MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Mechanical Engineering Department

ME 445
Integrated Manufacturing Systems

GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND

CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
1

BATCH MANUFACTURING
IS A DOMINANT MANUFACTURING
ACTIVITY IN THE WORLD,
GENERATING A GREAT DEAL OF
INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT
IT ACCOUNTS
60% - 80%
OF ALL MANUFACTURING ACTIVITIES
2

CHARACTERISTICS OF
BATCH MANUFACTURING:
High level of product variety
Small manufacturing lot size

Time on
machine
5%

Cutting
less than
30%

Moving and waiting

95%

Positioning, loading, gauging,

idle, etc.
70%

WHAT IS GROUP TECHNOLOGY?

Group technology (GT) is a philosophy that
implies the notion of recognizing and exploiting
similarities in three different ways:
1. By performing like activities together
2. By standardizing similar tasks
3. By efficiently storing and retrieving
information about recurring problems

Large manufacturing system can be

decomposed into smaller subsystems
of part families based on similarities in
1. design attributes and
2. manufacturing features

DESIGN ATTRIBUTES:
part configuration (round or prismatic)
dimensional envelope (length to diameter
ratio)
surface integrity (surface roughness,
dimensional tolerances)
material type
raw material state (casting, forging, bar
stock, etc.)
7

PART MANUFACTURING FEATURES:

operations and operation sequences
(turning, milling, etc.)
batch sizes
machine tools
cutting tools
work holding devices
processing times

An essential aspect of the

integration of CAD and CAM is
the integration of information used
by engineering and manufacturing
and all the other departments in a
firm.
9

Group technology emphasis on

part families based on similarities
in design attributes and
manufacturing, therefore GT
contributes to the integration of
CAD and CAM.

10

The Basic Key Features for a Successful Group

Technology Applications:
Group Layout
Short Cycle Flow Control
A Planned Machine Loading

11

Group Layout
In most of todays factories it is possible to
divide all the made components into families
and all the machines into groups, in such a way
that all the parts in each family can be
completely processed in one group only.
The tree main types of layout are
Line Layout
Group Layout
Functional Layout

12

Line Layout
Line Layout is used at present in simple
process industries, in continuous assembly, and
for mass production of components required in
very large quantities.

13

Functional Layout
In Functional Layout, all machines of the
same type are laid out together in the same
section under the same foreman. Each foreman
and his team of workers specialize in one
process and work independently.This type of
layout is based on process specialization.

14

Group Layout
In Group Layout, each foreman and his team
specialize in the production of one list of parts
and co-operate in the completion of common
task. This type of layouts based on component
specialization.

15

The Difference between group and functional layout:

16

Families
The word Family is used as a name for
any list of similar parts. The families
used with group layout are lists of parts
which are similar because they are all
made on the same group of machines.
This type of family is called a
Production Family. However, not all
parts which are similar in shape will
appear in the same family.
17

The other important features that is

important choosing the families;
Manufacturing tolerances
Required quantities
Materials
Special features, which will require the
use of different machines

18

Groups
A group is a list of machines, selected for
layout together in one place, because it
contains all necessary facilities to complete
the processing of a given family of parts. A
family of parts can only be defined by relating
it to a particular group of machines, and a
group by relating it to a family. Groups vary
greatly in type and size, widely in the number
of machines and different machines types.

19

As group size is reduced, more types of

machine will be needed in more than one
group and there is an increased risk that
some new machines must be purchased.
Another factor in choosing the size of
group is the number of people who will be
employed in them.

20

Group technology begun by grouping

parts into families, based on their
attributes.
There are three methods that can be used
to form part families:
Manuel visual inspection
Production flow analysis
Classification and coding
21

Manual visual inspection

involves arranging a set of parts
into groups known as part
families by visually inspecting the
physical characteristics of the
parts.

22

23

Manual visual inspection

incorrect results
human error
different judgment by different people
inexpensive
least sophisticated
good for small companies having
smaller number of parts
24

Production flow analysis: Parts that go

through common operations are grouped
into part families.
The machines used to perform these
common operations may be grouped as a
cell, consequently this technique can be
used in facility layout (factory layout)

25

26

Coding methods: are employed in

classifying parts into part families
Coding refers to the process of assigning
symbols to the parts
The symbols represent design attributes
of parts or manufacturing features of
part families
27

The variations in codes resulting from the

way the symbols are assigned can be
grouped into three distinct type of codes:
Monocode or hierarchical code
Polycode or attribute
Hybrid or mixed code

28

MONOCODE (HIERARCHICAL CODE)

This coding system was originally
developed for biological classification in
18th century.
The structure of monocode is like a tree
in which each symbol amplifies the
information provided in the previous digit.

