Professor Seth Lerer is Avalon Foundation in Humanities and Professor of the University of Chicago, 23 publisied 10 books, inci English of the Lan Guidebook Contents Part 1 of 3 Lecture 12 Introduction tothe Study of Language Lecture 2: The Historical Study of Language Lecture 3: Indo-European and the Prehistory of Enlish Lecture &: Reconstructing Mearing and Sound Lecture 5: Historical Linguistics and Studying Culture Lecture 6: The Beginnings of English Lecture 7: The Old English Worldvlew Lecture 8: Did the Normans Really Conquer English? Lecture 9: What Old the Normans Do to English? Lecture 10: Chaucer's English Lecture 11: Dialect Representations in Middle English Lecture 12; Medieval Atitudes toward Language Ti Tescanye Company S151 Lafayette Center Drive Site 100 Chantilly, VA 2015-1 Phone: I-800-TEACH Fax 703-378381 ate gow TEACH com =a Literature & English Language The History of the English Language, 2 Edition Taught by: Professor Seth Lerer Stanford University Part 1 Course Guidebook Py @THE TEACHING COMPANYSeth Lerer, Ph.D. Avalon Foundation Professor in Humanities and Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Stanford University Seth Lereris the Avalon Foundation Professor in Humanities and Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Stanford University. He holds degrees, fom Wesleyan University (B.A., 1976), Oxford University (B.A., 1978). and the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1981), and he taught at Princeton University from 1981 to 1990, when he moved to Stanford. Dr. Lerer has published 10 books, including Chaucer and His Readers (Princeton University Press, 1993) and Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language (Columbia University Press, 2007), and he is the author of more than 100 scholarly articles and reviews, Professor Lerer has received many awards for his scholarship and teaching ‘including fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Guggenheim Foundation, the Beatrice White Prize of the English Association of Great Britain, the Harry Levin Prize of the American Comparative Literature Associaton, and the Hoagland Prize for Undergraduate Teaching at Stanford 12008 The Teaching Company. iTable of Contents The History of the English Language, 2" Edition Professor Biography Course Seope Lecture One Lecture Two Lecture Three Lecture Four Lecture Five Lecture! Lecture Seven Lecture Fight Lecture Nine Lecture Ten Lecture Eleven Lecture Twelve Timeline Glossary Biggraphisal Notes... i raphy Part | pes ei Al Introduction othe Study OF Language enon 2 The Historia Saly of Langvaze 3 Indo-European andthe Peis OT Eng 2 Recorsrcting Meaning and Sound 16 isevea Linguistic nd Studying Cutan 21 The Resinnings of English 25 The Ol English Worle eonnnnn dL Dish Normans Really Conquer Eng ane 37 {What Did the Normans Dot English? 2 Chaucer's Enalish 7 Dialet Representations in Mile Engh 52 Medieval Atitudes toward Language 56 ‘The History of the English Language, 2" Edition Scope: This course of 36 lectures surveys the history of the English language, from its origins a a ialect of German-speaking peoples, through the literary and ‘cultural documents of is 1.300-yeae span, othe state of American speech ofthe preset day. In ation to surveying the spoken and writen forms of the Tanguaue ove time, the couse also focuses on larger socal eonecras about language use, varity, and cange: the relationship between spelling and pronunciation; the notion of dialect and variation across geographical and eliss boundaries the arguments conceming English as an oficial language and the status of standard English; the role ofthe dictionary in describing and Prescribing usage: and the ways in which words change meaning, aswell asthe ‘manne in whieh English speakers have coined and borrowed new words from ther languages ‘The course isin three parts, Prt focuses on the development of Enis i its earliest forms. We begin wit the study of Indo-European, the posited $,000- ‘year-old original from which the modern and classical European raian, and Tian languages emerged. From Indo-European, the lectures move tothe Germanic branch of languages and to the Alo-Saxons who settled the Betish [sles beginning inthe ¥ century. Ok English emerges as he literary vernacular ofthe Anglo-Saxons and flourishes uni the Norman Conquest in the mid-11" ‘sentry. The interplay of English, French and Latin From the 11" othe 1 ‘etree