/ -

/ /

/
/
/ . 1,
( ?) (
/ ),
,
,
.
.

, /,
, /
. /
/
//
.

, .
(Kelley, Amodio, & Lindsay, 1996),
(Hyman, Husband & Billings, 1995),
(Garry, Manning, Loftus, & Sherman, 1996; Heaps & Nash, 1999),
(Mazzoni, Loftus, Seitz, & Lynn, 1999).
, ,
,
/ .


,
/ . (Hyman, Gilstrap, Decker, &
Wilkinson, 1998; Hyman & Kleinknecht, 1999; Lindsay & Read, 1994; Pezdek, Finger, &
Hodge, 1997). , Pezdek et al. (1997) /
15% ,
(
). / (Pezdek et al.,
1997), /

/. /
,
/
. 29 (10%)
[
Loftus 2002

]
,

/ /
. , /
/ .
/
/

// . (Loftus, 1997; Mazzoni, ).
, / / /
.

/ (Mack,
1994), ,
(Spanos, Burgess, Burgess, Samuels, & Blois,
1999). Pezdek et al. (1997),
/ ; /
/
.
,
) , )
. , /
,
/ / .
/
. , . ,

. ,
.
:
, .
)
)
/ , /
.
/
Pezdek et al. (1997) /
/
. , ,
/
.

, )
witnessing )
/ . ,
session (=?) ,
.
, ,

.
Loftus 2002

 ,
.

.
, ,
. (
),
,

. , ,
,
. , /
, /

.
2 (
)
. ,
3, - .


.
(
) . ,
/ (Loftus, 1997; Modi
v. West Virginia Board of Medicine, 1995; Olson v. Morris, 1999). ,
. ,
, ,
,
. , /
.
, , // floor effects
/
/ .

1
1 //


. . ,
/ ( /).
(
). /

/ .
/
.
/ /
Loftus 2002

 (?) ,
.

65
, 430
mass-testing session,
. 12
10 , 13 9
, 11 10 .

. 1 mass-testing session,

40 . 1
(/ / ) 8 ( / /
).
(), 36 .
,
( ). (
?). 1 (
) 8 ( ).

/ ) (1 2)
, ) (5 )
(1 2) .
2, ,
.
. 12 . 12 -
3 . 9
(.. , ,
). / /
, 3 -
/ .
rediability
(?)
. ,
(?) ,
. /
( ).
.


. witnessed
( ) .
(.. , , ,
` , , , ),

Loftus 2002

 ,
, .

,
/ .
3
. 2, 3
.
// ,
.
.
/
/
( 3 ).
/
.
4 / 3.
( 40
mass-test session),
(), 36
.
, 65
were debriefed ( ?) .
/
. , ,
: )
, )
/ / , )

3.
/
/
/ .
/
( ).
,
/
/.


1. 3x2x2 ( x x ) ANOVA
(?) (p<.001)
/ :
, F (1,62) = 981.59, MSE = 1.69; , F (2, 62) = 4.47, MSE = 1.94;
, F(1, 62) = 15.75, MSE = 0.52; x , F (1, 62)
27.13, MSE = 0.54; x , F (2,62) = 9.42, MSE = 0.52; x
, F (2, 62) = 8.3, MSE = 1.7; /, F (2, 62) =
17.88, MSE = 0.55.
Loftus 2002

 1.
/ . ( 1).

M
SD

M
SD

M
SD

0,18
0,39

2,54
1,82

5,36
1,29

5,50
1,18

0,22
0,43

0,32
0,46

5,51
1,30

5,32
1,28

0,28
0,46

0,33
0,48

6,14
1,42

6,09
1,14

- t
t (21) = 6.30, p < .01.
,
- - . ,
-

.

/
.

.
/ ( ),
,
/ .

2. 3x2x2 ( x x ) ANOVA
Loftus 2002

 ( F (1, 62) = 4.16, p

< .05, MSE = 0.93). , , .
( F (1, 62) = 63.21, p < .001, MSE = 0.86). two-way
x , F (2, 62) = 17.55, p < .001, MSE = 0.40,
x , F (2, 62) = 13.03, p < .001, MSE = 0.93. H three-way
F (2, 62) = 25.12, p < .001, MSE = 0.41.
2.
( 1).

