LESLEY ADKINS AND Fi ROY A. ADKINS. Oxford Us y Press New York OnfordOxford University Press Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogoti Bombay Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Dares Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuals Lumpur Madras Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi Paris Singapore ‘Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Teadan © 1994 by L Copyrig xy Adkins and Roy A. Adkins First published by Facts on File, Inc 4460 Park Avenue South, New York, New York 10016 First issued as an Oxford University Press paperback, 1998 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All tights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adkins, Lesley Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome / Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. Bom, Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-19-512332-8 (pbk) 1. Rome—Civilization—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Rome—History Chronology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Rome—Pictotial works, 4. Heads of Rome—History—Chronology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Adkins, Roy (Roy A) IL Title DG7S.A35 1998 937-de21 97-49394 987654321 Printed in the United States of Ame:‘There wereno orecularshrinesin Italy to compare with those of Greece, and during the republic the Sibylline books appear to have been the only oracle consulted by the stare. At Palestrina, oracles were given at the temple of Fortun: (on tablets called sorts (lots), which were shufiled by a child who chose one and gave it to whoever was consulting the oracle, As well as Apollo, several other gods were regarded as providing prophesies, includ- ing Faunus and Carments. Incubation was practiced atthe temple of Faunns at Tivoli, where a sheep was Killed and the person consulting the oracle leptin is skin ‘The Sibylline books were a collection of oracles that were consulted when a crisis threatened Rome, ‘The original collection was believed to have been bought from a prophetess called the Sibyl who came from the east and settled in ¢ cave at Cumae. The books were kept ina chest ina stone vault under the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, but after the temple was destroyed by fire in 83 BC, anew collection of oracles ssasmade from di places. These new Sibylline books were transferred by Angustus to the temple of Apollo on the Palatine TEL, Fourteen miscellaneous books of oracles stil survive, which are of Julaeo-Hellenic and Christian ‘origin. Because of the Christian interpolations in the Sibylline oracles, the Sibyls were later considered ‘equal to Old Testament prophets and appear in Christian are and literature. Sibyl (Sib prophetesses, who often had individual names aswell, The Sibyl at Cumae was the most famous, but other Sibyislived in different placesat dfferenttimes. They prophesiedin an ecstatic state and were thougitt to be possessed by Apollo, Albunea was the Sibyl who had culeat Tivoli, and her oracular verses were kept with the Sibylline books at Rome. Under the empire, with increased worship of Greek and Oriental gods, there was increased interest in oracles, Many books of ora- cles circulated, and Augustus seized and burned! 2,000 books of prophecies in an attempt to calm a panic. ‘They were inscribed ent copies which existed in many ia) was the name given to various Astrology Astrology spread from Babylon and Beypt to Italy in the 2nd century BC, and gained a strong hold. Itwas regarded as compatible with religion because if the HANDBOOK TO LIFE I 280 stars foretold the future, the gods muse have willed i Astrology became very fashionable in the early em. pire althoughie wassingled outasa targetby skeptics, unlike other forms of divination. Astrological signs wwere offen incorporated into charms and amulets, From the Ist century virtually everyone (including Christians and Jews) accepted the predictability of fate and the influence of the planets. Rome was par ticularly sensitive to the political implications, and a times of national erisis professional astrologers often were banished. However, such bans were only tem porary, and the emperors had frequent recourse to astrology. Iewas not until Augustine's denunciation cof astrology in the ch century, and the rule of Chris, tian emperors, that astrology was officially probib- ited, although its practice continued nevertheless, FESTIVALS Feriae (or dies ferals) were holidays or