Tai Lieu Boi Duong Doi Tuyen VN Du IMO 2010

Ti liu bi dng i tuyn Vit Nam
tham d IMO 2010
Thng 6 - 2010
Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010
Mc lc
1.
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3.
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6.
Cc phng php v k thut chng minh

Nguyn l chung v th
Gii phng trnh hm bng cch lp phng trnh
Cc bi ton ti u v h cc tp hp
V k thi chn i tuyn Vit Nam d thi IMO 2010
Bt ng thc: Mt s v d v bi tp chn lc
2 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
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Cc phng php v k thut chng minh

Trong ton hc cng nh trong cuc sng, cn bit:
Linh hot x l tnh hung, chn la phng n ti u
Trn Nam Dng
Trng i hc KHTN Tp HCM
Cc nh l ton hc pht biu v cc tnh cht ca cc i tng ton hc v mi quan
h gia chng. V nhng khng nh ny cn c chng minh xut pht t cc tin ,
cc nh l v tnh cht c chng minh trc . V thc hin bc chng minh,
ta cn c nhng quy tc suy din chng minh l cht ch v mt ton hc.
Vi cc bi ton Olympic cng vy, yu cu chng minh mt kt qu no lun hin
din, ngay c trong nhng bi khng c cm t chng minh rng. Chng hn gii
phng trnh x3 3x + 1 = 0 c th ta s phi chng minh tt c cc nghim ca chng
thuc on [-2, 2], gii phng trnh hm f(x2 + f(y)) = f2(x) + y c th ta s phi
chng minh f l ton nh ...
Bi vit ny ni v hai phng php v mt s k thut chng minh c bn: chng minh
phn chng, chng minh quy np, chng minh phn chng, dng mnh phn o,
phn v d nh nht, v d v phn v d, s dng nguyn l Dirichlet, nguyn l cc hn,
nguyn l bt bin, s dng t mu, m bng hai cch, sp xp th t
Cch tip cn ca chng ta l s thng qua cc v d ni v cc phng php v k
thut. y s ch c cc nhn xt, bnh lun, cc nguyn tc chung ch khng c
trnh by h thng nh mt l thuyt.
Bi vit ny u tin c vit v trnh by trong chng trnh Gp g g Ton hc
2010, c t chc vo thng 1 nm 2010, sau c b sung, honh chnh v trnh
by ti Hi ngh khoa hc Cc chuyn chuyn Ton v ng dng t chc ti Ba V,
thng 5/2010. Cui cng, chun b cho i tuyn Vit Nam thi Olympic Ton quc t,
bi vit c b sung thm cc phn v m bng hai cch, Nguyn l cc hn, Sp xp
th t v ng dng ca cc phng php v k thut chng minh trong bi ton Ti u t
hp.
1. Php chng minh phn chng
Mt s v d m u
Chng minh phn chng c th ni l mt trong nhng v kh quan trng ca ton hc.
N cho php chng ta chng minh s c th v khng c th ca mt tnh cht no , n

cho php chng ta bin thun thnh o, bin o thnh thun, n cho php chng ta l
lun trn nhng i tng m khng r l c tn ti hay khng. V d kinh in nht v
php chng minh phn chng thuc v Euclid vi php chng minh
nh l. Tn ti v s s nguyn t.
y, Euclid gi s ngc li rng tn ti hu hn s nguyn t p1, p2, , pn. ng xt
tch N = p1p2pn + 1. N phi c t nht 1 c s nguyn t p. Khi , do p1, p2, , pn l
tt c cc s nguyn t nn tn ti i sao cho p = pi. Nhng khi p | 1, mu thun.
Bi tp
1. Chng minh rng tn ti v s s nguyn t dng 4k+3.
2. Chng minh rng tn ti v s s nguyn t dng 4k+1.
Phng php xung thang

Mt chng minh ni ting khc bng phng php phn chng chnh l chng minh ca
Euler cho nh l nh Fermat vi trng hp n = 4.
nh l. Phng trnh x4 + y4 = z4 (1) khng c nghim nguyn dng.
ng gi s rng phng trnh (1) c nghim nguyn dng. Khi , theo nguyn l
cc hn, tn ti nghim (x0, y0, z0) vi x0 + y0 + z0 nh nht. Sau , bng cch s dng
cu trc nghim ca phng trnh Pythagore x2 + y2 = z2, ng i n s tn ti ca mt
nghim (x1, y1, z1) c x1 + y1 + z1 < x0 + y0 + z0. Mu thun.
Phng php ny thng c gi l phng php xung thang.
Bi tp
3. Chng minh rng phng trnh x3 + 3y3 = 9z3 khng c nghim nguyn dng.
4. Chng minh rng phng trnh x2 + y2 + z2 = 2xyz khng c nghim nguyn dng.
S dng mnh phn o

Chng minh s dng mnh phn o cng l mt phng n chng minh phn chng
hay c s dng. C s ca phng php l chng minh A B, ta c th chng
minh B A . V mt bn cht th hai php suy din ny c v ging nhau, nhng trong
thc t th li kh khc nhau. Ta th xem xt 1 vi v d.
V d 1. Chng minh rng hm s f ( x) =
x
x2 +1
l mt n nh t R vo R.

V d 2. Chng minh rng nu (p-1)! + 1 l s nguyn t th p l s nguyn t.
Trong v d 1, r rng vic chng minh x1 x2 suy ra f(x1) f(x2) kh khn hn vic
chng minh f(x1) = f(x2) suy ra x1 = x2, d rng v mt logic, hai iu ny l tng
ng.
Trong v d 2, gn nh khng c cch no khc ngoi cch chng minh nu p l hp s, p
= r.s th (p-1)! + 1 khng chia ht cho p.
Bi tp.
5. Cho hm s f: R R tho mn cc iu kin sau
1) f n iu ;
2) f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) vi mi x, y thuc R.
6. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc khng m tho mn iu kin a2 + b2 + c2 + abc = 4. Chng minh rng a + b
+ c 3.
Phng php phn v d nh nht

Trong vic chng minh mt s tnh cht bng phng php phn chng, ta c th c
thm mt s thng tin b sung quan trng nu s dng phn v d nh nht. tng l
chng minh mt tnh cht A cho mt cu hnh P, ta xt mt c trng f(P) ca P l
mt hm c gi tr nguyn dng. By gi gi s tn ti mt cu hnh P khng c tnh
cht A, khi s tn ti mt cu hnh P0 khng c tnh cht A vi f(P0) nh nht. Ta s
tm cch suy ra iu mu thun. Lc ny, ngoi vic chng ta c cu hnh P0 khng c
tnh cht A, ta cn c mi cu hnh P vi f(P) < f(P0) u c tnh cht A.
V d 3. Cho ng gic li ABCDE trn mt phng to c to cc nh u nguyn.
a) Chng minh rng tn ti t nht 1 im nm trong hoc nm trn cnh ca ng gic
(khc vi A, B, C, D, E) c to nguyn.
b) Chng minh rng tn ti t nht 1 im nm trong ng gic c to nguyn.
c) Cc ng cho ca ng gic li ct nhau to ra mt ng gic li nh A1B1C1D1E1
bn trong. Chng minh rng tn ti t nht 1 im nm trong hoc trn bin ng gic li
A1B1C1D1E1.
Cu a) c th gii quyt d dng nh nguyn l Dirichlet: V c 5 im nn tn ti t nht
2 im X, Y m cp to (x, y) ca chng c cng tnh chn l (ta ch c 4 trng hp
(chn, chn), (chn, l), (l, chn) v (l, l)). Trung im Z ca XY chnh l im cn
tm.
Sang cu b) l lun trn y cha , v nu XY khng phi l ng cho m l cnh th
Z c th s nm trn bin. Ta x l tnh hung ny nh sau. rng nu XY l mt
cnh, chng hn l cnh AB th ZBCDE cng l mt ng gic li c cc nh c to
u nguyn v ta c th lp li l lun nu trn i vi ng gic ZBCDE, Ta c th

dng n bin chng minh qu trnh ny khng th ko di mi, v n mt lc no
s c 1 ng gic c im nguyn nm trong.
Tuy nhin, ta c th trnh by li l lun ny mt cch gn gng nh sau: Gi s tn ti
mt ng gic nguyn m bn trong khng cha mt im nguyn no (phn v d). Trong
tt c cc ng gic nh vy, chn ng gic ABCDE c din tch nh nht (phn v d nh
nht). Nu c nhiu ng gic nh vy th ta chn mt trong s chng. Theo l lun
trnh by cu a), tn ti hai nh X, Y c cp to cng tnh chn l. Trung im Z
ca XY s c to nguyn. V bn trong ng gic ABCDE khng c im nguyn no
nn XY phi l mt cnh no . Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s l AB. Khi ng
gic ZBCDE c to cc nh u nguyn v c din tch nh hn din tch ng gic
ABCDE. Do tnh nh nht ca ABCDE (phn v d nh nht pht huy tc dng!) nn bn
trong ng gic ZBCDE c 1 im nguyn T. iu ny mu thun v T cng nm trong
ng gic ABCDE.
Bi tp
7. Gii phn c) ca v d 3.
8. (nh l Bezout) Chng minh rng nu (a, b) = 1 th tn ti u, v sao cho au + bv = 1.
9. Trn mt phng nh du mt s im. Bit rng 4 im bt k trong chng l nh ca mt t gic li.
Chng minh rng tt c cc im c nh du l nh ca mt a gic li.
Phn chng trong cc bi ton chng minh s khng tn ti