M
SD

M
SD

M
SD

1,32
0,47

2,86
1,42

1,27
0,55

1,81
0,96

1,23
0,43

1,23
0,53

1,32
0,57

3,00
1,48

1,27
0,44

1,33
0,46

1,64
0,79

1,54
0,67

: =

t
, t (21) =
5.58, p < .05, , t (21) = 3.46, p < .05. ,
/ ,
, t (21) = 3.10, p = .005. ,
, t
(21) = 5.53.

, /
(?) / -,
( )(?)
Loftus 2002

.
,
.

,
t (42) = 6.13, p < .001.
, (?)
. ,
(=1,54)

, t (42) = .33, p = .74. /,


, t (42) = .10, p < .92. , ,

/ .

,
( = 1,27
). ,
3, .

, /,
, 5 ; 18%
5 /
. 3
. , /, ,
, . , 14%
5
. /
5,33. ,
[ ?] 3.

/
(- ) ,
,
. [, ?]

(e.g., Mazzoni et al., 1999).
, ,
/
. ,
. ,
[ ]
. ,
. ,

, .
Loftus 2002


/ / / ,
,

. , ,
/ / .
( / Hunter & Schmidt, 1990)

2,24,
1,33 1,64 .
, , (14-18%)
. ,

, , ,
.
/ ,

(Garry et al., 1996; Mazzoni & Loftus, 1998; Pezdek et al., 1997).
, ,
/
. ,
/ /
/
.
. ,
,

. ,
. ,
witnessed ,
/ ( ) .
,
, /
(Pezdek et al., 1997);
. /
,
(.. )
.
.
1, :
, /
/
. ;
2 / .

/ .

Loftus 2002

 2,

. . ,
/ / (
). (?)
/ /
.
/ ,
/ .
/ ,

// /.
/ -
mass-testing session, 332
,
.
/ ,
1, / sessions.
, 71 .

. 1,
/ 40 ,
,
. 2,
3 , /
1. 3,
2,
.
2. ,
,
: .
,
, (=.27).
/
, / /
. ,
Pezdek et al. (1997),
/
.
/
[ ?] 2.
- ,
. 1.

. 1 3.
, were thoroughly
debriefed 1.
Loftus 2002

10



3. 3x2x2 ( x x )
ANOVA / /
, : , F (2, 68) = 4.04, p < .05, MSE = 1.07;
, F (1, 68) = 77.82, p < .001, MSE = 0.69. ,
: x , F (2, 68) =
11.66, p < .001, MSE = 0.69; x , F (1, 68) = 4.21, p < .05,
MSE = 0.67; x , F (1, 68) = 11.56, p < .001, MSE = 0.90; three-way
, F (2, 68) = 13.41, p < .001, MSE = 0.67.
3

( 2)

M
SD

M
SD

M
SD

0,21
0,41

2,37
2,03

0,22
0,43

0,62
0,77

0,17
0,39

0,95
1,06

0,30
0,47

1,74
1,32

0,42
0,65

0,67
0,88

0,29
0,46

0,46
0,51

, t (23) =
5.11, p < .001; t (22) = 3.46, p < .002,
/ t (23) = 3.12, p < .005;
, t (22) = 5.93, p < .001; , t (23) = 2.14, p < .05.
,
, , t(23)=4.18, p< .001. ,
, ,
t (22) = 2.82, p < .05. ,
Loftus 2002

11

 , , t
(46) = 4.18, p < .001. , ,
, , t (45) = 5.08, p < .001.
/ /
, /
, t (46) = 1.62, p < .
12. ,

, t (45) = 1.78, p = .08.