festival fo visiting temples and making sacrifices to gods. The same term was used for public festivals and for priv cecasions, such as celebrating a birthday. Festivals were days when the Romans renewed their relation ships with particular gods, usually involving addi tional rituals to what was normally practiced. Failure either to celebrate a festival or to celebrate it abso- lutely correctly would eause the gods to cease being benevolent. There were, therefore, important public ‘ceremonies conducted by state officials as well as private prayers and sacrifices. The public rites took place in the temple ofthe god being honored by the festival. Prayers, rituals and sacrifices were conducted by the priests outside the temple. Citizens might attend the ceremonies, but only as observers and not asparticipans, “There were many festivals dusing the year, butnot all were public festivals recognized by the state and celebrated by state priests. On public holidays work and business (legal and political) were stopped avoid polluting the sacred day. Some work was per mitted (decided by the pons, but it is Tikely that much work went on regardless, and only the pious visiced temples, while others took a holiday. Roman citizens were legally required to observe the rules N_ANCIENT ROMEave wei he exiyan piyaogl log and ama etic dome spa rologes el ca ot recone leer iil pro sere oe festival for to gods. The and forprivate day, Festivals their rlation- vwolving addi- ced. Failure bate it abso- to cease being portant public als as well as blic rites took ‘onored by the cereconducted itizens might srvers and not year, butnot the state and bolidays work “e stopped vvork was per is likely that saly the pious viday. Roman sxve the rules about working but were not obliged to perform acts ot worship. The large number of festivals obviously feduced the number of working days in the year, but nly the Jews (who did not observe the festivals) had ular “rest day” by observing the sabbath; others ddd not have a “weekend!” so the number of working days lost through observance of festivals was not BN hibough festivals alwayshad religious aspect, no gid distinction was made between religious and sec ‘ler activities, and festivals were often occasions of smetryimaking, Public festivals were originally literally ‘feast days" when the local aristocracy paid for meal for their poorer fellow citizens. The public festivals, (ferive putiae) fll inno three groups: feriae tativae ‘were annual festivals on fixed dates, feriae canceptione vere festivals whose dates were sec annually by mag~ istrates or priests and ferie imporativas were ircegalar holidays proclaimed by consuls, practors or dicrators for sach purposes as celebrating a victory ‘The games (uli) had a religious element, havin originated as votive games in honor of Jupiter Op- timas Maximus, which before c, 220.8¢ were the only annval games. Other annual games were established Jater. The games were not strictly ferige but were regarded as festivals, Te is not clear how many festivals were cele outside Italy or onside Rome itself. With some gods, sac as Vediovis, there is wery litte evidence for their ‘worship outside Rome, and none outside ely, so thet celebration of thei festivals was probably geograph- {cally limited. Ie is ikely, hough, that major festivals, such asthe Saturnalia, were celebrated in many parts of the empire. With the rise of Christianity, many festivals were converted 0 the Christian calendar. For ‘example, Caristia (22 February) was converted to the Feast of St, Peter and Lupercalia (15 Febroary) was converted to the Feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary. Perhaps the most significant of such conversions was that of the birthday of the sun god Sol 25 December) to the birthday of Christ sted List of Festivals In Rome at east, some gods and goddesseshad several festival days during the year. The main fesivals are described below, with the most important marked by an asterisk (), Games (ud) formed part of some of the festivals. Bachanalia was the festival ofthelargely. Greck rites (orga) ofthe god Dionysus (also known. 