Phng php phn chng thng hay c s dng trong cc bi ton bt bin hoc bi
ton ph hnh chng minh s khng thc hin c. Sau y chng ta xem xt 2 v d
nh vy.
V d 4. Xt hnh vung 7 7 . Chng minh rng ta c th xo i mt phn cn li
khng th ph kn bng 15 qun trimino kch thc 1 3 v 1 qun trimino hnh ch L.
Ta chng minh rng nu b i mt gc trn bn tri th phn cn li khng th ph
c bng cc qun trimin cho.
lm iu ny, ta nh s cc vung nh sau
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Khi , nhn xt rng 1 qun trimin kch thc 1 3 s che 3 s 1, 2, 3 (nu n nm
ngang) hoc 3 s ging nhau (nu n nm dc). Nh vy tng cc s m mt qun
trimin 1 3 che lun chia ht cho 3. Trong khi d thy qun trimin hnh ch L che
3 s c tng khng chia ht cho 3.
By gi gi s ngc li rng hnh vung 7 7 b i gc trn bn tri c th ph
c bng 15 qun trimin 1 3 v 1 qun trimin hnh ch L th theo l lun trn, tng
s cc s m cc qun trimin ny che s khng chia ht cho 3. iu ny mu thun v
tng cc s trn cc cn li bng
20 1 + 14 2 + 14 3 = 90
chia ht cho 3!
Mu thun trn chng t iu gi s l sai v ta c iu phi chng minh.
V d 5. Hnh trn c bi 5 ng knh thnh thnh 10 bng nhau. Ban u trong
mi c 1 vin bi. Mi ln thc hin, cho php chn 2 vin bi bt k v di chuyn chng
sang bn cnh, 1 vin theo chiu kim ng h v 1 vin ngc chiu kim ng h. Hi
sau mt s hu hn ln thc hin, ta c th chuyn tt c cc vin bi v cng 1 c
khng?
Nu lm th th chng ta s thy rng khng th thc hin c yu cu. Chng ta c th
cng lm l dn 9 vin bi v 1 , cn 1 vin bi khc th khng th dn c. Nhng lm
th no chng minh iu ny? Li gii ha ra l kh n gin. Ta s dng phn chng
kt hp vi bt bin.
Ta t mu cc bng hai mu en trng xen k nhau. Gi S l tng s vin bi nm cc
en th trng thi ban u ta c S = 5. Nu gi s ngc li rng ta c th a cc
vin bi v cng 1 th trng thi cui cng ny, ta s c S = 0 (nu ta dn cc vin bi
v mt trng) hoc S = 10 (nu ta dn cc vin bi v mt en).
By gi ta s thu c iu mu thun nu ta chng minh c qua cc ln thc hin th
tnh chn l ca S s khng thay i, tc l nu ban u S l s l th qua cc ln thc
hin, S s lun l s l (v s khng th bng 0 hoc bng 10).
Nu nhn xt rng cc en trng xen k nhau th iu m chng ta cn chng minh kh
hin nhin v chng ti xin dnh php chng minh chi tit cho bn c.
Bi tp
10. Hnh vung 5 x 5 b i gc trn bn tri. Chng minh rng c th ph phn cn li bng 8 qun
trimino hnh ch L nhng khng th ph c bng 8 qun trimino hnh ch kch thc 1 x 3. Tm tt c
cc gi tr k sao cho c th ph phn cn li bng k qun trimino 1 x 3 v 8-k trimino hnh ch L.
11. Xt hnh vung 7 7 . Tm tt c cc m nu ta xa i th phn cn li c th ph kn bng 15
qun trimino kch thc 1 3 v 1 qun trimino hnh ch L.

12. Trn vng trn ban u theo mt th t tu c 4 s 1 v 5 s 0. khong gia hai ch s ging
nhau ta vit s 1 v khong gia hai ch s khc nhau ta vit s 0. Cc s ban u b xo i. Hi sau
mt s ln thc hin nh vy ta c th thu c mt b gm 9 s 0?
13. Cho trc cc hm s f1(x) = x2 + 2x, f2(x) = x + 1/x, f3(x) = x2 - 2x . Cho php thc hin cc php
ton cng hai hm s, nhn hai hm s, nhn mt hm s vi mt hng s tu . Cc php ton ny c th
tip tc c thc hin nhiu ln trn fi v trn cc kt qu thu c. Chng minh rng c th thu c
hm s 1/x t cc hm s f1, f2, f3 bng cc s dng cc php ton trn nhng iu ny khng th thc
hin c nu thiu mt trong 3 hm f1, f2, f3.
Phn chng trong cc bi ton bt ng thc

Trong chng minh bt ng thc, phng php phn chng thng dng o iu
kin v kt lun vi nhau trong trng hp iu kin th phc tp, cn bt ng thc cn
chng minh th n gin.
V d 1. Chng minh rng nu a, b, c l cc s thc khng m tha mn iu kin a2 + b2
+ c2 + abc = 4 th a + b + c 3.
V d 2. (IMO 2001) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng. Chng minh rng ta c bt ng
thc
a
a 2 + 8bc
b
b 2 + 8ca
c
c 2 + 8ab
ph cc cn thc, ta t:
x=
a
a + 8bc
2
,y=
b
b + 8ca
2
,z=
c
c + 8ab
2
R rng x, y, z (0, 1). Ta cn chng minh rng x + y + z 1. Ch rng

a2
x2
b2
y2
c2
z2
1
x2
y2
z2
=
,
=
,
=
=
.
.
8bc 1 x 2 8ca 1 y 2 8ab 1 z 2
512 1 x 2 1 y 2 1 z 2
Nh vy, ta cn chng minh rng

x + y + z 1, trong x, y, z (0, 1) v (1-x2)(1-y2)(1-z2) = 512x2y2z2
Nhng nu x + y + z < 1 th theo bt ng thc AM-GM ta c
(1-x2)(1-y2)(1-z2) > ((x+y+z)2-x2)((x+y+z)2-y2)((x+y+z)2-z2)
= (y+z)(y+z+2x)(z+x)(z+x+2y)(x+y)(x+y+2z)
2(yz)1/2.4(yzx2)1/4.2(zx)1/2.4(zxy2)1/4.2(xy)1/2.4(xyz2)1/4 = 512x2y2z2.
Mu thun.
V d 3. Cho a, b, c, d l cc s thc khng m c tng bng 4. t
Fk = (1+ak)(1+bk)(1+ck)(1+dk)
Chng minh rng F4 F3.

Gi s ngc li, tn ti b bn s (a, b, c, d) tha mn: a, b, c, d 0, a + b + c + d = 4 v
F4 < F3 (1).
Theo bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz, ta c F4F2 F32, F3F1 F22, F2F0 F12 (2). T (1)
v (2) suy ra F4 < F3 < F2 < F1 < F0 = 16 (3). T (3) ta c F4 < 16, suy ra max(a,b,c,d) <
2.
dn ti mu thun vi (3), ta s chng minh F3 F1 (4). Phn ny chng minh bng
dn bin v c xem nh mt bi tp.
V d 4. (Cezar Lupu) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng tha mn iu kin a + b + c +
abc = 4. Chng minh rng
a
b+c
b
c+a
c
a+b
2
.(a + b + c)
2
Gii.
Theo bt ng thc Cauchy Schwarz, ta c
(a
a
b
c
b + c + b c + a + c a + b
+
+
(a + b + c) 2
c+a
a+b
b+c
Tip tc p dng bt ng thc Cauchy Schwarz

(a + b + c)(a (b + c) + b(c + a ) + c(a + b)) a b + c + b c + a + c a + b
T suy ra
a
b+c
b
c+a
c
a+b
2
a+b+c
.(a + b + c)
2
ab + bc + ca
Nh vy ta ch cn cn chng minh a + b + c ab + bc + ca.

Bt ng thc Schur vi r = 1 c th vit di dng
9abc
4(ab + bc + ca) (a + b + c) 2
a+b+c
By gi gi s ngc li, ta c a + b + c < ab + bc + ca th

9abc
4(ab + bc + ca) (a + b + c) 2 > (a + b + c)(4 (a + b + c)) = abc(a + b + c)
a+b+c
Suy ra a + b + c < 3. Nhng khi abc < 1 v suy ra 4 = a + b + c + abc < 4, mu thun.
Bi tp
14. (MOP) Cho n 2 c nh. Cho x1, , xn l cc s dng tha mn iu kin
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
x1 x 2
xn
1
1
1
Chng minh rng
+
+ ... +
1.
n 1 + x1 n 1 + x 2
n 1 + xn
x1 + x 2 + ... + x n =
15. (Pu-Ro Loh) Cho a, b, c > 1 tha mn iu kin
1
1
1
+ 2
+ 2
= 1 . Chng minh rng
a 1 b 1 c 1
2
1
1
1
+
+
1.
a +1 b +1 c +1
16. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng tha mn iu kin
1 1 1
+ + a + b + c . Chng minh rng
a b c
a + b + c 3abc.
17. (IMO 1991) Cho tam gic ABC v im P nm trong tam gic. Chng minh rng mt trong
cc gc PAB, PBC, PCA nh hn hoc bng 300.
Mt s nh l v tnh cht chng minh bng phng php phn chng

Cui cng, ta s dng phng php phn chng chng minh mt s tnh cht quan
trng trong chng trnh ton Olympic.
nh l.
a) Nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+1 th tn ti x sao cho x2 + 1 chia ht cho p;
b) Nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+3 th khng tn ti x sao cho x2 + 1 chia ht cho p.
c) Nu p l s nguyn t dng 6k+1 th tn ti x sao cho x2 + 3 chia ht cho p;
d) Nu p l s nguyn t dng 6k+5 th khng tn ti x sao cho x2 + 3 chia ht cho p.
Chng minh
a) Gi s ngc li, khng tn ti x sao cho x2 + 1 chia ht cho p. Xt a bt k thuc
A = {1, 2, , p-1}. D dng chng minh c rng tn ti duy nht m(a) thuc A
sao cho a.m(a) -1 (mod p). Hn na, nu a b th m(a) m(b). Cui cng, do
khng tn ti x x2 + 1 chia ht cho p nn a m(a). Nh vy cc s 1, 2, , p-1
c phn thnh (p-1)/2 cp (a, b) vi a.b -1 (mod p). Nhn cc ng d thc
ny li vi nhau, ch k (p-1)/2 = 2k, ta c
(p-1)! (-1)2k 1 (mod p)
iu ny mu thun vi nh l Wilson: (p-1)! -1 (mod p)!
b) Gi s tn ti x sao cho x2 + 1 0 (mod p)
x2 -1 (mod p)
(x2)2k+1 -1 (mod p) x4k+2 -1 (mod p)
Mt khc, theo nh l nh Fermat, ta c
x4k+2 1 (mod p)
T y suy ra 2 0 (mod p), mu thun. Vy iu gi s l sai, tc l khng tn ti x
sap cho x2 + 1 chia ht cho p.
10 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