29

30

The following figure illustrates the

structure of a monocode:

31

 A monocode (hierarchical code) provides

a large amount of information in a
relatively small number of digits
useful for storage and retrieval of designrelated information such as part
geometry, material, size, etc.
it is difficult to capture information on
manufacturing sequences in hierarchical
manner, so applicability of this code in
manufacturing is rather limited
32

POLYCODE (ATTRIBUTE CODE):

The code symbols are independent of each
other
Each digit in specific location of the code
describes a unique property of the workpiece
it is easy to learn and useful in manufacturing
situations where the manufacturing process have to
be described
the length of a polycode may become excessive
because of its unlimited combinational features
33

34

Differences in information storage capacity

between monocode and polycode:
Assume that a code consists of a five
symbols and that in each of the five code
fields the digits 0 to 9 are used. Determine
how many mutually exclusive
characteristics can potentially be stored in
the monocode and the polycode

35

Number of characteristics may be stored

in a monocode:
101 + 102 + 103 + 104 + 105 =111110
Number of characteristics may be stored
in a polycode:
10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 50
36

MIXED CODE (HYBRID CODE):

It is the mixture of both monocode and

polycode systems. Mixed code retains
the advantages of both systems. Most
coding systems use this code structure.

37

MIXED CODE (HYBRID CODE):

The first digit for example, might be used to
denote the type of part, such as gear. The next
five position might be reserved for a short
attribute code that would describe the attribute of
the gear. The next digit (7th digit) might be used
to designate another subgroup, such as
material, followed by another attribute code that
would describe the attributes.
A code created by this manner would be
relatively more compact than a pure attribute
code while retaining the ability to easily identify
parts with specific characteristics.
38

The OPITZ classification system:

it is a mixed (hybrid) coding system
developed by Opitz, Technical University of
Aachen, 1970
it is widely used in industry
it provides a basic framework for understanding
the classification and coding process
it can be applied to machined parts, nonmachined parts (both formed and cast) and
purchased parts
it considers both design and manufacturing
information
39

The Opitz coding system consists of three groups

of digits:
Form
code
12345

part geometry
and features
relevant to part
design

Supplementary
code
6789

information
relevant to
manufacturing
(polycode)

Secondary
code
ABCD

Production
processes and
production
sequences

40

41

PART FAMILY FORMATION:

One of the primary uses of coding systems is to
develop part families.
Example: Consider the family of ferrous parts
formed by first three digits of Opitz form code; 131.
This implies that the attributes associated with the
family members are length/diameter ratio in the
range 0.5 to 3.0, all parts stepped to one end and
internal shape elements with threads.
A number of mathematical approaches have also
been developed to form part families using
classification and coding system.

42

43

SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND

CODING SYSTEMS
For the purpose of selecting or developing
your own code, it is important to understand
the attributes of classification and coding
systems.

44

SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND CODING

SYSTEMS
Some of the important classification and coding system
attributes include:
1. Flexibility for various applications such as part family
formation, process planning, costing, and purchasing
2. Accuracy, to provide correct information on parts
3. Expandability, to accommodate information on more part
attributes deemed important later on
4. Ease of learning
5. Ease of retrieval
6. Reliability and availability of software
7. Suitability for specific applications
45

SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND

CODING SYSTEMS
Matching these attributes with the
objectives of an organization would be
helpful in selecting or developing a
coding system to meet organizational
needs.

46

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Group technology is a management

strategy to help eliminate waste caused by
duplication of effort.

47

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

It affects all areas of a company, including:

engineering
equipment specification
facilities planning
process planning
production control
quality control
tool design
purchasing
service
48

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Some of the well-known tangible and intangible benefits
of implementing GT :
1. Engineering design
Reduction in new parts design
Reduction in the number of drawings through
standardization
Reduction of drafting effort in new shop drawings
Reduction of number of similar parts, easy retrieval
of similar functional parts, and identification of
substitute parts
49

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

2. Layout planning
Reduction in production floor space
required
Reduced material-handling effort

50

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

3. Specification of equipment, tools, jigs,
and fixtures
Standardization of equipment
Implementation of cellular manufacturing
systems
Significant reduction in up-front costs
incurred in the release of new parts for
manufacture
51