14 Bacebus): lite is mown about these rites, but it seems likely that the festival was celebrated at difer~ cent times in different places, and possibly with differ ing rites, uni it was sanned in 186 80 JANUARY 1 January: Dedicated to Janus. This marked th beginning of the new year, and small gifts were ex changed, especially mpstolight the way through the forthcoming year. Also the festivals of Aesculapius and of Vediovis, 4-5 Jamuary; The Compitalia’ wosa movable festival held between 17 December and 5 January (usually around 3 to 5 January). Itwas celebrated at Rome on aday announced by the city practor.Iewas the festival ‘of the dares ofthe crossroads, held to mark the end of the agricultural year. Shrines were erected at cross- roads where three or four farms met. ‘The shrine ‘vould be open in all four directions to allow passag for the Jar of each farm. A plow was hung up at th shrine, a wooden doll for every free person in the household and a woclen ball for every slave. 5 January: ‘The birthday of the shrine of Viea Pow aiRome. 9 January: “The Agenalia’ was held on 9 January, 17 March, 21 May and 11 December. On each oceasion the rer sacrarwin sacrificed aram, probably an offering ‘0 Janus, Land 15 January: The Carmentalia’ was celebrated to honor Carmentis Jururnalia, festival of Jucurna, was on 11 January, 24-26 January: The Sementivae” (or Peganalia) was ‘a movable festival that was probably held around this time. It is not clear whether this was one or two festivals, particulatlyas it was held on two days with aan interval of seven days. Tt appears to have been a val of spring sawing or for protection of sced sown the previous autumn, or both. Offerings were rade to Tellus on the first day and to Ceres on the nd day ELIGION27 anuary: Festival of Castor and Pollux FEBRUARY Amburbium was a movable festival that appears to have boon held sometime in Febrary to pai the cigy of Rome. It seems to have involved a procession around the city, accompanied by prayers and ser foes 1 Pebraary. Bestival of Juno Soop 5-11 February: Festival of Concordia, The Foma calia” must have started around 5 February. It was a fexivalheldaeRome onacayappointedby the leaders af the ards (aria) and endl on 17 Februacy. Tt appears tohave been celebrated to benefit the frnaer (ovens wsed for parching gran) 13 February: Festival of Faunas held in Rome. A ‘more poptilar festival was held in the countryside an 5 December. Parentalia’ was the festival ofthe dead at Rome, from 13 to 21 Febroary. The last day was for public ceremony, but the preceding days were for private commemoration of the dead. During this fes- tival temples were closed, marriages forbidden and magistrates did not wear their insignia of office 15 February: Lupereala’ involved purication and ferity sites. Ie was orginally a shepherd festival in hhonor of Lupercus,a pastoral god, to ensue fertility of fields and flocks. The festival was ancient and the Romans themselves were uncertain which god was Ipeing worshipped. Lupercus seems to bave been in~ vented in the Augustan period to account for the rituals, Ancient authors cited Invus or Faunus (both identified with Pan) asthe god of Lupereaia. Wor shippers gathered at cave called the Luperel onthe Palatine Hil, where Romulus and Remus were sup- posed to have been suckled by a wolf. At this eave priests called taper sacrificed goats and a dog. Two youths of noble family were smeared with serif blood and the lpericlothed cherselves with parts of the skin of the sacrificed goats. With strips of skin from the goats, they ran with some ofthe magistrates tough Rome's steers, striking everyone they met with the strips to make them fertile. The festival involved snuch revelry and was very popular. Conse quently the early Cristian church could net abolish HaNnpRoox To Lire 1 it, and soin 494 Pope Gelasius T made 15 Februzey the Festival ofthe Purification ofthe Virgin Mary 17 February: Quivinalia’ the festival of Quitins, 21 February: The Feral’ was the public festival of the dead, held on the last day of the Parentalia, when food was carried to tombs for use by the dead, 22 February: The festival of Caristia’ or Cara CoguatiDear Relation). Iewasaday renew amy ties and patch up quorrelsThere wes family med anu offerings othe funy are 23 Februsry: ‘Terminalia' was an annual ritual to worship Terminus (god of boundary stones). Ritals Ancloding a sacrifice and feast) were held a selected boundary stones hy the eneners of converging fields 24 February: Regifogium? was regarded in the late republic ss something of an independence day, cele- brated asan anniversary of the expulsion of the last [king and the beginning ofthe republic. The origin of this festival is likely to have been quite di becoming confused with the expulsion ofthe king st alater date 27 February: Equirvia’ was a festival of horse-racing jnhonor of Mars, Iewas held in the Campus Martius at Rome or, if that was flooded, on the Caclian Hill AA similar festival was held on 14 March, MARCH 1 Mare festival of Mats contining toa least 24 Marchand possibly tothe endothe month The esta appear wo have celebrated Mars both a a war god and sm agrcutaral god, The celebrations incu proe sions with rial dances by the sali, who caried the sacred shields of May in proossion. The Matronalia (festival oF Jano Lucin) ws held on 1 March (the old Now Yea’ Day)- Prayers were offered to Juno and her son Mars husbands gave their wives presentsand female slaves were fasted by their mistress. 