c) d) c chng minh tng t da vo dy mnh tng ng sau
Phng trnh ng d x2 + 3 0 (mod p) c nghim
Phng trnh x2 + x + 1 0 (mod p) c nghim
Phng trnh x3 1 (mod p) c nghim x 1 (mod p).
nh l.
Nu f: R R l mt hm cng tnh nhng khng tuyn tnh, th th G(f) = (x,
f(x)) tr mt trong R2.
C ngha l nu f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) vi mi x, y thuc R v khng tn ti a thuc R
sao cho f(x) = ax th G(f) tr mt trong R2.
Chng minh. Gi s f l mt hm cng tnh nhng khng tuyn tnh. Ta t c = f(1) v
chn s thc sao cho f() c. Ta xt hm s g mi
g ( x) =
f ( x) cx
.
f ( ) c
Tnh cng tnh ca f suy ra g cng cng tnh trn R. Hn na g(1) = 0. S dng tnh cng
tnh ca g, ta suy ra rng g(q) = qg(1) vi mi q hu t. Nh vy ta c g(q) = 0 vi mi q
hu t.
Xt mt a Dr(x, y) bt k. Chn s hu t q sao cho |q-y| < r/2 v s hu t p sao cho |p
(x-q)| < r/2. Khi ta c
(p + q -x)2 + (q-y)2 < r2/4 + r2/4 = r2/2 < r2.
Nh vy im (p + q, q) nm trong a Dr(x, y). Hn na, theo tnh cng tnh ca g, ta
c
g(p+q) = g(p) + qg() = qg() = q
Suy ra im (p + q, q) nm trn G(g), th ca g.
iu ny chng t rng mi a m trong R2 u cha mt im no ca g. Ta v nh
vy G(g) l tr mt trong R2. Ta quay tr li vi f v s s dng thng tin ny. Ta c
f(x) = ug(x) + cx,
trong u = f() - c. Xt a Dr(a, b) bt k trong R2. Xt a D c cho bi
D = Ds(a, (b-c)/u),
vi s =
r2
, = max{2u 2 ,1 + 2c 2 } .
2
V G(g) tr mt trong R2, ta tm c s thc y sao cho (y, g(y)) thuc D. By gi xt

im (y, ug(y) + cy) thuc G(f), php kim tra trc tip cho thy im ny thuc Dr(a, b)
. iu ny chng t rng G(f) tr mt trong R2.
nh l.
Cho f, g, h l cc a thc thuc R[x] tho mn cc iu kin
i)
deg(f) = deg(g) + deg(h)
11 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

deg(g) > deg(h) hoc deg(g) = deg(h) v g* + h* 0, trong g*, h*
tng ng l cc h s cao nht ca g v h.
Khi vi mi n nguyn dng, tn ti khng qu 1 a thc P(x) c bc n tho mn
iu kin
P(f) = P(g)P(h).
ii)
Chng minh:
Gi s P l a thc bc n tho mn phng trnh (1), deg(f) = f, deg(g) = g, deg(h) = h,
cc h s cao nht ca P, f, g, h tng ng l P*, f*, g*, h*. So snh h s cao nht hai v
ca cc a thc trong phng trnh
P(f(x))P(g(x)) = P(h(x))
ta c P*(f*)n.P*(g*)n = P*(h*)n t suy ra P* = (h*/f*g*)n.
Nh vy, nu gi s ngc li, tn ti mt a thc Q bc n (khc P) cng tho mn
phng trnh (1) th Q* = P* v ta c
Q(x) = P(x) + R(x) vi 0 r = deg(R) < n
(ta quy c bc ca a thc ng nht 0 bng -, do deg(R) 0 ng ngha R khng
ng nht 0)
Thay vo phng trnh (1), ta c
(P(f) + R(f))(P(g) + R(g)) = P(h) + R(h)

P(f)P(g) + P(f)R(g) + R(f)P(g) + R(f)R(g) = P(h) + R(h)

P(f)R(g) + R(f)P(g) + R(f)R(g) = R(h)
(2)
By gi ta xt cc trng hp
i)
deg(f) deg(g). Gi s f > g. Khi bc ca cc a thc v tri (2) ln lt
l nf + rg, rf + ng, rf + rg, v do nf + rg > rf + ng > rf + rg nn v tri c bc l
nf + rg. Trong khi v phi c bc l rh = r(f+g) < nf + rg. Mu thun.
ii)
deg(f) = deg(g). Khi , hai a thc u tin v tri ca (2) cng c bc l nf
+ rg = ng + rf v c th xy ra s trit tiu khi thc hin php cng. Tuy nhin,
xt h s cao nht ca hai a thc ny, ta c h s ca xnf + rg trong a thc th
nht v th hai ln lt bng P*(f*)nR*(g*)r, R*(f*)rP*(g*)n. Nh th, bc ca
xnf+rg trong tng hai a thc bng
P*R*f*rg*r(f*(n-r)+g*(n-r)) 0 do f* + g* 0. Nh vy, bc ca v tri ca (2)
vn l nf + rg, trong khi bc ca v phi l rh = rf + rg < nf + rg. Mu thun.
nh l c chng minh hon ton.
Bi tp
18. Chng minh rng cc phng trnh sau y khng c nghim nguyn dng
a) 4xy x y = z2;
b) x2 y3 = 7.
19. Chng minh rng khng tn ti hm s f: N* N* tho mn cc iu kin:
a) f(2) = 3;
12 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

b) f(mn) = f(m)f(n) vi mi m, n thuc N*;
c) f(m) < f(n) vi mi m < n.
20. Hi c tn ti hay khng cc s nguyn x, y, u, v, t tha mn iu kin sau
x2 + y2 = (x+1)2 + u2 = (x+2)2 + v2 = (x+3)2 + t2.
21. Chng minh nh l sau: Cho f, g, h l cc a thc khng hng tha mn iu kin deg(f) + deg(g) =
deg(h), Q l mt a thc cho trc. Khi , vi mi s nguyn dng n v s thc a, tn ti nhiu nht
mt a thc P tha mn ng thi cc iu kin sau: i) deg(P) = n, ii) P* = a iii) P(f)P(g) = P(h) + Q.
2. Quy np ton hc
Quy np ton hc l mt trong nhng nt c trng ca suy lun trong ton hc. T duy
quy np rt cn thit trong s hc, i s, t hp, hnh hc v gii tch, ni chung l trong
tt c cc lnh vc ca ton hc.
Quy np ton hc v bt ng thc
Gp cc bt ng thc c nhiu bin s, ta c th ngh ngay n php quy np ton hc.
D nhin, vic p dng quy np th no lun l c mt ngh thut.
V d 1. (Chng minh bt ng thc Cauchy bng quy np tin).
Cho a1, a2, , an l cc s thc khng m. Chng minh rng ta lun c
a1 + a 2 + ... + a n n n a1 a 2 ...a n
Trong cc ti liu, bt ng thc ny thng c chng minh bng php quy np li,
hay quy np kiu Cauchy. y chng ta trnh by mt php chng minh khc.
C s quy np vi n = 1, 2 c kim tra d dng. Gi s bt ng thc c chng
minh cho n s. Xt n+1 s khng m a1, a2, , an+1. t a1a2an+1 = An+1. Nu tt c cc
s bng nhau th bt ng thc ng. Trong trng hp ngc li, phi tn ti hai s ai, aj
sao cho ai < A < aj. Khng mt tnh tng qut, c th gi s an < A < an+1. Khi ta c (an
A)(an+1 A) < 0, suy ra an + an+1 > anan+1/A + A. T ta c
a1 + a2 + + an + an+1 > a1 + + an-1 + anan+1/A + A(1)
By gi p dng bt ng thc Cauchy cho n s a1 + + an-1 + anan+1/A ta c
a1 + a 2 + ... + a n 1 + a n n n a1a 2 ...a n 1
a n a n +1
= nA
A
Kt hp vi (1) ta c pcm.
V d 2. Cho n 2 v cho x1, x2, , xn l cc s thc thuc [0, 1]. Chng minh rng
x1(1-x2) + x2(1-x3) + + xn(1-x1) [n/2]
13 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vn bi ton ny l bc chng minh t n n+1 trong trng hp n chn l khng
th (do lc v phi khng thay i v ta cn chng minh phn thay i v tri nh
hn hay bng 0:
xn(1-xn+1) + xn+1(1-x1) xn(1-x1) 0
<=> xn(x1-xn+1) + xn+1(1-x1) 0
R rng biu thc v tri c th nhn c nhng gi tr dng v bc quy np ca chng
ta khng thc hin c.
Ta c th vt qua c kh khn ny nu thc hin bc quy np nhy cch, tc l t n
n+2. Khi , do [(n+2)/2] [n/2] = 1 nn ta cn chng minh:
xn(1-xn+1) + xn+1(1-xn+2) + xn+2(1-x1) xn(1-x1) 1.
iu ny tng ng vi
A = xn(x1-xn+1) + xn+1(1-xn+2) + xn+2(1-x1) 1.
Bt ng thc ny c th chng minh c kh d dng (chng ti dnh cho bn c).
Cui cng, ta cn chng minh c s quy np, trong trng hp ny l trng hp n = 2
v n = 3.
x1(1-x2) + x2(1-x1) 1
v
x1(1-x2) + x2(1-x3) + x3(1-x1) 1
Bt ng thc th nht ng do
x1(1-x2) + x2(1-x1) = 1 (1x1)(1x2) x1x2 1
Bt ng thc th hai ng do
x1(1-x2) + x2(1-x3) + x3(1-x1) = 1 (1x1)(1x2)(1x3) x1x2x3.
Ch rng, trong php chng minh bt ng thc A 1 (php chng minh quy np) c
th s dng n bt ng thc x1(1-x2) + x2(1-x3) + x3(1-x1) 1.
V d 3. Cho n 2 v x1, x2, , xn l n s nguyn phn bit. Chng minh rng
(x1-x2)2 + (x2-x3)2 + + (xn x1)2 4n 6
Ta th xt bc quy np t n n+1. Khi v phi thay i 4 n v, trong khi thay i
v tri l
A = (xn-xn+1)2 + (xn+1-x1)2 (xn x1)2
Ta cn chng minh A 4.
Nu nhn k li bt ng thc cn chng minh v cc iu kin rng buc th ta thy rng
bt ng thc A 4 ni chung khng ng ! Vy phi lm th no?
Ta vit li bt ng thc di dng
A = xn+1(2xn+1-xn-x1) + 2x1xn
14 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