generates the forms of Middle English in which Chaucer, among ters, wrote, and gives us sense of a wrlingual medieval Bish cule. Par 1 Begins with he reemorgence of English a an oficial language after the decline of Fench inthe 15" century. Ths sct of lectures charts the changes in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary that distinguish Middle English from Maden English ci particular the Great Vow! Shift) Itlooks closely atthe ris ofan English Hterary veraculr, especially in Shakespeare, Min, the ‘King James Bible, and the detonaryof Samuel Joison, and it suggests some ‘ways in which We can trace changes in word meanings by using the resources of historical dietionares, Par II Focuses on American English and the modes of studying the history of the language today, The lectares explore the rise of America dale, differences between American and Gris pronunciation and usage ad the emergence of distinctive American voees in iterate, social crtiism, and polities. The lnguises of Alrican-Americans and he plage of English 2s 0 ‘world language texture our appreciation of te varieties of what Enis has bocome, andthe course conclides with soe provocations onthe scenic study oF language, the rise a linguists as an aeaderie discipline, a he Possible fare of English in societyLecture One Introduction to the Study of Language Scope: The purpose of his course fs to tree the development of the English langtage from its earliest forms tothe present. To do so, we need a ‘working notion of what language is and how itehanges—we need io Know the subject of our study. We also ned to develop certain tools For stung tat subjeet—we need a method. And we need 1 know ‘what questions to ask about the English language, beth in its historical forms and in its eurren usages—we need a pont of view In this etre, we will defer forthe mornent he lrg questions of subject and method and concenateon point of view. Many af are ners in the isto f language Because it nay hep us answer uetons ve have about anguge and soit ody. Questions about ‘he aandariaton of English, about English as an fal angung, nd abot the relationship among sping, pronunciation, grammar and sie areal anes we may have aed since made school This lsete surveys the coment and approaches ofthe course asa whole by Framing these questions historically. It anticipates mary of the iss we will explore in detail in inter lectures. It so provides a se of reference poins fr recognizing that even inthe welter of | ‘echnical deal sometimes necessary tthe historia study of Fgh, issues of langage and behavior vital to our lives are always behind this study, Outline ‘What is English? Where didi come fom? Where i it going? In hese lectures, we wll look at some ofthe ways in whic the English language developed fro OM! to Middle to Modern English and how the study of langnage inthe 1-21" centuries has affected the ways in which we tink ‘of ourselves as speakers ofthe language. [Ac Among the many questions we mus ask inthis stdy is: Precisely what isthe English language? Lets begin by looking at some passages fom aitferenc periods in English 1. The fist selection we hear inthe Nethumbriandialet of Old Enlish, the pet of Caedmon, from about the Year 680 2. The second selection i the famous opening lines trem Cheer" Canterbury Tales, sien in Middle English athe end of the 14 century Finally, we hear Hants famous solloguy, writen by Shakespeare in the late 16" century e BB. In this course, we will not simpy trace how the language change from ‘Old to Middle to Modern Enalish, but ve will explore metiods forthe study of language, We will ao look a problems that motivate the historia! stay of English, as well as texts and comets tat may help us understand the origins of English, is Herary and cular amis, and the Fate of the language 1 Many dobats inthe sudy of E pst. The ist of thes js: Should theo be a*stondard En ‘A. Ascariys the 10" century, teachers in the church schools of Anglo- ‘Saxon England argued about this sare issue. Some claimed that rules shouldbe established fo spelling, pronuneaton, dialect and usage. B,_ Inthe later medieval ptiod, from the 38 t0 the 15" centuries, ‘questions arose about shat constitued a standard. Should it be the speech of London oF another region? Should it include French wards? Inthe 16° and 17" centuries, pedagngues and pda dbated whether «standard shouldbe grounded in university education, D, Inthe 18% and 