7Marchs Festival of Vediovis, 9 March carried in procession by the sali (See 1 March.) The sacred shields of Mars were agai Rome N_ANCIENT 28215 February. gin Mary, Quirines, lic festival of zntalia, when, ia’ oF Cara family meal ual ritual to nes). Rituals darsolected rwing field din the late ce day, cele an of the last, Che origin of te different, ofthe king at pus Martins “aelian Hil to at least 24 ‘The festival var god and ded proces » carried the 2 Mawonalia arch (the old funo and hee ‘wand female arch) | 4March: Bquirria,’ ahorse-racing festival, washeld jt Rome in honor of Mars. (See alto 27 February.) A fostval of Mannuralia is also recorded for 14 March, fut itis unclear if this was a separate festival for HMamurius Veeurins, legendary maker of the sacred shields, or another name ford quirri 15 Marck: Festival of Anna Perenna. This goddess ces to have been a personification ofthe year, and oth publicand private sacrifices were made to her at vit was effectively a New Year's Day festival. Also the festival of Jupiter. {6-17 Marsh: Procession of the ange. (See abo 14 May.) 17 March; “The Liberalia” the festival of Liber Pater and his consort Libera. Itwas celebrated with sacri- s and masks hung on trees. Also the Agonalia” (See 9 January.) 1) March: "This day was called Quingnatrus because ‘owas the fifth day after the Ides of March. Iecame to be regarded as the start of @ five-day festival and holiday (the Greater Quinquatrus’) in honor of Mars. 13 June.) Also the festival of Minerva 23 Merch; ‘Tubilusrium’ was the last day of the Greater Quinquatrus (festivalof Mars) when the te (Cred trumpees — originally war trumpets, butlater ted for ceremonial occasions) were purified. (See slso23 May) 31 March: Festival of Lun: APRIL Ferise Latinae was a movable festival to honos Jupiter Latiais in his role as god of the Latin League. This \wasa joint festival of Romans and Latinson the Alban Mount, ususlly held acthe end of April on days st by themagistrates. The festival dates from thetime when. Alba Longa, not Rome, hu the festival survived into the 3rd century. A white as the chief city of Latium, heifer was sacrificed and eaten ina communal meal by represencatives fromall the citiesin he Latin League. April: Veneralia, the festival of Venus Verticoria. ‘The goddess Fortuna Vitilis apparently was lso wor- shipped as part ofthis festival 4-10 April; ‘The Megalesia’ (Megalensia or Megalesiaca) was a festival with games at Rome in ele. The games included theatrical per~ 1d spectacles in the Circus Maximus (di honor of C Megalenses) 5 Aprils Festival of Fortuna Publica 12-19 Aprik The Cerna” the festival in honor of Ceres, with games in the Circus Maximus onthe final day (di Cervales). One ofthe cult rituals was to let foxes loose in the Cinus Masimas with burning Iran tied vo their was 13 Apt: PesvalsofFopiee Viewrand pier Libertas 15 April: Fordicidis’ wasa festival atRome, at which a pregnant cow vas sttficed tells in each of the 30 ‘wards of che city to promote ferility of catle and the Felds The unborn calves were burned and the ashes ‘were used in a purficatcn rt in the festival of Pari 21 April: Paria” (or Palilia), che festival of Pales. ‘This seems to have bees a ritual forthe purification of sheep and shepherds and was connected with Rome's foundation. Sheep pens were cleaned and decorated with greenery, and the sheep were pmrified in smoke from a bonfire on which sulfur was burned. Mille and cakes were offered to Pales, and shepherds ‘washed themselves in dew, drank milk and leaped through the bonfire. Ar this festival at Rome ashes, ‘at the Fordicidia were sprinkled from ealves burn fon the bontire. Vinalia Prion was the frst of two festivals April held in Rome connected with wine production. (See 19 August) Wine casks filled in che previous draft was offered piter. Originally in ‘autumn were opened, and the firs as a libation (called calor) 10, honor of Jupiter, this festival was later also connected swith Venus. 