By gi, ta mi ch n hai tnh cht quan trng ca bt ng thc ban u
1) V tri khng thay i nu ta cng thm vo mi s hng xi mt i lng a c
nh. Do ta c th gi s xn+1 = 0
2) y l bt ng thc hon v, do ta c th gi s xn+1 =
min{x1,x2,,xn,xn+1}
T y suy ra A = 2x1xn 2.2 = 4 (v x1, x2 > 0 l cc s nguyn phn bit nn x1x2
1.2 = 2).
Bi ton c gii quyt.
V d 4. Cho cc s dng a1, a2, , an tha mn iu kin a1 + a2 + + an = n. Chng
minh rng ta c bt ng thc
1
1
1
8(n 1)
+
+ ... +
n
(1 a1 a 2 ...a n ) .
a1 a 2
an
n2
Gii.
Ta chng minh kt qu tng qut hn
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
n m n (1 a1a 2 ...a n )
a1 a 2
an
8(n 1)
vi mi mn
.
n2
Vi n = 1, bt ng thc hin nhin ng. Gi s bt ng thc ng n n = k, ta

chng minh bt ng thc cng ng vi n = k+1. Tht vy, gi s ak+1 = max{a1, a2, ,
a1 + ... + a k
1. t bi = ai/b suy ra b1 + b2 + + bk = k. Ch l
k
k +1
8k
8(k 1
kb + a k +1
k +1
k
mk +1b a k +1 mk +1b a k +1 mk +1
= mk +1 =
2
(k + 1)
k2
k +1
ak}, suy ra b =
Do , s dng gi thit quy np ta c

1
1
+ ... + k mk +1b k +1 a k +1 (1 b1 ...bk )
b1
bk
a ...a
1
1 k
+ ... +
mk +1b k a k +1 (1 1 k k )
a1
ak b
b
1
1
k
+ ... +
+ mk +1 a1 ...a k a k +1 + mk +1b k a k +1
a1
ak
b
Cui cng, ta phi chng minh
15 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

k
1
+ mk +1b k a k +1 +
k 1 mk +1 0
b
a k +1
k
1
+
(k + 1) mk +1 (1 b k a k +1 )
b a k +1
k
1
+
(k + 1) mk +1 (1 b k (k + 1 kb))
b k + 1 kb
k (k + 1)
mk +1
b(k + 1 kb)(1 + 2b + ... + kb k 1 )
Bt ng thc ny ng v mk +1
8k
(k + 1) 2
,
b
1
,
b
(
k
1
kb
)
.
4k
(k + 1) 2
Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.

Bi tp
1. Chng minh rng vi x1 x2 xn 0 ta c bt ng thc
n
i =1
i =1
xi2
xi
i
2. Chng minh rng nu a1, a2, , an l cc s nguyn dng phn bit th ta c bt ng thc
(a + a ) 2 ai3
i =1
i =1
n
7
i
5
i
3. (Bt ng thc Mc-Lauflin) Vi mi s thc a1, a2, , a2n v b1, b2, , b2n ta c bt ng thc
2
2n
a
b
(
a
b
a
b
)
a k bk
2 k 2 k 1
2 k 1 2 k
k =1
k =1
k =1
k =1
2n
2n
2
k
2
k
4. Cho x1, x2, , xn l cc s thc dng. Chng minh rng
xi2
n
2
2
i =1 xi + xi +1 xi + 2
n
trong xn+1 = x1, xn+2 = x2.

5. Cho a1, a2, , an l cc s thc dng tha mn iu kin a1 + a2 + + an = n. Chng minh rng
(n-1)(a12+a22 ++an2) + na1a2an n2.
6. Cho n 3 v a1, a2, , an l cc s nguyn dng tha mn iu kin bi =
ai 1 + ai +1
nguyn vi mi
ai
i = 1, 2, , n ( y an+1 = a1, a0 = an). Chng minh rng khi ta c bt ng thc

n
2n bi 3n 2
i =1
16 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Quy np trong s hc
Quy np c s dng rng ri trong s hc, c bit l trong cc bi ton v ng d, v
bc theo modulo m. Di y ta xem xt mt s v d kinh in.
nh l nh Fermat: Nu p l s nguyn t th ap a chia ht cho p vi mi a nguyn.
nh l ny c th chng minh bng php quy np ton hc, s dng tnh cht C pk chia
ht cho p vi mi k = 1, 2, , p-1.
V d 4. (VMO 1997) Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n u chn c s
nguyn dng k 19k 97 chia ht cho 2n.
Vi n = 1, n = 2 ta chn k = 2 nn ch cn xt vi n 3. Ta c nhn xt sau
19 2 1 = 2 n .t n vi tn l.
(1)
Tht vy, vi n = 3, khng nh 1 ng. Gi s khng nh ng vi n. Khi
19 2 1 = (19 2 1)(19 2 + 1) = 2 s n 2 n t n = 2 n +1 ( s n t n ) vi (sntn) l.
Nhn xt c chng minh.
n2
n 1
n2
n2
Ta chng minh bi ton bng quy np. Vi n = 3 ng. Gi s tn ti kn thuc N* sao cho
19 kn 97 = 2 n.a
Nu a chn th 19 k n 97 chia ht cho 2n+1. Nu a l, t kn+1 = kn + 2n-2. Khi theo nhn
xt ta c
n2
19 k n +1 97 = 19 2 (19 k n 97) + 97(19 2
n2
n2
1) = 2 n (19 2 a + 97t n )
chia ht cho 2n+1 (pcm).

Bi tp
4. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n s n! tho mn iu kin sau: vi mi c s ca n,
khc vi n! c th tm c mt c s khc ca n! sao cho tng hai c s li l c s ca n!.
5. Chng minh rng nu s nguyn dng N c th biu din di dng tng bnh phng ca ba s
nguyn chia ht cho 3 th n cng c th biu din di dng tng bnh phng ca ba s khng chia ht
cho 3.
6. Chng minh rng tn ti v s hp s n sao cho 3n-1 2n-1 chia ht cho n.
Quy np trong cc bi ton tr chi

Cc bi ton tr chi chnh l dng ton s dng n quy np ton hc nhiu nht. Ch
l quy np ton hc y bao gm hai phn: d on cng thc v chng minh cng
thc v trong rt nhiu trng hp, vic d on cng thc ng vai tr then cht.
17 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
V d 5. Hai ngi A v B cng chi mt tr chi. Ban u trn bn c 100 vin ko. Hai
ngi thay phin nhau bc ko, mi ln c bc k vin vi k {1, 2, 6} . Hi ai l
ngi c chin thut thng, ngi i trc hay ngi i sau?
Ta s khng bt u t 100 vin ko m bt u t nhng s ko nh hn. Gi s ban u
trn bn c n vin ko. Nu n = 1, 2, 6 th r rng ngi th nht c chin thut thng (ta
gi n gin l ngi th nht thng). Vi n = 3 th ngi th hai thng, bi ngi th
nht ch c th bc 1 hoc 2 vin v tng ng ngi th hai bc 2 hay 1 vin thng.
Vi n = 4 ngi th nht thng bng cch bc 1 vin ko v y ngi th hai vo th
thua. Tng t, vi n = 5 ngi th nht thng. Vi n = 7, ngi th hai thng v c ba
cch i c th ca ngi th nht (bc 1, 2, 6 vin) u dn n th thng cho ngi th
hai (tng ng cn 6, 5, 1 vin ko trn bn), n = 8 ngi th nht thng
Bng cch l lun tng t nh vy, ta lp c bng sau
n
KQ
1 2
1 1
3
2
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
2
8
1
9
1
10
2
11 12
1 1
13
1
14
2
15
1
16
1
17
2
T bng kt qu, c th d on c l ngi th nht s thng nu n c s d l 1, 2,

4, 5, 6 trong php chia cho 7, v ngi th hai s thng nu n c s d l 0, 3 trong php
chia cho 7.
Sau khi c d on ta tm cch chng minh cht ch d on ca mnh bng php quy
np ton hc. t n = 7k+r vi r = 1, 2, , 6, 7 ta chng minh d on trn bng quy np
theo k. Vi k = 0 mnh c kim chng qua bng trn.
Xt n = 7(k+1) + r vi r = 1, 2, , 6, 7
Nu r = 1, 2, 6, ngi th nht bc tng ng 1, 2, 6 vin a v trng hp trn bn
cn 7k+7 vin ko l th thua cho ngi th hai (theo gi thit quy np), v th ngi th
nht thng.
Nu r = 3, ngi th nht c 3 cch bc
+ Bc 1 vin, cn 7(k+1) + 2 l th thng cho ngi th hai (ta va chng minh
trn)
+ Bc 2 vin, cn 7(k+1) + 1, tng t cng l th thng cho ngi th hai
+ Bc 6 vin, cn 7k + 4 vin l th thng ca ngi th hai (theo gi thit quy
np).
Nh vy trng hp ny ngi th nht thua.
Nu r = 4, 5, ngi th nht bc tng ng 1, 2 vin a v trng hp 7(k+1) + 3 l
th thua cho ngi th hai, v v vy ngi th nht thng.
Cui cng, trng hp r = 7, ngi th nht c 3 cch bc
+ Bc 1 vin, cn 7(k+1) + 6 l th thng cho ngi th hai (chng minh trn)
18 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vy ngi th nht thua.
Nh th d on ca chng ta c chng minh hon ton.
V 100 chia 7 d 2 nn theo l lun trn th ngi th nht c chin thut thng.
V d 6. Cu b v Freken Bock cng chi mt tr chi. Trn bn c mt s ko. Bc i
u tin, cu b chia s ko thnh 3 ng khc rng, sau Freken chn ra 2 ng a
cho Carlson, ng cn li Freken li chia ra thnh 3 ng khc rng v cu b li chn
ra hai ng a cho Carlson, ng cn li chia thnh 3 ng khc rng Ai n lt
mnh khng i c na th thua. Hi ai l ngi c chin thut thng nu trn bn c:
a) 7 vin ko ;
b) 9 vin ko ;
c) 12 vin ko ;
d) 14 vin ko ;
e) Mt s ko bt k.
Bi tp
7. a) Trn bng c s 2010. Hai ngi A v B cng lun phin thc hin tr chi sau: Mi ln thc hin,
cho php xo i s N ang c trn bng v thay bng N-1 hoc [N/2]. Ai thu c s 0 trc l thng
cuc. Hi ai l ngi c chin thut thng, ngi i trc hay ngi i sau.
b) Cng cu hi vi lut chi thay i nh sau: Mi ln thc hin, cho php xo i s N ang c trn
bng v thay bng N-1 hoc [(N+1)/2].
8. C bng ch nht gm m x n . Hai ngi A v B cng lun phin nhau t mu cc ca bng, mi ln
t cc to thnh mt hnh ch nht. Khng c php t nhng t. Ai phi t cui cng l thua.
Hi ai l ngi c chin thut thng, ngi i trc hay ngi i sau?
9. An v Bnh chi tr on s. An ngh ra mt s no nm trong tp hp X = {1, 2, , 144}. Bnh c
th chn ra mt tp con bt k A ca X v hi S ca bn ngh c nm trong A hay khng ? . An s tr
li C hoc Khng theo ng s tht. Nu An tr li c th Bnh phi tr cho An 2.000 ng, nu An tr
li Khng th Bnh phi tr cho An 1.000 ng. Hi Bnh phi tt t nht bao nhiu tin chc chn tm
ra c s m An ngh ?
Quy np trong bi ton m