19" centuries, these debates were played out inthe courts, soos, and official loc of royal administration, E. American English also invites us o ask questions about a standards ‘Should we use regional standard as a model of should we take standards from learning and education? IML, Questions abou standards lead vs to another central question ofthis course: ‘Should the study of language be preserptve or descptive? [A.A itionary ostensibly records conan aspects of a languaze, such as spelling, mesning, pronunciation, and usage. But by recording such Aspirated stop th 1 Aspirated stop 4 k Aspirated stop 1V. What do these correspondences mean in practical fms? [AL We ean see historical elationships by comparing, for example, eerain English and Latin words lip labia, tooth dents, heartcardia: sllicholeri,kneo/genuflec, fou pedal BB, We can also use Grimm’s Law, and other sound relationships, t0 recover something ofthe world ofthe Indo-Europeans. 1. All the surviving Indo-European languages havea word, foe {meaning a certain amount of money), that cortespondsf ant word in Germanic languages and a “pe” word in non-Germanic languages. 2. InModem Gennan, Vich means cae ot cow: This eomresponds in Latin to pecos or pecuniary, words for money. What do these cognates (one meaning cow and one meaning money) tl us about 3. Scholars hypothesize that weal was measured in terms of| livestock in te early Indo-European word, The reconstruction of| sound here leads @ reconstruction of society 4. Another example found inte Latin word cara, which means dear one, The “ko sound at he begining ofthis word should correspon 0a “h-” sound a the beginning ofa Germanic word {and it does —avhore. In Old English, the word whore meant dear ‘ne. I later eae to mean ane who is dear thai, expensive C._ When we look st historical relationships among languages, we see how othe languages. 1. The Greek word Mos means fone shat has heen iransported by son or song, The Greek “Kl” sound originally corresponded to ‘Gonnanle “bi” sound. This sound cluster has been lost 00.u, b10 fens in our words fésten and ‘we retain the early relation: Tod. 2. Thename ofthe Greek hero Herakles (whom we call Hercules) s ‘made up of Hera, the goddess and hieos: dus, he is someone who has fame on aecount of Hera. 1D. About 25 years ago, Calvert Watkins, perhaps the greatest Indo- Europeanist of our time, as able to apply these techniques of language study toa tablet nseribed in Hite. According o Dr. ‘Watkins this tablet vas a Trojan version of Homer's Mad the epic tale {old from the point of view ofthe losers Reading: John Algeo, Problems i the Origins and Development ofthe English Language Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, 4 History ofthe English Lanenege Emile Benveniste, Indo-European Language an Society. Calvert Watkins, Dhe American Heritage Diuionay of Indo-European Rooks, Questions to Consider: 1 What sth historical relationship btyeen English and the Germanic 2. Give examples of how Grimm's Law aecounts for diferenes in pronunciation among certain Indo-European languages, 20 {2008 The Teaching Company Lecture Five Historical Linguistics and Studying Culture ‘Scope: This lecture explores the way in which we may resonstruct sounds an meanings ofthe older Indo-European languages and, in the process, eam something about the shared ultural and historical contests fom hich the Genmanic languages and ulinaely English emerged. Indo-European resonstrction involves conducting statistical comparison of the sound relationships of cognate words in surviving Iamauaees, then proceeding back 1o reconsiueteriginal Indo-European Forms (In this couse, forms are identified as reconstructions by a preceding asterisk.) The semante values 0 meanings, ofthe survivin words are then compared to attempt toreconstuc a ld of menings for references forthe original er, Outline In this lecture, we'll extend our use ofthe technigues of comparative and historical philology to understand the socil and imaginative world ofthe Indo-European peoples. In particular, we'll see how the relationship between the real and the imagined in Indo-European eultue informs some ‘ofthe grea themes and genres of the Westem literary adition Schoars have reconstructed a belief system fr the Indo-Europeans based ‘ona pantheon, aealecton of many gods A. ‘The word pantheon itsell s made up of Indo-European roots, The word ‘hoo in Greek comes from the