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

4. Manufacturing: process planning
Reduction in setup time and production
time
Alternative routing leading to improved
part routing
Reduction in number of machining
operations and numerical control (NC)
programming time
52

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

5. Manufacturing: production control
Reduced work-in-process inventory
Easy identification of bottlenecks
Improved material flow and reduced
warehousing costs
Faster response to schedule changes
Improved usage of jigs, fixtures, pallets, tools,
material handling, and manufacturing equipment
53

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

6. Manufacturing: quality control
Reduction in number of defects leading to
reduced inspection effort
Reduced scrap generation
Better output quality
Increased accountability of operators and
supervisors responsible for quality production,
making it easier to implement total quality
control concepts.
54

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

7. Purchasing
Coding of purchased part leading to
standardized rules for purchasing
Economies in purchasing possible because
of accurate knowledge of raw material
requirements
Reduced number of part and raw materials
Simplified vendor evaluation procedures
leading to just-in-time purchasing
55

BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY

8. Customer service
Accurate and faster cost estimates
Efficient spare parts management, leading
to better customer service

56

CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Cellular manufacturing is an application of
group technology in manufacturing in
which all or a portion of a firms
manufacturing system has been converted
into cells.

57

CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
A manufacturing cell is a cluster of
machines or processes located in close
proximity and dedicated to the
manufacture of a family of parts.
The parts are similar in their processing
requirements, such as operations,
tolerances, and machine tool capacities
58

The primary objectives in implementing a

cellular manufacturing system are to
reduce:
setup times (by using part family tooling
and sequencing)
flow times (by reducing setup and move
times and wait time for moves and using
smaller batch sizes)
reduce inventories
market response times
59

In addition, cells represent sociological

units that have more tendency to
teamwork. This means that motivation for
process improvements often arises
naturally in manufacturing cells.
Manufacturing cells are natural candidates
for just-in-time (JIT) implementation.
60

Functional and cellular layouts of an electronics plant:

61

Cell Design
Design of cellular manufacturing system is
a complex exercise with broad
implications for an organization.
The cell design process involves issues
related to both system structure and
system operation

62

Structural issues include:

Selection of part families and grouping

of parts into families
Selection of machine and process
populations and grouping of these into
cells
Selection of tools, fixtures, and pallets
Selection of material-handling equipment
Choice of equipment layout
63

Issues related to procedures include:

Detailed design of jobs
Organization of supervisory and support
personnel around the cellular structure
Formulation of maintenance and inspection
policies
Design of procedures for production planning,
scheduling, control, and acquisition of related
software and hardware
Modification of cost control and reward systems
Outline of procedures for interfacing with the
remaining manufacturing system (in terms of
work flow and information, whether computer
controlled or not)
64

Evaluation of Cell Design

Decisions
The evaluation of design decisions can be
categorized as related to either
the system structure
or
the system operation.

65

Typical considerations related to the

system structure include:

Equipment and tooling investment (low)

Equipment relocation cost (low)
Material-handling costs (low)
Floor space requirements (low)
Extent to which parts are completed in a
cell (high)
Flexibility (high)
66

Evaluations of cell system design are

incomplete unless they relate to the
operation of the system.
A few typical performance variables
related to system operation are:

Equipment utilization (high)

Work-in-process inventory (low)
Queue lengths at each workstation (short)
Job throughput time (short)
Job lateness (low)

67

A major problem throughout the cell

design process is the necessity of
trading off against each other objectives
related to structural parameters and
performance variables.

68

For example, higher machine utilization

can be achieved if several cells route their
parts through the same machine. The
drawbacks are increased queuing and
control problems.

69

System cost and performance are affected by

every decision related to system structure and
system operation.
It is necessary to evaluate each important
design parameter and relate its performance to
pre-established criteria.
For example, structural variables such as
number of machines must be balanced against
operational variables such as machine
utilization and throughput time using
analytical and simulation approaches.
70

CELL FORMATION APPROACHES

Machine - Component Group Analysis:
Machine - Component Group Analysis is
based on production flow analysis

71

Production flow analysis involves four stages:

Stage 1: Machine classification.
Machines are classified on the basis of
operations that can be performed on
them. A machine type number is assigned
to machines capable of performing similar
operations.

72

Stage 2: Checking parts list and

production route information.
For each part, information on the
operations to be undertaken and the
machines required to perform each of
these operations is checked thoroughly.

73

Stage 3: Factory flow analysis.