Xy dng cng thc truy hi l mt trong nhng phng php quan trng gii bi ton
m. T tng quy np y rt r rng: tm cng thc cho bi ton m vi kch
thc n, ta s dng kt qu ca bi ton m tng t vi kch thc nh hn.
V d 7. (Bi ton chia ko ca Euler)
Cho k, n l cc s nguyn dng. Tm s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh
x1 + x2 + + xn = k
(*)
19 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Gii. Gi s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh trn l S(n, k). D dng thy
rng S(1, k) = 1. tnh S(n, k), ta ch rng (*) tng ng vi
x1 + ...+ xn-1 = k - xn (**)
Suy ra vi xn c nh th s nghim ca (**) l S(n-1, k-xn). T ta c cng thc
S(n, k) = S(n-1, k) + S(n-1, k-1) + ...+ S(n-1, 0)
y c th coi l cng thc truy hi tnh S(n, k). Tuy nhin, cng thc ny cha tht tin
li. Vit cng thc trn cho (n, k-1) ta c
S(n, k-1) = S(n-1, k-1) + S(n-1, k-2) + ...+ S(n-1, 0)
T y, tr cc ng thc trn v theo v, ta c
S(n, k) - S(n, k-1) = S(n-1, k)
Hay S(n, k) = S(n, k-1) + S(n-1, k)
T cng thc ny, bng quy np ta c th chng minh c rng S(n, k) = Ckn+k-1.
Trong nhiu trng hp, vic xt thm cc bi ton ph s gip chng ta thit lp nn cc
h phng trnh truy hi, t suy ra cng thc truy hi cho cc bi ton chnh.
V d 8. Xt tp hp E = {1, 2, , 2010}. Vi tp con A khc rng ca E, ta t
r(A) = a1 a2 + + (-1)k-1ak
trong a1, a2, , ak l tt c cc phn t ca A xp theo th t gim dn. Hy tnh tng
S = r ( A) .
A E
t En = {1, 2, , n} v S n =
r ( A) . Xt Sn+1, bng cch chia cc tp con ca En+1
A E n
thnh 2 loi, loi khng cha n+1 v cha n+1, ta c

S n+1 =
r ( A) = r ( A) + r ( A {n + 1}) = r ( A) + (n + 1 r ( A)) = (n + 1)2 .

n
A En +1
A E n
A E n
A E n
A E n
Ghi ch. y l tnh hung may mn c bit khi chng ta truy hi m khng truy hi,
ngha l ra c cng thc tng minh lun.
V d 9. C 2n ngi xp thnh 2 hng dc. Hi c bao nhiu cch chn ra mt s ngi
(t nht 1) t 2n ngi ny, sao cho khng c hai ngi no ng k nhau c chn.
Hai ngi ng k nhau l hai ngi c s th t lin tip trong mt hng dc hoc c
cng s th t hai hng.
Gi Sn l s cch chn ra mt s ngi t 2n ngi xp thnh 2 hng dc v Tn l s cch
chn ra mt s ngi t 2n-1 ngi xp thnh 2 hng dc, trong khuyt mt ch u
ca mt hng. Ta c S1 = 2, T1 = 1.
1 3
2 4
Hnh 1. Sn vi n = 5
20 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
1 2
Hnh 2. Tn vi n = 5
Xt 2n ngi xp thnh 2 hng dc (nh hnh 1). Ta xt cc cch chn tho mn iu
kin u bi. Xy ra cc kh nng sau :
1) Ngi v tr s 1 c chn : Khi ngi v tr s 2 v s 3 khng c
chn C Tn-1 + 1 cch chn (+1 l do b sung cch chn khng chn g
c )
2) Ngi v tr s 2 c chn : Tng t, c Tn-1 + 1 cch chn.
3) C hai ngi v tr s 1 v s 2 u khng c chn: C Sn-1 cch chn.
Vy ta c Sn = Sn-1 + 2Tn-1+ 2 (1).
Xt 2n-1 ngi xp thnh 2 hng dc (nh hnh 2). Ta xt cc cch chn tho mn iu
kin u bi. Xy ra cc kh nng sau :
1) Ngi v tr s 1 c chn : Khi ngi v tr s 2 khng c chn
c Tn-1 + 1 cch chn
2) Ngi v tr s 1 khng c chn : c Sn-1 cch chn.
Vy ta c Tn = Sn-1 + Tn-1 + 1 (2)
T (1) ta suy ra 2Tn-1 = Sn Sn-1 2, 2Tn = Sn+1 Sn 2. Thay vo (2), ta c
Sn+1 Sn 2 = 2Sn-1+ Sn Sn-1 2 + 2
Sn+1 = 2Sn + Sn-1 + 2
T y d dng tm c
Sn =
(1 + 2 ) n +1 + (1 2 ) n +1 2
2
Bi tp
10. Tm s cch lt ng i kch thc 3 x 2n bng cc vin gch kch thc 1 x 2.
11. Tm s tt c cc b n s (x1, x2, , xn) sao cho
(i) xi = 1 vi i = 1, 2, , n.
(ii) 0 x1 + x2 + + xr < 4 vi r = 1, 2, , n-1 ;
(iii) x1 + x2 + + xn = 4.
12. Trn bn c 365 tm ba m trn mt p xung ca n c ghi cc s khc nhau. Vi 1.000 ng An c
th chn ba tm ba v yu cu Bnh sp xp chng t tri sang phi sao cho cc s vit trn chng c
xp theo th t tng dn. Hi An, b ra 2.000.000 c th chc chn sp xp 365 tm ba sao cho cc s
c vit trn chng c xp theo th t tng dn hay khng ?
13. (Bi ton con ch, IMO 1979) Gi A v E l hai nh i din ca mt bt gic. T mt nh bt k
ngoi tr E, con ch nhy n hai nh k. Khi n nhy n nh E th n ngng li. Gi an l s cc
ng i khc nhau vi ng n bc nhy v kt thc ti E. Chng minh rng a2n-1 = 0,
a2n =
(2 + 2 ) n 1 (2 2 ) n 1
21 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Quy np v mt s nh l trong ti u t hp
nh l 1. (Hall, 1935) Cho th hai phe X, Y. Vi mi tp con A thuc X, gi G(A) l
tp cc nh thuc Y k vi mt nh no thuc A. Khi iu kin cn v tn
ti mt n nh f: X Y sao cho x k f(x) l |G(A)| |A| vi mi A khc rng thuc X.
Chng minh. iu kin cn l hin nhin: Nu tn ti n nh f th vi mi A = {x1, x2,
, xr} thuc X, ta c G(A) cha cc phn t phn bit f(x1), , f(xr), do |G(A)| r =
|A|.
Ta chng minh iu kin bng quy np theo |X|. Khi |X| = 1, khng nh l hin nhin.
Gi s nh l ng vi cc tp X vi |X| < n. Gi s by gi |X| = n. Ta xt hai trng
hp:
1) Gi s vi mi A X (A X), ta c |G(A)| > |A|. Chn mt phn t x0 bt k thuc X,
theo iu kin |G({x0})| 1, do tn ti y0 thuc Y k vi X. Ta t f(x0) = y0. By gi
xt X = X \{x} v Y = Y \ {y}, A X v G(A) l tp cc nh thuc Y k vi A. Khi
|G(A)| |G(A)| - 1 |A|. V |X| < |X| nn theo gi thit quy np, tn ti n nh f: X
Y sao cho f(x) k x vi mi x thuc x. B sung thm f(x0) = y0 ta c n nh f: X
Y tha mn yu cu nh l.
2) Trong trng hp ngc li, tn ti A X (A X) sao cho |G(A)| = |A|. Khi , do |A|
< |X| nn tn ti n nh f: A G(A). Xt X = X \ A, Y = Y \ G(A). Xt B thuc X v
G(B) l tp cc nh thuc Y k vi B. Nu |G(B)| < |B| th ta c
|G(A B)| = |G(A)| + |G(B)| < |A| + |B| = |A B|
mu thun vi iu kin nh l. Nh vy ta c |G(B)| |B| vi mi B thuc X. Theo gi
thit quy np, tn ti n nh g: X Y sao cho g(x) k vi x. Nh vy, ta c th xy
dng c n nh h: X Y sao cho h(x) k vi x: c th h(x) = f(x) nu x thuc A v
h(x) = g(x) nu x thuc X \ A.
Quan h trn tp hp X c gi l mt quan h th t nu tha mn ng thi cc
iu kin sau:
i)
x x vi mi x thuc X (tnh phn x)
ii)
Nu x y, y x th x = y (tnh phn xng)
iii)
Nu x y, y z th x z (tnh bc cu)
Mt tp hp m trn xc nh mt quan h th t c gi l mt tp sp th t.
Cho X l mt tp sp th t, hai phn t x v y thuc X c gi l so snh c nu x
y hoc y x. Trong trng hp ngc li, ta ni x v y khng so snh c.
Mt tp con C ca X c gi l mt xch nu hai phn t bt k thuc C u so snh
c. Mt tp con A ca X c gi l mt i xch nu hai phn t bt k thuc A u
khng so snh c.
22 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Phn t x thuc X c gi l phn t cc i nu t x y suy ra y = x. Phn t x c
gi l cc tiu nu t y x suy ra y = x. Phn t x thuc X c gi l ln nht nu x y
vi mi y thuc X v c gi l nh nht nu x y vi mi y thuc X. Xch C c gi
l cc i nu nh khng tn ti mt xch C cha C vi |C| > |C|. Tng t ta nh
ngha i xch cc i.
nh l 2. (Dilworth 1950) Cho mt tp sp th t X. S phn t ln nht ca mt i
xch ca X bng s nh nht cc xch ri nhau hp thnh X.
Chng minh 1. Gi M = max{|A| | A l i xch} v m l s nh nht cc xch ri nhau
hp thnh X. Nh vy tn ti i xch A ca X cha M phn t. V mt xch ch cha
c nhiu nht 1 phn t ca 1 i xch nn r rng ta c m M.
Ta chng minh m M bng quy np theo |X|. Gi a l mt phn t cc i ca X v M l
kch thc ca i xch ln nht trong X = X \ {a}. Khi , theo gi thit quy np X l
hp ca M xch ri nhau C1, C2, , CM. Ta cn chng minh rng hoc X cha i xch
vi M+1 phn t, hoc X l hp ca M xch. By gi, mi i xch kch thc M (M-i
xch) trong X cha mt phn t t mi Ci. Gi ai l phn t ln nht trong Ci thuc vo
mt M-i xch no trong X. D dng thy rng A = {a1, a2, , aM} l mt i xch
(nu chng hn ai < aj th v aj thuc vo mt M-i xch no v i xch ny li cha
mt phn t bi ca Ci nn theo tnh ln nht ca ai, ta c bi ai < aj iu ny mu thun v
bi v aj cng thuc mt i xch). Nu A {a} l mt i xch trong X th ta c pcm.
Trong trng hp ngc li, ta c a > ai vi i no . Khi K = {a} {x Ci : x ai}
l mt xch trong X v khng c M-i xch trong X \ K (v ai l phn t ln nht ca Ci
tham gia trong cc i xch nh vy), v th X \ K l hp ca M-1 xch.
Chng minh 2. (Theo H. Tverberg 1967)
Hin nhin ta c m M.
Ta chng minh M m bng quy np theo |X|.
iu ny l hin nhin nu |X|=0.
Gi s C l xch cc i trong X.
Nu mi i xch trong X\C c nhiu nht M-1 phn t th xong.
Gi s {a1,, aM} l mt i xch trong P\C.
nh ngha S- = {x X: i [ x ai]}, S+ {x X: i [ ai x]}
V C l cc i, phn t ln nht ca C khng nm trong S- .
Theo gi thit quy np, nh l ng vi S- .
V th, S- l hp ca M xch ri nhau S-1, , S-M, trong ai S-i
.
Gi s rng x S i v x > ai. Nu nh tn ti aj vi x aj, ta s c ai < x
aj. Mu thun. V vy ai l phn t ln nht trong S-i , i=1,,M.
Lm tng t i vi S+i, ta c ai l phn t nh nht trong S+i.
Kt hp cc xch li ta c iu phi chng minh.
23 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

