces applied in the horizontal direction

---

Normal (axial)
Stress

stress produced by a tension or compression force acting perpendicular

to the surface area under stress

---

Shear Force

an effect that produces shifting of horizontal or vertical parallel plains of

a material

Shear stress

stress that is produced by a force applied parallel to the stressed area.

Shear stress is calculated by dividing the shear force by the parallel area
resisting the force.

Stress

describes the intensity of a force and is expressed by the amount of force

acting per unit of area

Stress
Concentration

the accumulation of stress on a small section or area of an object

Tension Force

a force that pulls or stretches the fibers of a material away from each
other

---

---

Thermal Strain the change in material dimensions as a result of temperature changes

---

Thermal Stress the expansion and contraction of a material due to thermal change

---

Torsion

the twisting and distortion of a materials fibers in response to an applied

load

Stress/Strain
Type

Breaking Point

Description
The maximum point in which a material can elongate; the point at
which a material fails or breaks when subjected to a stress

Elastic Deformation

Temporary deformation of a material where the material

subjected to a load or force, returns to its original dimensions
once the load or force is removed

Elastic Range

Range on the stress/strain curve in which a material will return to

its original state once the stress is removed

Hooks Law

Law named after Robert Hook in 1678 that describes the stressstrain relationship in elastic materials is linear and proportional
under moderate loading.

Modulus of Elasticity The ratio of the stress inflicted on an element to the strain that is
(Youngs Modulus)
produced

Plastic Deformation

Permanent deformation in a material subjected to load that

remains in place after the load is removed

Plastic Range

Range on the stress/strain curve where a material permanently

deforms and remains deformed after the stress is removed

Stiffness

Measure of a materials rigidity; a materials ability to withstand

deformations under stress; slope of the stress/strain curve

Diagrams

Strain

Deformation of the physical dimensions of an object subjected to a

stress

Strain Hardening

A stage beyond yield stress where steel goes through structural

changes that result in increased strength and resistance to further
deformation

Stress

Describes the intensity of a force and is expressed by the amount

of force acting per unit of area

Ultimate Strength

The maximum force that can be applied to a material without

breaking the material

Yield Stress

The point at which stress causes a material to permanently

deform

Connections
Connections are key elements that bind one or more structural elements together. Connections
can be used to allow or disallow certain types of motion and vary according to material and/or
system.

Connection Types
Connection Type Matrix
Wood Connections
Steel and Concrete Connections

Connection Types
Type

Description

Simple (Shear)
Connection

a type of structural joinery that resists shear forces but does not
resist bending moments

Semi-Rigid
Connection

a type of structural joinery that restrains translation and permits

partial rotation of the connecting members

Rigid (Moment)
Connection

a type of structural joinery that resists both shear forces and

bending moments

Animations

Connection Types
Type

Wood

Steel

Concrete

Simple

Semi-Rigid

Rigid

Not Available

Not Available

Steel and Concrete Connections

Type

Description

Image

Arc Welding

a welding process to connect steel elements. An electric

current passes through a metal electrode producing intense
heat that melts and fuses the electrode rod as well as a small
portion of the connecting elements

Bolt

a type of fastener that can resist withdrawal and lateral loads

significantly more than nails and screws

Common
Bolts
structural steel bolts composed of low carbon steel that have a
(Unfinished Bolts, ASTM
smaller load capacity than high strength bolts
A307)

an extrusion or cleat on a concrete column in which beams

rest on

Corbel

a type of high strength steel bolt that releases silicone that is

Direct Tension Indicator
embedded in the depressions of the washer when the desired Bolts
amount of torque is applied

Fillet Weld

a type of weld that is used to join overlapping elements

Groove Weld

a type of weld that is used between adjacent members

High
Strength
(A325, A490)

Bolts

structural bolts composed of high strength steel that are

tightened with an impact wrench to produce friction type
connections

Haunch

a structural steel section cast in a column that provides an

overhanging bracket for beam attachment

Impact/Torque Wrench

a wrench that can be calibrated to apply a specific amount on

torque

Rivet

a smooth, screw like fastener that is pushed through adjacent

members and pneumatically hammered and heated to
produce an anchoring head on the opposite side of the rivet
head

Rebar Jacket

a sleeve that is used to join reinforcement steel bars to provide

a continuous connection between two structural elements

Twist
Off/Tension a type of high strength bolt that releases the splined extension
Controlled Bolts
of the bolt when the optimum amount of torque is applied

Welding

a method of joining steel elements by heat

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Lateral Systems
Lateral Systems are structural devices that supplement the primary components of a structure to
provide additional stability against lateral forces

Lateral Load Resisting Systems

Lateral Load Resisting Systems

Type

Braced Frames

Description

Truss structures that provide diagonal paths for transferring

lateral loads through a structure in vertical planes. Examples
include cross bracing and knee bracing.