This involves a micro-level examination of
flow of components through machines.
This, in turn, allows the problem to be
decomposed into a number of machinecomponent groups.

74

Stage 4: Machine-component group

analysis.
An intuitive manual method is suggested
to manipulate the matrix to form cells.
However, as the problem size becomes
large, the manual approach does not
work. Therefore, there is a need to
develop analytical approaches to handle
large problems systematically.
75

EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 4 machines and 6
parts. Try to group them.
Components
Machines

M1

M2

M3

M4

1
76

Components
Machines

M1

M2

M3

M4

77

Rank Order Clustering Algorithm:

Rank Order Clustering Algorithm is a
simple algorithm used to form machinepart groups.

78

Step 1: Assign binary weight and

calculate a decimal weight for each row and
column using the following formulas:

bip 2m-p

bpj2n p

Decimal weight for row

i =

p=1
n

Decimal weight for column j =

p=1

79

Step 2: Rank the rows in order of

decreasing decimal weight values.
Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each
column.
Step 4: Continue preceding steps until
there is no change in the position of each
element in the row and the column.
80

EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 5 machines and 10 parts. Try to
group them by using Rank Order Clustering Algorithm.
Components
Machines

M1

M2
M3

M4
M5

1
1

10

1
1

Table 1
81

Binary weight
29

28

27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

10

Decimal
equivalent

1007

451

Components
Machines

M1

M2
M3

M4
M5

1
1

568
1

455
1020

Table 2
82

Binary weight
29

28

27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

Components
Binary
weight

Machines

24

M5

23

M1

22

M3

21

M4

20

M2

Decimal
equivalent

Table 3

10

28 27 27 27 28 20 28 26 11

11

83

Binary weight
29

28

27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

10

Components
Binary
weight

Machines

24

M5

23

M1

22

M3

21

M4

20

M2

Decimal
equivalent

1020
1

1
1

Decimal
equivalent

1019
900

123

115

28 28 28 27 27 27 26 20 11 11

Table 4
84

Similarity Coefficient-Based
Approaches
In similarity coefficient methods, the
basis is to define a measure of similarity
between machines, tools, design features,
and so forth and then use it to form part
families and machine groups.

85

Single-Linkage Cluster Analysis

(SLCA):
It is a hierarchical machine grouping
method known as single-linkage cluster
analysis using similarity coefficients
between machines.
The procedure is to construct a tree
called a dendrogram.
86

The similarity coefficient between two machines is defined as the

ratio of the number of parts visiting both machines and the number
of parts visiting one of the two machines:

X
N

Sij =

(Y
N

ik

ijk

k=1

+ Z jk - Xijk )

k 1

where: Xijk = operation on part k performed both on machine i and j,

Yik = operation on part k performed on machine i,
Zjk = operation on part k performed on machine j.
87

SLCA ALGORITHMS
It helps in constructing dendrograms.
A dendrogram is a pictorial
representation of bonds of similarity
between machines as measured by the
similarity coefficients.

88

The steps of algorithm are as follows:

Step 1: Compute similarity coefficients for all
possible pairs of machines,
Step 2: Select the two most similar machines to
form the first machine cell,
Step 3: Lower the similarity level (threshold) and
form new machine cells by including all the
machines with similarity coefficients not less
than the threshold value,
Step 4: Continue step 3 until all machines are
grouped into a single cell.
89

EXAMPLE:
Consider the matrix of 5 machines and 10 components
given below.
Components
Machines

M1

M2
M3

M4
M5

1
1

10

1
1

Develop a denrogram and discuss the resulting cell structures.

90

Step 1: Determine similarity coefficients between all pairs of

machines.

SC12 =

5
= 0.556
9 + 5- 5

Similarity coefficients of machine pairs

Machine
pairs

M1
M2

M1
M3

M1
M4

M1
M5

M2
M3

M2
M4

M2
M5

M3
M4

M3
M5

M4
M5

SC

0.55

0.30

0.67

0.70

0.00

0.83

0.30

0.00

0.50

0.40

91

Step 2: Select machines M2 and M4, having

the highest similarity coefficients of
0.83 to form the first cell.
Step 3: The next lower coefficient of
similarity is between machines M1 and
M5. Use these machines to form the
second cell.

92

Step 4: The next lower coefficient of similarity is now 0.67

between machines M1 and M4. At this threshold value
machines M1, M2, M4, and M5 will form one machine
group. The other possible groups will be evaluated by the
same way.