same reeonsiructed Indo-European root as deus or Zens: *aveu, This root means light oF shine, Overtime. this toot lso gave us the Latin word dies, meaning dy 1. Thus, scholars assume thatthe eiet deities ofthe Indo-European peoples were gods of sky sun, or lg 2. The pan in pantheon means al, but is also the Indo-Earopean root for fe. Scholars draw a connection here between the five fingers on one hand (ll he fingers) and the whole number or sum ‘of something. BL Atthe top of the pantheon would be the “henep estat, dens, sou, and pater, jarher This suggests a paternalistic structure othe ‘pandheon, and indeed the idea oF god the father appears in several Indo-European languages, inluding Latin, Spoken quickly together the words des pater Became Jupiter. The scholar Calvert Watkins found another “father god" inthe Hite langage. ©The word cre (in Latin, the verb meaning / alive) comes from the Indo-European rot redid Cred or kerd isthe rot fo hear. anddhcis the root for to pul, to donate, or fo give. Thus. credo comes from ‘am aneiont Indo-European expression that means 1 place Di defeat The Indo-European rot for to buris *sep-lo, which i elated to a \erb meaning to versrate th deal. ln Latin, this root became sepelie to bur, which became in English, sepulcher, IIL In ation to theological terns, he Indo-European languages are rch with legaltems, [AL Our words fa and legal come from the same words that give us to lin, A la practice or custo that links or binds the 1B, As mentioned in previous eeture, among the earliest correspondences identified in languages that descended from Indo-European rots were ‘words for rule ncerestingly, such words also survive in languages on the geographical peripheries of Indo-European culture, such ss ri in ‘Celie and rain Inc. This suggests that the Indo-Europeans caried their motions of rulership with them in thei aration. C. Indo-European peoples were also bound by habits of exchange, thats, _il-giving and hosting, However, Indo-European roots forgiving and ‘aking often descend into later languages with opposite meanings. 1. Forexample, the Indo-European root Ydhdbecame dorare caning fo ive, in Latin bul do, meaning 1 tobe oF fo receive, in| Hitite. 2. The root "nom, giving, became Nemesis in Gree. the god who retest justice, but italso became German nefines, meaning 20 ke. 13. The root “ghost descends into words meaning beth hos and ges, suggesting a shared social ritual. This root gives us xenas, surager, in Greek and bath hosus (ost, asin “host of enemies”) and stile in Latin, We see here a constellation of concepts relating wo strangers as bo potential fiends and enemies. IV, Reconstruction also gives us information about the physical environment and the economy ofthe Indo-Europeans, A. Many ofthe surviving Indo-European languages have roocvord pairs that el us they eultivated grain: "gréno, gra: *rughna, ye *bhares, art 'B, The Indo-Europeans also domesticated animals, as evidenced by such rotiwort pais as "gwon, con: swine: “agwhno, sheep; von Hog "ks, horse, Ierestinaly, all Indo-European languages share a word for dog or hound, but they do not share a word for ea. C. The reconsinited root *peku descends tothe oder languages: Latin, poennia reat) Sanskrit, pas (hese) (Old English, foo (cate) Od Norse, (nassessions) "Modem German, Viel (com) Modem English, fee 1, These words give ns evidence that livestock was form of wealth in Indo-European culture 2, The fact that many ofthe descendant Indo-European langunges share a word for yoke aso tells us that the Indo-European ‘economic system was based on domesticated animal agriculiane losing words in DD. As you recall, the” sound in Germanie languages corresponds fo an sound in non-Germanie Indo-European languages. 1 Germanic languages have a set of words, including flo. and ‘Feather tat seen o ggest maverent through a medi. These ‘ean be iaced 10 a reconstructed Indo-European toot, *pluo from ‘which the French phrase peu s raining is descended 2. Plo, the name ofthe ancient god ofthe underworld also comes from the same eoot a low. The underworld would have been associated with mining and smelting ore. and whem metal becomes mokon, it floss, Thus, Plato iste god of sueh wealth buried in the underworld ‘V._ The literary imagination fa point of considerable inerest. Scholars have reconsiriced shard words for poet and poeiy and for evan literary ‘anceps ‘A. The Latin word yates (seer) is