Building
Configuration

the form, geometry, scale, arrangement of the building mass and

structure

Cross Bracing

bracing used in frames that resist lateral forces in two or more

directions

Diaphragms

structural elements that resist and collect lateral forces in the

horizontal planes of a structure and transfer them to the vertical
bearing elements

Drift

deflection of a building under lateral loads

Earthquake
(Seismic) Forces

lateral forces caused by the shifting of plates below the earths

surface that act mostly at the base of a structure

Knee (K) Bracing

short diagonal bracing linking horizontal and vertical members

that effectively makes a rigid connection where two members are
connected

Animation/
Image

Moment Resistant structural frames that are constructed with rigidly connected
Frames
joints

Re-Entrant
Corners

differential stiffness in a structure caused by irregular geometries

Shear Walls

structural walls made of rigid materials that resist lateral loads in

the vertical plane

Soft Story

the result of insufficient strength and stiffness of a specific floor

structure that is inconsistent with the rest of the building floors

Torsion

a twisting effect that results when applied loads located at the

center of mass of a structure do not coincide with the center of
stiffness

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Foundations
Foundations consist of the array of structural elements that connect a structure to the ground.
The design of foundations is affected by several factors, including the size and shape of the
structure, and geological and geographical conditions of the site.

Shallow and Deep Foundations

Retaining Walls

Shallow and Deep Foundations

Foundation
Shallow
Foundation

the interface of a building structure with the ground

a type of foundation that is used when the earth directly beneath a structure has sufficient
bearing capacity to sustain the loads from the structure

Deep Foundation a type of foundation that is used when the soil near the ground surface is weak

Shallow Foundations
Type

Cantilever
Wall

Combined
Footing

Mat/Raft
Foundation

Description

a type of foundation wall that consists of a stem and a base slab that is held
in equilibrium by self-weight, horizontal soil pressure, and the reaction of
the base structure acting upward

a footing that is used under two or more vertical elements to prevent

overturning from eccentric loading

a large slab foundation that is used instead of multiple spread footings

the most widely used type of shallow foundation that is designed to receive
Spread Footing the concentrated loads directly on the centroid to prevent unequal pressure
distribution and overturning of the footing

Strip Footing

Wall Footing

an extended footing used under foundation walls; strip footings are used in
basements, crawlspaces, and for slabs-on grade.

elongated spread footings that transfer loads from load bearing walls. Wall
footings are used in substructures such as slabs-on-grade, crawlspaces and
basements.

Images

Deep Foundations
Type

Battered
Piles

Description

an inclined pile that is used that can resist lateral forces as well as vertical
forces

Bearing
Piles

a type of pile that is used to resist lateral loads and uplift forces

Caissons

a type of deep foundation that is achieved by casting concrete into drilled holes

Friction
Piles

a type of pile that resists loads by friction and transfers loads to the
surrounding soil using the adhesive resistance between the pile surface and its
surrounding soil

Pile

Images

a long and slender deep foundation that is driven pushed into the ground

Retaining Walls
Type

Description

Crib Wall

a retaining wall used for outdoor earthworks and landscaping

Images

Foundation
Wall

a structural element that is constructed below grade to support the earth

and resist water pressure

Gravity Wall

foundation wall that relies on its own weight to resist overturning forces
from soil and water pressure

Key

extrusion on the base of a cantilevered retaining wall that prevents sliding

Sheeting

temporary walls that hold back the soil during excavation

Sheet Pile

type of sheeting that consists of vertical planks of wood, steel, or reinforced

concrete that are driven into the earth

Slurry Wall

a type of sheeting that consists of trenching the ground, reinforcing the

trench, and filling the trench with concrete.

Soldier
Beams

a type of sheeting that uses vertical piles tied together by lagging

Stem

portion of foundation wall that extends or cantilevers into the soil

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