3. Nguyn l Dirichlet
Nguyn l Dirichlet dng c in thng c dng chng minh tn ti theo kiu
khng xy dng (non-constructive), tc l bit i tng tn ti nhng khng ch ra c
th.
Nguyn l Dirichlet trong s hc
Trong s hc, nguyn l Dirichlet thng lin quan n cc bi ton chia ht, nguyn t
cng nhau. V d cc bi ton kinh in sau.
V d 1. Chn ra n+1 s t 2n s nguyn dng u tin.
a) Chng minh rng trong cc s c chn, c hai s phn bit x, y nguyn t
cng nhau.
b) Chng minh rng trong cc s c chn, c hai s x > y m x chia ht cho y.
V d 2. Chng minh rng t n s nguyn bt k lun c th chn ra mt s hoc mt s
s c tng chia ht cho n.
V d 3. (nh l Fermat-Euler v tng hai bnh phng)
Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+1 th tn ti cc s nguyn a, b sao cho
p = a2 + b2.
Chng minh. V p c dng 4k+1 nn theo kt qu ca nh l phn u, tn ti s
nguyn N sao cho N2 + 1 chia ht cho p, hay ni cch khc, N2 -1 (mod p). Xt cc s
dng x + Ny vi x, y l cc s nguyn thuc [0, [ p ]] . C tt c ([ p ] + 1) 2 s nh vy.
V ([ p ] + 1) 2 > p nn theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti hai cp s (x, y) (x, y) sao cho
x + Ny x + Ny (mod p). T y suy ra
x x N(y y) (mod p)
=>
(x x)2 N2(y y)2 (mod p)
By gi, nh li rng N2 - 1 (mod p), ta suy ra
(x x)2 - (y y)2 (mod p)

(x x)2 + (y y)2 (mod p)
Cui cng, ch rng 0 < (x x)2 + (y y)2 < 2p ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Ngoi k thut kinh in vi chung v th, ta c th s dng mt bin th ca nguyn l
Dirichlet nh sau:
Tnh cht. Nu A, B l cc tp hp tho mn iu kin |A| + |B| > |A B| th
0.
Sau y l mt p dng ca tnh cht ny.
24 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
AB
V d 4. Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+3 th tn ti cc s nguyn x, y

sao cho x2 + y2 + 1 chia ht cho p.
Chng minh. t ri = i2 mod p vi i = 1, 2, , (p-1)/2 v si = 1 i2 mod p, i = 1, 2, ,
(p-1)/2 th d dng chng minh c rng ri i mt phn bit v si i mt phn bit.
Hn na, ri v si u thuc {1, 2, , p-1}.
t A = {r1, , r(p-1)/2}, B = {s1, , s(p-1)/2} th |A| = |B| = (p-1)/2 v |A B| p-1. Xy
ra hai trng hp
Trng hp 1. Nu | A B | < p-1 th theo tnh cht nn trn, ta c A B , tc l tn
ti i, j sao cho ri = sj, tng ng vi i2 - 1- j2 (mod p) i2 + j2 + 1 chia ht cho p
(pcm).
Trng hp 2. Nu | A B | = p-1 th A B = v nh vy, cc s r1, r2, , r(p-1)/2, s1,
s2, , s(p-1)/2 i mt phn bit v ta c
r1 + r2 + + r(p-1)/2 + s1 + s2 + + s(p-1)/2 = 1 + 2 + + p-1 0 (mod p)
iu ny mu thun v theo nh ngha ca ri v si, ta c
r1 + r2 + + r(p-1)/2 + s1 + s2 + + s(p-1)/2 12 + 22 + + [(p-1)/2]2 + (-1-12) + +
(-1 [(p-1)/2]2) -(p-1)/2 (mod p).
Vy trng hp 2 khng xy ra, v nh th ta ri vo trng hp 1. Ta c iu phi
chng minh.
Ghi ch. L lun A v B v khng B suy ra A c gi l Tam on lun ri.
Bi tp
1. Xt dy s Fibonacci xc nh bi F1 = F2 = 1, Fn+1 = Fn + Fn-1 vi mi n 2. Chng minh rng vi mi
s nguyn dng m > 1. Tn ti v s s hng ca dy s chia ht cho m.
2. T khong (22n, 23n) chn ra 22n-1+1 s l. Chng minh rng trong cc s c chn, tn ti hai s m
bnh phng mi s khng chia ht cho s cn li.
3. a) Chng minh rng khng tn ti s nguyn dng n sao cho 10n + 1 chia ht cho 2003.
b) Chng minh rng tn ti cc s nguyn dng m, n sao cho 10m + 10n + 1 chia ht cho 2003.
4. (Vietnam TST 2001) Dy s nguyn dng a1, a2, , an, tho mn iu kin
1 an+1 an 2001 vi mi n = 1, 2, 3, Chng minh rng tn ti v s cp s p, q sao cho q > p v aq
chia ht cho ap.
25 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nguyn l Dirichlet trong i s
Trong i s nguyn l Dirichlet c th hin qua tnh cht c bn sau: Nu trn on
[a, b] c n s thc x1, x2, , xn (n 2) th tn ti cc ch s i j sao cho
|xi-xj| (ba)/(n-1).
V d 5. Gia 7 s thc bt k lun tm c 2 s x v y sao cho 0 <
x y
1
. . Gi
1 + xy
3
cc s cho l a1, a2, , a7. Vi mi s thc a, tn ti s thuc khong (-/2, /2)

sao cho a = tg(). Gi s a1 = tg(1), a2 = tg(2), , a7 = tg(7). Theo tnh cht nu trn,
trong 7 s 1, 2, , 7 tn ti hai s c hiu khng vt qu /6. Gi s hai s ny l
v , trong > . Khi
tg ( ) tg ( )
1
0<
= tg ( ) tg =
.
1 + tg ( )tg ( )
6
3
Nh vy cc s x = tg() v y = tg() l cc s cn tm.
nh l Kronecker v s tr mt l mt nh l c nhiu ng dng trong gii tch, i s,
gii tch phc. Di y ta xt chng minh rt s cp ca nh l ny ( dng tng
ng)
nh l Kronecker. Nu l s v t th tp hp S ={ {n} | n N*} tr mt trong [0,
1].
Chng minh. Ta cn chng minh rng vi mi khong (a, b) [0, 1], tn ti s nguyn
dng n sao cho {n} (a, b).
Trc ht, ta tm s nguyn dng N sao cho N > 1/(b-a). By gi xt N+1 s {},
{2}, , {(N+1)} thuc on [0, 1]. Theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti hai s {p},
{q} vi 1 p < q N+1 sao cho |{p} {q}| 1/N.
rng {q} {p} = q - [q] - p + [p] = (q-p) - [q] + [p]. Do nu {q}
{p} > 0 th {(q-p)} = {q} {p}, cn nu {q} {p} < 0 th
{(q-p)} = 1
({q} {p})
Ta xt hai trng hp
Trng hp 1. 1/N > {q} {p} > 0. Khi t k = q p, ta tm c s nguyn
dng k sao cho 0 < {k} < 1/N.
By gi ta gn m l s nguyn dng nh nht sao cho m{k} > a th ta c
(m1){k} a. Do m{k} a + {k} < a + 1/N < b. Suy ra m{k} (a, b) [0, 1].
26 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nhng mk = m[k] + m{k}. Do 0 < m{k} < 1 nn t y ta c {mk} = m{k}.
t n = mk, ta c {n} (a, b) (pcm).
Trng hp 2. 0 > {q} {p} > -1/N. Khi t k = q p, ta tm c s nguyn
dng k sao cho 1 1/N < {k} < 1. t = 1 - {k} th 0 < < 1/N. Chng minh
tng t nh trn, ta tm c s nguyn dng m sao cho m thuc (1-b, 1-b), tc l
1 b < m(1 - {k}) < 1 a