cognate witha set of oer Indo~ European words: Old Irish faidh Chard, Old English wod (era). and the name ofthe Old Norse god Woden or Ocin, who was a master of runes, The Indo-European foot for these words is *iek, which relates to the image of crazed seer, a figure who is both a poet anda ‘madman, [B. The Indo-European roots we and *eks also mean weaving. In Latin, the verb serere means both fo weave with words, which wives us fst, and to eave with droads, which gives us ravi. Many works of literature inthe Wester tradition use the image of poss as weavers of ‘words C._ The Indo-European oot “deh means fo build fron mad or ele The 001 fpara means arowrd: hus, para degh means ro onerele witha ‘mud wall. From this derives the word paradise, which is simply an ‘enclosed space or garden,D, As mentioned earlier, eos is the Greck word for spokem fare, and from this word we gt te name ofthe hero erates. which means redownding tothe prose of Hera, 9s well ashe name Sophocles, who ‘was famous for wisdom. E._ Selo in the 19" century discovered thatthe Greek phrase kfeas “plnitn Candin fame) was an exact cognate withthe Sanskit ‘hase srs asim, and that bath phrases scanned poetically inthe Same a), This discovery led tothe ide of formulae in Indo-European poety and is descendants, 8 we sein such Homeric phrases as “wine-dark sea,” “cow-eyed Penelope.” and “rosy-fingered dawn.” F. Theconcep of the secret or the prophetic as ental to Indo- European literary and religious thought as isthe idea of fame or 1. The Grook word kalyprein means hide tis cognate with English fad, meaning a shell ora eovering, In um, Calypso i the Figure in the Osssey whois a sorceress, one wt hides or conceals, 2. Apocalypse fs the Greek forsaking vay the covering: Latin Uransates this as revelare, which means fo remove the caver or io revel bene, ealy biblical translators used revelation for ‘the fst apocalyptic book ofthe Bible Rea Eile Benveniste, Indo-European Langnge aml Soetey Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Paczle of Indo-Enropean Origins Calvert Watkins, The American Heritage Dictionary’ of Indo-Earepean Rots. Questions to Consider: 1, How does the aet of reciprocal git-siving reveal itself in Indo-European Foot words? 2. What are some Indo-European cognates from the world of agreulture that have been passed down into English? Lecture Six The Beginnings of English Scope: English emerged out of mix of Germanic languages and dialects in the period roughly around the 6" and 7" centres. Our earliest recorded documents ine Brits sles are fram te late 7™ and early ‘centuries, but they give us insight into the kindof language spoken and rien up tox century ear. This Form of English, whi ve know as Old English, was spoken and writen by setts fom the Continent: he Angles, the Saxons, and the utes. Their eulture eame 10 this lecture, we explore the linguistic relationships of Old Enis to its earlier Germanie matrix, We look at key vocabulary terms, many of ‘which are sill in our own language, to trace pattems of migration, Social contact, and intellectual change. We also see how Old English was written down, what survives inthe language, and How the study of these writinas can help us reconstruct the woriview of the Anlo= Saxon peoples. ou 1. The language knovn as Old English canbe defined in four ways |A. Geographically—as a language spoken bythe Germanic settlers inthe Barish Isles 1B, Historically asa language spoken fom the time ofthe Germanic seitement inthe S* century until the Norman Conquest in 1066, G. Genetically as a Lowlands branch ofthe West Germanic group of Finguages. In other words, isa brane ofthe Germanic languages that emerged from languages spoken in what are now Holland nomthern Germany, and Dennark.) 1D. Typologically-asa language with a particular sound systern (phonology), grammatical endings (morgholog), word order patems (ymtax), and vocabulary (ess). ML, Old English is bounded by geography. |A. ‘The carist inhabitants ofthe Brtsh Iles were a group of Paleolithic peoples whe constroted Stonchenge and ther stoneeircle monuments, However, we have no ings, Iterary or verbal remnants oF thee lives 1H. “The caristinhabitans whose language we can recunsiruct wete Cec speakers wiho migrated fraoy Europe sometime inthe second half of the Pillans B.C:1, Modern Celtic languages include Irish or Gaelic; Wel: ‘Mans, the language of tie Isle of Man; and Erse, a language of the Scots. 