25 April: At the Robigalia, a rust-colored dog was sacrificed to appease Robigus, the deity of mildew or 28 April-3 May: Florala, a festival of Flora, was a flower festival and a spring festival; if the crops blossomed well the harvest would be good, Under the ‘empire games continued for six days (ludi Flora) RELIGION 283MAY 1 May: Festival ofthe lores prastts. 9 May: “The Lemuria” was held on 9, 11 and 13 May to appease the spirits of the household dead ata time ‘when they were supposed to haunt the house. (The most terrifying of these spirits were those who had died young, since they were thought to beara grudge.) Each householder rose at midnight and made the ‘ano fic sign (the thumb between the middle of the closed fingers —a fertility chatea) and walked bare- foot through the house. As he went he spat out nine blackebeans or else, having first washed his hands, cast black beans aver his shoulder. These were for the ghosts to eatas ransom for the living members of the household whom the ghosts would otherwise carry off. This was accompanied and followed by other rites designed to drive away the ghosts. 11 May: Possibly as par of Lemuria, sacifices were tade to Mania (mother ofthe Jars). Mania seems to have been regarded as a goddess of death, and so a sacrifice to her during Lemuria was likely. 14 May: Festival of Mars Invictus. Also on 14 May Vestal Virgins, pontiff, praetors and others threw 30 argei into the Tiber River. The meaning of these ancient ceremonies has been lost. (See also 16-17 March) 15. May: Festivals of Jopiver and Mercury. A festival ‘of Maia wasalso on 15 May, because she was confused with the Greek goddess Maia, mother of Hermes. He was equated with the Roman god Mercury, who was worshipped on 15 May 21 May: ‘The Agonala, festival of Vediovis, (See 9 January) Also the 23 May: A Tubilustrium festival, a repetition of the ceremony held on 23 March. Also the festival of Vilean 25 May: Festival of Fortuna 29 May: ‘The Ambarvalia’ was a movable festival id at the end of May (probably around 29 ‘May).Iewas both a public and private festival involv ing rituals to pavfy the crops. It therefore involved ‘worship of gods of agriculture, such as Ceres ang Bacchus. Sacrificial animals (pig, sheep and oxea) ‘were led in procession around the old boundaries of Rome, and sacrifices were offered at particular locy. JUNE 1 Jane: Festivals of Juno Moneta and Mars, 3 Fume: Festival of Bellona +4 Jue: Festival of Hercules the Great Custodian 5 June; Festival of Dias Filius 8 Fume: Festival of Mens. 9 Fume: Vesa, the festival of Ves Liane: "The Mawalis” (festival of mothers) was held atRome in honor of the goddess Macer Matuta. Also the festival of Fortuna Virgo. 13 Fane: Festival of Jupiver Tnviewas. The Lesser Quinguatras also took place 13 to 15 June, and was 3 festival of the guild of fute-players, who played an important part in religious ceremonies. See alsa Greater Quinguatrus (19 March). 19 June: Festival of Minerva, 20 June: Festival of Summanus. The calt ofthis god seems to have dwindled by the Iste republic 24 Fune: Festival of Fors Fortuna 25 June: The Taurian Games’ were held every five years in honor of the gods of the underworld (di infer. Festivals of lares and of Jupiter Stator. JULY 1 Jay: Festival of Juno, HANDBOOK TO LIFE IN ANCIENT ROME 284as Ceres and) ep and oxea) boundaries of articular loca: Mars. Custodian, ters) washeld ‘Matuta. Also ‘The Lesser neyandwasa no played an es, See alo eof this god olie. Id every five lerworld (di | Stator, s July The Poplifia (Might ofthe People) wasan 1g seems to have been gacient festival whose mean Jost at an early date, 6-13 July: Games in honor of Apollo’ (ludi “Apolinare). Originally they took place on 13 July, but they proved so popular that they were gradually ex- tended backward until, by the late republic, they ‘began on 6 July. Following the games, six days were setaside for markets or fairs. 