a < m{k} m + 1 < b

a < {m{k}} < b
Cui cng, ta c mk = m[k] + m{k} nn {mk} = {m{k}} nn t n = mk ta c
iu phi chng minh.
Mt tnh hung rt n gin khc ca nguyn l Diriclet li c nhng ng dng rt hiu
qu trong nhiu bi ton chng minh bt ng thc, c bit l cc bt ng thc c iu
kin. l ch sau: Vi m l mt s thc cho trc v n 3 s thc a1, a2, , an bt k
th lun tm c hai s trong cc s ny nm cng mt pha i vi m.
Gi hai s l x v y th ta c bt ng thc hin nhin sau: (x-m)(y-m) 0, t xy +
m2 m(x+y). Nh vy, ta so snh c hai i lng khng cng bc vi nhau. Sau
y chng ta s xem xt mt s v d p dng.
V d 6. Cho x, y, z l cc s thc dng tho mn iu kin x + y + z + 1 = 4xyz. Chng
minh rng
xy + yz + zx x + y + z.
tng u tin ta ngh n l x l iu kin bng php th z =
x + y +1
vo bt ng
4 yz 1
thc cn chng minh, vit li thnh
x + y +1
( x + y 1) x + y xy
4 xy 1
n y, ng li chng minh hnh thnh. V tri r rng 1 vi mi x, y cn v

phi s 1 nu x, y nm cng pha nhau i vi 1. Nhng iu ny, theo nhn xt n
gin trn ta lun c th chn c.
V d 7. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc khng m. Chng minh rng
(a2 + 2)(b2 + 2)(c2 + 2) 3(a + b + c)2
p dng bt ng thc CBS, ta c
(a + b + c)2 (a2 + 1 + 1)(1 + b2 + c2) = (a2 + 2)(b2 + c2 + 1). Nh vy ta ch cn cn
chng minh
(b2 + 2)(c2 + 2) 3(b2 + c2 + 1)
27 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

(b2 1)(c2 1) 0
iu ny lun c c nu ta chn b2, c2 cng pha nhau i vi 1.
Bi tp
5. Cho a, b, c > 0, x = a + 1/b, y = b + 1/c, z = c + 1/a. Chng minh rng
xy + yz + zx 2(x+y+z)
6. (USA MO 2001) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc khng m tho mn iu kin a2 + b2 + c2 + abc = 4. Chng
minh rng
0 ab + bc + ca abc 2.
7. Vi i = 1, 2, , 7 cc s ai, bi l cc s thc khng m tho mn iu kin
rng tn ti cc ch s i j sao cho |ai aj| + |bi bj| 1.
ai + bi 2. Chng minh
8. (VMO 1996) Cho x, y, z l cc s thc dng tho mn iu kin xy + yz + zx + xyz = 4. Chng minh
rng
x + y + z xy + yz + zx.
9. Tm s thc k nh nht sao cho xyz + 2 + k[(x-1)2 + (y-1)2 + (z-1)2] x + y + z vi mi x, y, z > 0.
Nguyn l Dirichlet trong t hp

T hp l mnh t mu m nht cho cc phng php v k thut chng minh. V
nguyn l Dirichlet khng phi l mt ngoi l. Trong t hp, mt c im c trng l
s bng n t hp ca cc trng hp, v vy, nguyn l Dirichlet cng vi cc nguyn l
khc nh nguyn l cc hn, nguyn l bt bin chnh l nhng cng c quan trng
chng ta nh hng trong bin cc trng hp.
Nguyn l Dirichlet thng c s dng trong cc bi ton th, t mu, cc bi ton
v thi u th thao ( th c hng), quen nhau ( th v hng).
V d 8. Trong mt gii bng chuyn c 8 i tham gia, thi u vng trn 1 lt. Chng
minh rng tm c 4 i A, B, C, D sao cho A thng B, C, D, B thng C, D v C thng
D.
Trong bng chuyn khng c ho, do 8 i thi u vng trn 1 lt th s c tt c 28
trn thng. Theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti i bng A c t nht 4 trn thng. Xt 4 i
thua A. 4 i ny u vi nhau 6 trn, do tn ti mt i thng t nht 2 trn (trong s
cc trn u gia 4 i ny vi nhau). Gi s l B v C, D l 2 i thua B. Cui cng,
nu C thng D th A, B, C, D l 4 i cn tm, cn nu D thng C th 4 i cn tm l A,
B, D, C.
Bi ton Ramsey l mt trong nhng bi ton kinh in m nhng trng hp c s ca
n rt th v v ph hp vi mc ton s cp.
28 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

V d 9. Chng minh rng trong mt nhm 6 ngi bt k c 3 ngi i mt quen nhau
hoc 3 ngi i mt khng quen nhau.
Hai ngi bt k c th quen nhau hoc khng quan nhau. Xt mt ngi A bt k th c
5 ngi khc hoc quen A hoc khng quen A. Do , theo nguyn l Dirichlet, phi xy
ra mt trong hai trng hp:
1) A quen t nht 3 ngi
2) A khng quen t nht 3 ngi
Ta xt trng hp th nht: A quen vi t nht 3 ngi, chng hn B, C, D. Nu trong 3
ngi B, C, D c t nht mt cp quen nhau, chng hn B quen C th ta c A, B, C i
mt quen nhau. Trong trng hp ngc li, ta c B, C, D i mt khng quen nhau.
Trng hp th hai c xt hon ton tng t. Bi ton c chng minh.
V d 10. Trong mt nhm gm 2n+1 ngi vi mi n ngi tn ti mt ngi khc n
ngi ny quen vi tt c h. Chng minh rng trong nhm ngi ny c 1 ngi quen
vi tt c mi ngi.
Ta chng minh rng trong nhm ngi ny c n+1 ngi i mt quen nhau. R rng c
2 ngi quan nhau v nu nh c k ngi i mt quen nhau (trong k n) th tn ti
mt ngi khc trong s h quen vi k ngi ny. T suy ra tn ti n+1 ngi i mt
quen nhau A1, A2, , An+1.
Xt n ngi cn li. Theo iu kin,tn ti mt ngi Ai quen vi tt c n ngi ny.
Nhng khi Ai quen vi tt c mi ngi.
B quyt thnh cng ca nguyn l Dirichlet chnh l k thut xy chung v to th.
Trong nhiu bi ton, chung l g, th l g kh r rng, nhng trong nhiu bi ton, xy
chung v to th l c mt s tinh t. Ta phi bit chn cc thnh phn chnh v
hng n mc tiu.
V d 11. Cc s t 1 n 200 c chia thnh 50 tp hp. Chng minh rng trong mt
cc tp hp c ba s l di 3 cnh ca mt tam gic.
Thot nhn bi ton c v kh ri. Nhng nu rng vi 0 < a < b < c th iu kin
cn v a, b, c l di ba cnh ca mt tam gic l a + b > c th bi ton tr nn
n gin hn. R rng nu ch xt cc s t 100 n 200 th ba s bt k u l di 3
cnh ca 1 tam gic (a + b 100 + 101 = 201 > c). T ch cn xt 101 con th l cc
s t 100 n 200 ri p dng nguyn l Dirichlet cho 50 ci chung tp hp l xong.
y, r rng cc s t 1 n 99 ch c tc dng gy nhiu.
V d 12. Trn bn c quc t c 8 qun xe, i mt khng n nhau. Chng minh rng
trong cc khong cch i mt gia cc qun xe, c hai khong cch bng nhau. Khong
29 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

cch gia hai qun xe bng khong cch gia tm cc vung m qun cc qun xe
ng.
Trc ht ta m hnh ho bi ton. rng khong cch gia (p, q) v (m, n) bng
(p-m)2 + (q-n)2. Ta cn chng minh rng nu p1, p2, , p8 l mt hon v ca (1, 2, 3, ,
8) th tn ti cc tp ch s {m, n} {p, q} sao cho (m-n)2 + (pm-pn)2 = (p-q)2 + (pp pq)2.
8 qun xe to ra 28 khong cch. Nhng nu ta tm 2 khong cch bng nhau gia c 28
qun xe ny th ta s gp kh khn. Ta gii hn trong vic tm cc cp ch s dng {n,
n+1}. C 7 cp nh vy. Khi , ta ch cn tm n m sao cho (pn+1-pn)2 = (pm+1-pm)2. V
1 pi 8 nu (pn+1-pn)2 ch c th l 1 trong 7 gi tr 12, 22, , 72. V th ch c th xy
ra hai trng hp.
Trng hp 1. Tn ti n m sao cho (pn+1-pn)2 = (pm+1-pm)2. Khi cc cp qun xe ti
(n, pn), (n+1, pn+1) v (m, pm), (m+1, pm+1) l cc cp xe cn tm.
Trng hp 2. Cc s (pn+1-pn)2 i mt phn bit. Khi tn ti n sao cho
4.
(pn+1-pn)2 =
Lc ny, xoay hng thnh ct, ta li i n vic hoc tn ti n m sao cho (qn+1-qn)2 =
(qm+1-qm)2 hoc tn ti k sao cho (qk+1-qk)2 = 22. Trong trng hp th nht, bi ton c
gii quyt tng t nh trng hp 1 trn. Trong trng hp th
hai, cc qun xe ti (n, pn), (n+1, pn+1) v (qk+1,k+1), (qk, k) l cc cp xe cn tm.
Bi tp
10. Cc s 1, 2, 3, , 100 c th l thnh vin ca 12 cp s nhn no c khng?
11. Trong mt a gic li c cha khng t hn m2+1 im nguyn. Chng minh rng trong a gic li
ny tm c m+1 im nguyn cng nm trn mt ng thng.
12. Chng minh rng trong 9 ngi bt k, hoc c 3 ngi i mt quen nhau, hoc c 4 ngi i mt
khng quen nhau.
13. Chn ra 69 s nguyn dng t tp hp E = {1, 2, , 100}. Chng minh rng tn ti 4 s a < b < c
< d trong 4 s c chn sao cho a + b + c = d. Kt lun bi ton cn ng khng nu ta thay 69 bng 68?
14. Cc vung ca bng 100 x 100 c t bng 4 mu sao cho trn mi hng v trn mi ct c ng
25 c cng mt mu. Chng minh rng tn ti 2 dng v 2 ct sao cho bn nm giao ca chng
c t khc mu.
15. (Bulgarian MO 2005) Trong 9 ngi khng c 4 ngi no i mt quen nhau. Chng minh rng c
th chia 9 ngi ny thnh 4 nhm sao cho trong mi nhm khng c ngi no quen nhau.
30 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Nguyn l Dirichlet trong hnh hc