12, The Celtic speakers brought with them an Indo-European pantheon, along with skills inion working and certain key ‘vocabulary terms. “The Romans colonized England under Julius Caesar and kept it as a colony until the mid ofthe S" century A.D. 1 Latin became the prestige language of adm and socal ite 2, Some Celie words seem to have entered Roman Latin during the ‘eupaion, especially words for gzokraphieal places and ‘Phenomena. The fact that England hs tre rivers named Avon, for example can be traced hack to the Celtic word for river. ‘During the lst decades of Roman colonia rule in te 5* century A.D. rou of Gemanie-speaking tribes and raiders began to sete portions ofthe British ses. 1 By the middle of the 5" century. raids and settlements became more frequent, and by end ofthe century, settlements began (0 spread from the south and southeastem coast into the southwest {in the area known now as Wessex). 2. By the year 547, a kingdom was established inthe north of England, north ofthe Humber River, by groups descended from the Angles, Germanie ribo tha: became known as Anglian, tration, education, By the middle of the 7* century, small kingdoms were being established throughout England, Some ofthese were minor outposts Tile more than extended farmstead or small villages, Others were larger, established on the ste of oer Roman fortified camps. The sword camp, infact, eomes from the Latin campos, meaning a forified enclosure As these setlements developed, Olt Enalish emerged as a distinctive language, but it alo developed four major dialects. Each dialect had both natural and manmade borders. 1. North ofthe Huber River in England was Northumbria, the fist real eemer of English speaking, writing, leaming literature, and colt. Inthe central part of England were the Kingdoms of Mercia and “Anglia inthe southeast was Kent: and inthe southwest was Wessex ‘The cenal pat of England, fom the Roman perio tothe present, was bifreated by the Old Roman Road, which ran from wht is today London to York. Different cultures and dialects doveloped 1 the west. and eas ofthe road ML Just as the OL English language may be divided into seo ‘Northumbria was the first area of Anglo-Saxon efflorescence, The historian knav as the Venerable Bede sho completed his Ecclesiastical History of the English Chur ard Peoples in 731. syas.a Northurbrian (hough he wrote in Latin), So, t00, was Caedon, perhaps the fist known poet inthe English lnguae. ‘a. The ateat Bibles and Gospels of erly English life were produced in Nonhumbyia, enormous hand-made manusrips Fich with illumination and olor b, The earliest written records we have in Old English are ferlnear glosses of translations of these Latin tests writen inthe Northumbrian dialer. 2. As we sti, in the mide ofthe country was Mercia, a loose collection ofselements and kingdoms, but the rel feat of later Anglo-Saxon culture was Wessex. ‘The most important dialect of Old English was West Saxon, the form ofthe language spoken and written inthe Southwestern part of the country. This was the dialect of King Alfred (4.899), who established schools and courts of translation wo teach the elasis in O1U English b, The influence of King Aired was so great that both Latin tests and Old English works in other dialects were translated nto West Saxon, & Inpublishing works on Old Enalish, scholars ofthe 19" and 20 centuries edited diem into West Saxon forms even if those ems were not the original hounded dale, othe Old English pri may be demarcated slags A. Aswe've noted the prod from the 7 shrough she early 9 centuries ‘eo the em of Norhtmbrian efferescenc, marked by 8 gh religious and iterary ctr, The monasteries of Nothumbris produced taut manuserips ofthe Bible and the ierary texts During the 0 and cari 10 eens, Wessex became the set of ‘Anglo-Saxon imellectul literary, and political ie During the so-aled enedietine Revival nthe 11 century, new schools were established fo educating stent in Enlish a Latin By the end ofthe 11" century, however, within a generation oro of the Norman Conquest, mich ofthis itera and intellectual ety had dlsappeaced. Anglo-Saxon bishops and priests were replaced by ‘Noman French ons. By the middle ofthe century, Od ‘vas Winall gone ishIV, Let's now turn to some of the major linguistic features of Old Enalish A Ina earlier lecture, we saw that Indo-European aban, of vowel _tadation (changes in the roo: vowel ofa word), was used to indicate ‘hanges in tense of aspect. In the Germanie languages, this inherited Indo-European phenomenon came to be used inthe development of the verbal system, 1. Strong verbs ar those that signal change in fese trough a change inthe root vowel ofthe word. Examples of strong verbs ae dink, hank, drunk: ry, rar and ink, dhonght O18 English is istnctive among the Germanic languages forthe number and class organization ofits strong verbs. 