7 July: Festival of the Peles. This day was also the ‘Nonae Capcotinae (non2sof the wild fig) oa which the feast of the serving women was held. Juno Caprotina ‘wasworshipped at this festival, which commemorated snincidentin which serving women were instrumen- talin removing a Latin army’s threat to Rome. 13 July: Se 6 uly. 17 July: Festivals of Flonos and Virtus and of Victo- 19 Fly: Lovcaria’ was held on 19 and 21 July. This festival was celebrated in a large grove between the Via Salaria and the Tiber, but is meaning has been lost 207ely (Games) lasted from 20 to 30 July. The games were in honor of Julius Caesar and of Victoria, a goddess closely connected with Caesar. ‘The lad Victriae Caesar (Caesar's Vietory Festival of Concordia, 23 jul: Neprunalia, festival of Nepeune Farrinalia,’escval ofthe goddess Furrina Festival of Fortuna Hiuiusque, AUGUST 1 August: Festivals of Spes and Vietora, SAugurts Festival of Salus. 9Auguits Festival of Sol Indiges. 12 August: Festivals of Hercules Inviewss and Venus Viewrix 13 August: Festivals of Diana, Vertumnus, Fortuna quests, Hereules Invictus, Castor and Pollux, the (Camenae and Flore. 17 Aug: Portunalia” the festival of Portunus. Also the festival of Janus 19 August: Vivalia Rustica’ wasa festival wo celebrate thesearcof the grape harvest, in which the first grapes were broken off the wine by the flamen dial. See also Vinalia Priora on23 Sori 21 August: Consualia’ the festival of Consus. An- ‘other Consualia was on 15 Decembe 23 August: Voleansli the festival of Vulean. Cele brations in honor of Maia and Hora, both at times regarded as consorts of Vulean, also tookplace on this day. Ops and the nymphs were also worshipped, but their connection with Vulean is unclear, 24 August: Festival of Luna. Also on this day the ‘over was removed from the mazdus (ritual pit). This allowed the spirits ofthe underworld to roam abroad, and so the day was holy and public business was forhidden. The cover was aso removed on 5 October and 8 November 25 August: Opiconsivia,” festival of Ops. Her other festival was on 19 December. See also 23 August. 27 August: Voleurnalia’ the festival of Voltums (Observance ofhis culeappearsto have decined by the date republic 28 August: Festival of Sol and Luna SEPTEMBER I September: Festivals of Jupiter the Thunderer, Jupiter Liber and Juno Regina 5 September: Festival of Jupiter Stator. 5-19 Sepeembers. Lah Reman (or lui magni) were games held in honor of Jupiter Optimus Meximus. RELIGION 28sOriginally taking place only on 13 September, they gradually expanded to cover half the month 13 September: Festival of Jupiter Optinnns Maximns, Juno and Minerva 23 September: Festival of Apollo 26 Septembers. Festival of Venus Genetrx. OCTOBER Festivals of Fi 1 October les and Juno Sororia 4 Ostabr: A fast in honor of Ceres. Fast days were very rare; most religious celebrations were feasts, (Originally tis fast day had been ordered by t ate to take place every five years as prescribed by the Sibylline books, butby the Augustan period itwasan ‘annual event. 5 Oussber (Gee 24 August) ‘The cover was removed froin the mi 7 Ocober- Festivals of Jupiter Fulgur and Juno Car 9 October: Festivals of the Genius Publicus, Fausta Felicitas and Venus Vietrs. 10 Ozber: Festival of Juno Moneta. 11 October: Festival of Meditrinalis.” It was con- ‘cemed in some way wich the new wine vintage and trad some connection with Jupiter. 13 Octaber; Fontinals,” festival of the god Fons. In honor ofthis god of springs, garlands were thrown {nto springs and placed around the tops of wells 14 Oavber:. Festival ofthe Penates. 15 October: Festival of Jupiter. The Capitoline (Gormes in honor of Jupiter also took place on this day. 19 October: Armilusteium,” the festival of pusifica- tion of arms, was held in honor of Mars. ‘The salii danced in procession, and then the armor and the HANDBOOK TO suered shields were purified and put sway until the next year. 26 Octeber-1 No (Gulla's Vietory tra mber: The hui Vietriae Sullenoe ames) in honor of the goddess Vic. NOVEMBER 1 Nozember See above. 4-17 Novonber: Ladi plebei? Plebeian Games) in honor of Jupiter: 5 Novemier: ‘The cover was removed from the rrndns. (See 24 August.) 13Novemer: Festival ofupiter. A feast of Jupiter on this day provided a central point in the Plebeian Games. Also festivals of Feronia and Fe Primigenia DECEMBER 1 December sivals of Neprane and Pietss 4 December: Festival of BonaDea,’a celebration that Fell between the categories of public and private wor ship. It wasattended by the Vestal Virgins buc was not ‘celebrated in the temple of Bona Dea, butin the howse ‘ofa consil or praetor with only women present 5 Decemter: Festival of Faunus, an ancient festival hheld in the countryside rather than the city. 8 Decomber: Festival of Tiberinus. 