M4

M2

M5

M1

M3

0.83
0.67

0.70
0.50

0.00

Dendrogram
93

EXCEPTIONAL PARTS & BOTTLNECK

MACHINES:
One of the important goal in cell design is to
create mutually independent machine cells.
However, it may not always be economical or
practical to achieve this goal.
In practice, therefore, some parts need to be
processed in more than one cell. These are
known as exceptional parts and the machines
processing them are known as bottleneck
machines.
94

The problem of exceptional elements can

possibly be eliminated by:
Generating alternative process plans
Duplication of machines
Subcontracting these operations

95

EVALUATION OF CELL DESIGN:

In design of cells, there will be more than
one alternative solution. The objective is to
find the best alternative.

96

Assume we have the following alternative

cell configuration:
Similarity Number of cells
coefficient
formed

Cell configuration

1.00

(M1), (M2), (M3), (M4), (M5)

0.83

(M2, M4), (M5), (M1), (M3)

0.70

(M2, M4), (M1, M5), (M3)

0.67

(M1, M2, M4, M5), (M3)

0.50

(M1, M2, M3, M4, M5)

97

The criteria is to minimize the distance

that the parts should travel during the
processes; in other words, to minimize the
material handling costs of intercell
(between cells) and intracell (within cell)
movements of the parts.

98

The following factors affect the cost of

intercell and intracell movements of parts.
1. The layout of machines in a group
2. The layout of machine groups
3. The sequences of parts through machines
and machine groups
The total distances moved by a component
visiting a number of machines in a cell has
to be determined.
99

Assumptions:
1. In the absence of the real data on the
sequences in which the components visit
the machines, it is assumed that the
machines are laid out in a random
manner.
2. There is one unit distance between each
machine in a group of N machines.
3. A part has to visit two machines in a
group of N machines.
100

Expected distance for a straight-line layout:

N +1
3

Expected distance for a rectangle

layout of M rows of L machines:

M+L
2

Expected distance for a square layout:

2 N
3

The total distance moved in jth cell

for the ith configuration:

d
m

ij

k ij

where:
dij = expected distance moved between two machines
for ith configuration in jth cell
kij = number of moves between two machines by all the
parts for ith configuration in jth cell

101

The total cost of intercellular and intracellular movements

(TCi) for the ith configuration:

d k
m

TCi = C1N i + C2

ij ij

where:
C1 = cost of an intercell movement
C2 = cost per unit distance of an intracell movement
Ni = number of intercell movements for ith configuration

102

EXAMPLE:
Consider the following cell configuration.
Components
Machines

10

M1

M5

M2

M4

M3

1
1

6
1

1
1
103

Consider 3-cell case:

Expected movement distance,

21 1
in cell (M1, M5) =
3
21 1
in cell (M2, M4) =
3
in cell (M3) = 0
104

The number of moves passing through two

machines by all the parts,
in cell (M1, M5) = 7
in cell (M2, M4) = 5
in cell (M3) = 0
The total distance for all intercell moves for 3-cell
configuration:
1 x 7 + 1x 5 + 0 = 12
The number of intercell moves in 3-cell
configuration is 10.
105

Assume:
C1 = $2.00 (cost of intercell unit
movement)
C2 = $1.00 (cost of intracell unit
movement)
The total cost of intercell and intracell
movements in 3-cell configuration:
2.00 $ x 10 + 1.00 $ x 12 = 32.00 $
106

The summary of cost calculation for all possible cell

configuration is given in the following table:
Cell
configuration

Number of
intercell
moves

Total distance of
intracell
moves

Total cost of
intercell and
intracell
moves

5-cells

(M1), (M2),
(M3), (M4),
(M5)

22

2 x 22 +
1 x 0 = 44

4-cells

(M2, M4), (M5),

(M1), (M3)

18

2 x 18 +
1 x 5 = 41

3-cells

(M2, M4), (M1,

M5), (M3)

10

12

2 x 10 +
1 x 12 = 32

2-cells

(M1, M2, M4,

M5), (M3)

30

2x4+
1 x 30 = 38

1-cells

(M1. M2, M3,

M4, M5)

44

2x0+
1x 44 = 44
107

A survey of 53 show that the use of GT and

cellular manufacturing in US industries has met
with success. The benefits reported from these
studies include:

Reduction in throughput time by 46%

Reduction in work-in-process inventory by 41%
Reduction in material handling by 39%
Reduction in setup time by 32%
Improvement in quality by 29.6%
108

109