2. Weak verbs are those tha signal the past tense with a sufTis ending in “a? ord.” Theie rot vowels donot change. Thus: we walked love, loved eae, cared ‘Any new ver thot enters the English language will ener as a weak vet for example, felevise, televised. 4, Further, many stong verbs have been changed, overtime into ‘weak verbs For example, the word meaning fo grow, wus, was ‘once a sirong ver; not it has become war, waved. ‘5. Some verbs remain strong (shine, shone; hang, ng), bat weak forms have developed along with them (shine, shined hag hanged indicate differen aspects or differen roatonships. For ‘esample, yu might say," shined my shoes,” bu "The sun shone” Like al the Germanic languages, Old English had noun declension. ‘Nouns wer in diffrent groups or classes, To signal relationships ina sentence subject, direct objec, indirect object, instrument of ation — endings were added othe words, These are known a5 ease endings. 1. All he Indo-European languages hod such case endings: We see ther, for example in Latin and Greek and in masculine, feminine and neuter nouns ia many modern European langusees. ‘Note that this is prammatical gender, noc natural gender. The Old [English word for yoman, wf became our modern word nf, but it \vas. grammatically neuter noun i Ol English 3. Allconcept nouns (those ending in =ness”) were feminine in O18 English The wonderfil Old English word witherweardrese meaning stress, exhastion iain, sa feminine concept noun 4. Old English often signaled the plural of nouns with final". ‘we sil do today, but O1 English also had mutated paras; these ‘are nuns whose rot vowels changed between singular and pra: am, men: goose, geese foot, fe ae These nouns ate te result ofa complicated sound change that took plae in the early German pie, that is, while the Germanic-speaking peoples were still on the Continent and had not yet come tothe British Isles bb. The sounds in certain suffixes influenced preceding vowel. For example, the word dom mean doom: is vet fmm, 10 Judge ts domain, Over ine, thee" sound in the verd innuenced the preceding “o." changing the pronunciation of the wou to cemean oF deem This sound change shows ws how words entered the language primarily trom Roman Latin, when the Germanic wibes were Sil iving onthe Continent an had na yet broken up. Words that came int the language that early would change asthe Germanic languages split wp, and words thot eame that early into English would change according wo this sound chang 44. Forexsmple, Latin had the word amit for money: the place where money vas miade was 8 moneroram. With the sound change inthe Germanic Knguages, the “o-" in monetarun ‘vas altered to give us the word we have today a The Latin word monestarim (the place where a monk lives) gives us another example, With dhe sound change, this word evertally became miaisr. The Latin word amici (mean ‘one-twelfth of something) changed pronunciation in Old English vo become finch C. The OMd English vocabulary is immensely rich in compounds, new wards coined by combining existing words 1. Old English erated words by combining words, by ating preites, and by bringing tozeter oun and sulixes. In this way: (Old English speakers sansformed the Latin of the church andthe Latin ofthe Reman govemment into thai os form 2. When we look at the Ok English vocabulary, we're looking ata tension between words that are borrowed and words that are coined between words that come ffom outside and words that are used fo express foreign concepts in native ways, ‘3. In our nest lecture, we'll look at an extended example of perhaps ‘he most sublime case of sueh word formation —"Caedmon’s iyin" the calles surviving poem in any form of English Reading Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History ofthe English Lamguage. FG, Cassidy and Richard N. Ringler, Brigh’s Old English Grammar nd Reader Richard M. Hogg, ed, The Cambridge History ofthe English Lamguage, Vol. The Beginnings to 1066