8 deity called ‘Gaia appears to have been worshipped in connection swith Titerinus at tis festival 11 Decenber: “The Agonalia.” See 9 January.) Abo Septimentia, apparent a festival conducted by the people ofthe seven ills of Rome in honor ofthe hills 12Decenber: Festival of Consus 15 December: Festival of Telus. 15 December: Consuali,’ the second major festival of Consus See also 21 August. IN ANCIE vr ROME, 286away until the ‘oriae Sullsnae he goddess Vie. sian Games) in coved from the -atofJupiteron nthe Plebeian a and Fortuna vd Piers, celebration that and private wor gins butwasnot batin the house ven present ancient festival A deity called din connection 3 January) Also ducted by the ‘onor ofthebills major fetivalot 11-24 December: Savarnalia’ was originally cele- hyated on 17 December, ur by the late republic the festival extended from 17 to 23 December. It was 2 ‘winter solstice Festival to honor Samra as the god of a sowing. This festival was eplaced by Christmas, and many ofthe festivities and customs ofthe Satut- nulls uch asi being a me of enjoyment, cheerfal goodwill lighting of eandes andthe giving ofgifis)wereabsorbedinco che Chistian festival The festival began with asacifce atthe temple of Saturn, followed by public feast open to everyone. Albus ness ceased, there was a general holiday and on this ‘one oceasion in the year people were allowed to play gambling games in publi. Everyone wore holiday lothes and che sofe cap (ile), slaves were let off theicdutiesandmighteven beserved bytheirmastes, and each hovsehold chose a mockkkng to preside over the festivities 18 Deembers Bestival of Epona, 19 December: Opala’ the second major festival of Ops. (See 25 August) There may have been a festival of Juventason this day 21 December: Divalia Angeronae, a fesivalin honor of Diva Angerona. 22.Decemibers Festival of the lores 23 December: Larentalia,’ che festival of Acca Larentia, This consisted of funeral rites atthe sup- posed tomb of Acca Larentia, 25 December: This day took on significance only after the tise of the cult of Sol Invictus in the 3rd ‘century, since in the Julian calendar 25 December the midwinter solstice. This “birchday ofthe sun” was later converted to.a Christian festival DRUIDISM Relatively tele is known sbout the Druidie reli because the basic doctrines were kept secret. Mut -whatisknown comes from the observations of ancient Roman authors such as Julins Caesar. Celtic society ‘was controlled by anslite class thathad three sections: Druids, Vates and Bards. According to Caesar, Dru: ‘die power originsted in Britain, which remained the center of Druidism. The cule appears to have been centered around a belief that after death the soul passed to another body, human or animal. Not only did this lead to the Celts being fearless in battle, but it also sanctioned the human sacrifices that seem to 1 part of some Druidic rituals. Criminals, captives in butte and innocent people were at times sacrificed for various purposes, such as propitiation of the gods after disasters or thanksgiving for victories, but mainly for purposes of divination. Druids were more than priests, since they con- trolled the warriors end, through them, the rest ofthe people. They did not have a monopoly of re power—the Vates and the Bards also had religious fanetions. The Druids appear to have dominated the ruling class and to have been a unifying element between tribes, presiding over religious assemblies involving more than one tribe. The Druids were educated and knowledgeable in astronomy andastrel- ogy, and divination wae undoubtedly part of their duties, They were also thought to have powers ov the elements and the ability to cast spells. Both An gzustus and Tiberius published edicts against the and Claudius proscribed! Druidism in Gaul in 54 In 60 there was ¢ concerted effort to break the power of the priesthood in Britain. The Druids were perse- cured allegedly besause the Romans objected co human sacrifice. However, as a unifying force be- tween independent tribes for Celtic resistance, the Druids were also a political threat. Its difficat co assess what effect the suppression of the Druids and ‘of human sacrifice had on Celtic religion. The ample cvidence for worship of Celtic gods after the suppres- sion implies that it was the priesthood rather than the religion that the Remans wished to eradicate. Hlow- ever, in the 4th century Ausonius alludes to Druids in Aquitaine, soit is deubsful whether their suppression was ever complete have b ORIENTAL RELIGIONS By the late republic religious cults from the east bad sgained a popular following in Rome and Iealy, mainly. RELIGION 287