/, 3x2x2
ANOVA . O
, , F (1, 68) = 12.78,
MSE = 0.77 ( 4). , ,
, , F (1, 68) = 95.6,
MSE = 0.28.
, F (2, 68) = 1.49, p > .20, MSE = 0.56.
two-way : x ,
F
(2, 68) = 15.8, MSE = 0.27; x , F (2, 68) = 7.48, MSE = 0.78; x
, F (1, 68) = 15.87, MSE = 0.30, three-way , F (2, 68) =
18.31, MSE = 0.33.
4

( 2)

Loftus 2002

12

M
SD

M
SD

M
SD

1,21
0,41

2,08
0,97

1,50
0,72

1,74
0,74

1,13
0,34

1,43
0,59

1,48
0,73

2,96
0,93

1,33
0,48

1,58
0,65

1,42
0,65

1,92
0,77

: =

t
. :
,
t (23) = 4.53, p < .001; , t (22) = 2.61, p = .
016; ,
t (23) = 2.03, p = .031. :
, t (23) = 2.30, p = .031; , t (22) = 6.55, p
< .001; , t (23) = 3.39, p=.003. ,

, , t (23) = 2.90,
p< .013. , , /
, , t (22) = 4.44, p < .001.
,
, , t (46) = 2.82, p = .007. ,
, ,
, t (45) = 3.66, p < .001.
,
, t (46) = 1.37, p
= .182. ,

, t (45) = .34, p=.73.

Loftus 2002

13

 ,
( 1,22, ).
,
.
. ,
5 ;
5 ,
5
. [
?] 3.

,
. , ,

. /
, `,
.
/ 2

1, .
,
, -
(
, Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). 1,92
1 2,42 2. /
1,63 1 0,62 2. ,
,

.

.

3
1, []
. 2, , [ ]
.
/ /
, ,
. 3

.

.
/ -
1 2; / /
, /
. , /
Loftus 2002

14

 .
, /
, ;

,
; /
3.
/ ,
.
,
, , /
.

,
mass-testing,
. , 57
. .
, were debriefed.

. 1,
/ 40 .
( 1),
2. 2, ,
. 3,
2, .
3. , /
: . , / .
1 2 ( ).
( ) / /
, (
) ( 20 ). ,

, . ,

, witnessing
/ , .? ,
.
,
.
, 1 3.


/ 5. 3 x 2 ( x )
ANOVA , F
Loftus 2002

15

(1, 54) = 48.37, p < .001, MSE = 1.21, . ,

, F (2, 54) = 6.44,
p < .005, MSE = 1.21.

5

- (
3)

M
SD

M
SD

M
SD

0,11
0,31

2,37
2,26

0,30
0,57

1,90
1,16

0,61
0,85

1,06
0,87

t
: , t (18) = 4.28, p < .001; , t (19) = 6.03, p < .
001; , t (17) = 2.67, p = .016. ,
, , t (35)= 2.98, p = .005,
, t (36) = 3.16, p = .003.

. , - ,
, ,
.

Loftus 2002

16



/ 6. 3x2 ( x )
ANOVA
/ ,
F (2, 54) = 3.07, p = .054, MSE = 0.54,
, F (1, 54) = 14.96, p < .
001, MSE = 0.18. two-way , F (2, 54) = 11.19,
p < .01, MSE = 0.18.
6
- ( 3)

M
SD

M
SD

M
SD

1,21
0,42

2,05
1,08

1,15
0,37

1,30
0,47

1,39
0,50

1,33
0,49

: =

t ,
, t (18) = 4.40, p < .001,
, t (19) = 1.37, p = .19. ,

.

,
( <1,5
). , ,
Loftus 2002

17

 . ,
5 posttest,
11% 4.
3.

2,
. ,
[ ]
. ,
.
.

.
,
.

.
, ,
,

. / ,
/ 2,42 .
( 1),

. / /
/ witnessed 1,63 ,
witnessed
, 18% . ,

.

( 3), ,
.

,
, , , ,
.
,
( 1, 2 3). ,
( 3). ,
,
( 3).
,
( 1).
Loftus 2002

18


.
; Hyman Kleinknecht (1999) ,
,
(. 179), , / ,

.
/
, ,
,
. / ,
/
.
, / /

, / .
,

. , /

. ,
.

.


. ,
(18% 1)
,
/ ;
, / . ,
. ,
. ,

(Mazzoni et al., 1999).
,
,
. ,
,
. witnessed
/ .
/
witnessed ,
witnessed, .


. 1,
/ ( )
. ( ).
Loftus 2002

19


/ .
/

.
.
(.. ) ,
.
,

, ,
. Hyman et al. (1998)
/ ,

/ .

.
,

. , ,

.
.

/ .

.
,
/
/
. ,
.

/ ,
/
. /

(,
, Mazzoni, Mazzoni et al., 1999).

Loftus 2002

20