Trong hnh hc, nguyn l Dirichlet thng c s dng trong cc bi ton lin quan
n di cnh, din tch, ln ca gc, cc bi ton trn li nguyn. y chng ti
ch gii hn trong vic gii thiu mt ng dng p ca nguyn l Dirichlet v chng
hnh trong hnh hc v mt s bi tp.
nh l Minkowsky l mt v d rt th v v ng dng ca hnh hc trong l thuyt s.
Chng ta bt u t mt kt qu rt n gin nhng hu ch
B 1. Trn mt phng cho hnh F c din tch ln hn 1. Khi tn ti hai im A, B
thuc F, sao cho vc t AB c ta nguyn.
Chng minh: Li nguyn ct hnh G thnh cc mu nh. Chng cc mu ny ln nhau,
do tng din tch ca cc mu ln hn 1, nn c t nht 2 mu c im chung (y chnh
l mt bin th ca nguyn l Dirichlet). Gi A, B l hai im nguyn thu ng vi im
chung ny th A, B l hai im cn tm.
B 2. (B Minkowsky) Trn mt phng cho hnh li F nhn gc ta lm tm i
xng v c din tch ln hn 4. Khi n cha mt im nguyn khc gc ta .
Chng minh: Xt php v t tm O, t s 1/2 , bin F thnh G. Do G c din tch ln
hn 1 nn theo b 1, tn ti hai im A, B thuc G sao cho vc-t AB c to
nguyn. Gi A l im i xng vi A qua O. Do hnh G i xng qua gc to nn
A thuc G. Do G li nn trung im M ca AB thuc G. Gi N l im i xng ca O
qua M th N thuc F v ON = AB, suy ra N l im nguyn khc O (pcm).
nh l 3. (nh l Minkowsky) Cho a, b, c l cc s nguyn, trong a > 0 v
= 1. Khi phng trnh ax2 + 2bxy + cy2 = 1 c nghim nguyn.
ac - b2
Bi tp
15. Vi gi tr no ca n tn ti n im M1, M2, , Mn sao cho tt c cc gc MiMjMk u khng t?
16. Cho 9 im nm trong hnh vung cnh 1. Chng minh rng tn ti mt tam gic c nh ti cc im
cho c din tch khng vt qu 1/8.
c thm bi Nguyn l chung v th
31 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

4. m bng hai cch
m bng hai cch l mt k thut thng dng to ra cc phng trnh, ng thc, cc
mi lin h gip chng ta gii quyt cc bi ton phng trnh, tnh ton hnh hc,
phng trnh hm, bt ng thc v c bit l cc bi ton t hp, trong c bi ton
m.
m bng hai cch v phng trnh hm
(Xem bi Gii phng trnh hm bng cch lp phng trnh)
m bng hai cch trong chng minh bt ng thc
Trong chng minh bt ng thc, m bng hai cch thng c s dng x l mt
s tng. Di y ta xem xt hai v d.
V d 1. Gi d l hiu gia s ln nht v s nh nht gia n s thc x1, x2, , xn
(n 2). Chng minh rng ta c bt ng thc
(n 1)d
1 i < j n
| xi x j |
n2d
4
Gii.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s x1 x2 xn v t di = xi+1 - xi vi i = 1, 2, , n.
th di 0 v d = d1 + d2 + + dn-1. Vi i < j ta c |xi xj | = di + + dj-1
Mi dk s c mt trong tng di + + dj-1 nu i k v j-1 k, tc l trong k(n-k) tng.
T suy ra
n 1
1i < j n
| xi x j |= k (n k )d k
k =1
By gi ch n-1 k(n-k) n2/4 vi mi k = 1, 2, , n-1, ta suy ra bt ng thc cn

chng minh.
V d 2. Trong cc ca hnh vung 10 x 10 ta in cc s t 1 n 100 nh sau: hng
th nht in cc s t 1 n 10 t tri sang phi, hng th hai in cc s t 11 n 20
t tri sang phi An d nh ct hnh vung thnh cc hnh ch nht 1 x 2, ly tch ca
hai s trn mt hnh ch nht v cng tt c cc kt qu thu c vi nhau. An mun
cho tng thu c l nh nht c th. Hi An phi ct th no t c iu .
Gii.
Gi (ai, bi) i = 1, 2, , 50 l b s cc m An d nh ct. Ta c
50
50
i =1
50
i =1
ai bi =
Tng
(a
i =1
2
i
ai2 + bi2 (ai bi )

1 50
1 50
2
= (ai2 + bi2 ) (ai bi )
2
2 i =1
2 i =1
2
+ bi2 ) bng tng bnh phng cc s t 1 n 100, do khng i. Nh vy
32 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

50
ai bi t gi tr nh nht khi
i =1
50
(a b )
i =1
ln nht. Nhng ai bi = 1 nu hai ny nm
trn mt hng v ai bi = 10 nu hai ny nm trn mt ct. T suy ra An phi ct

thnh cc dc th tng thu c s nh nht.
Bi tp
1. Cc hm s f(x) v g(x) xc nh trn tp hp cc s nguyn, c tr tuyt i khng vt qu 1000.
Gi m l s cc cp (x, y) sao cho f(x) = g(y), n l s cc cp (x, y) sao cho f(x)=f(y), v k l s cc cp x,
y sao cho g(x)=g(y). Chng minh rng 2m n + k.
2. (IMO 2003) Cho n > 2 v cc s thc x1 x2 ... xn, chng minh rng
n
| xi x j
i , j =1
2
| (n 2 1) ( xi x j ) 2 .
3
i , j =1
Chng minh rng du bng xy ra khi v ch khi dy s l cp s cng.
C n2 trong cc bi ton t hp
Trong t hp C n2 l s cc cp to thnh t n phn t, l s cnh ca th y bc n.

Trong nhiu bi ton, s dng ngha t hp ny cng vi cch m bng hai cch gip
chng ta tm ra cha kho cho li gii.
V d 3. (Bulgarian MO 2006) Mt quc gia c 16 thnh ph v c 36 tuyn bay ni gia
chng. Chng minh rng ta c th t chc mt chuyn bay vng quanh gia 4 thnh ph.
Gii. Bi ton c th dch sang ngn ng th nh sau: Mt th G n c 16 nh v
36 cnh th c mt chu trnh di 4. Ta chng minh bng phn chng. Gi s trong
th khng c chu trnh di 4.
Vi mi nh x thuc G, gi d(x) l bc ca nh x. Khi s cp cc nh m c hai
cng k vi x bng C d2( x ) . Ch rng mi mt cp c tnh nhiu nht mt nh x,
v nu khng ta s c mt chu trnh di 4.
S dng ng thc
d ( x) = 72 v bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz, ta c
xG
C = 120 C
2
16
xG
2
d ( x)
d 2 ( x)
d ( x) 1
1
72 2
d ( x) d ( x) =
36 = 126 ,
2
2
32 xG
2 xG
32
xG
xG
mu thun.
V d 4. (IMO ) Trong mt k thi c a th sinh v b gim kho, trong b 3 l mt s

nguyn l. Mi mt gim kho s nh gi th sinh l u hay rt. Gi s k l mt s
33 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

nguyn sao cho vi hai gim kho bt k th nh gi ca h trng nhiu nht k th
sinh. Chng minh rng k/a (b-1)/2b.
Gii.
Ta m s N cc b ba (GK, GK, TS) trong hai gim kho l khc nhau v nh gi
th sinh ging nhau. C b(b-1)/2 cp gim kho v mi mt cp gim kho nh vy nh
gi trng nhau ti khng qu k th sinh, do N kb(b-1)/2.
By gi xt mt th sinh X v m cc cp gim kho nh gi X ging nhau. Gi s c x
gim kho cho X u, th s c x(x-1)/2 cp cng cho X u v (b-x)(b-x-1)/2 cp cng
cho X rt, nh vy c (x(x-1) + (b-x)(b-x-1))/2 cp nh gi X ging nhau. Nhng (x(x1) + (b-x)(b-x-1))/2 = (2x2 - 2bx + b2 - b)/2 = (x - b/2)2 + b2/4 - b/2 b2/4 - b/2 = (b 1)2/4 - 1/4. V (b - 1)2/4 l s nguyn (do b l), nn s cp nh gi X ging nhau s t
nht l (b - 1)2/4. T suy ra N a(b - 1)2/4. Kt hp hai bt ng thc li ta c
k/a (b - 1)/2b.
Bi tp
3. Trong Duma quc gia c 1600 i biu, lp thnh 16000 y ban, mi y ban c 80 i biu. Chng
minh rng c t nht hai y ban c khng di 4 thnh vin chung.
4. Sau khi khai trng c ng 10 ngy, mt nhn vin th vin cho bit :
1) Mi ngy c ng 8 ngi n c sch ;
2) Khng c ngi no n th vin 1 ngy qu 1 ln ;
3) Trong hai ngy bt k ca 10 ngy th c t nht l 15 ngi khc nhau cng n th vin.
Cn c ng thi c 3 iu kin m nhn vin th vin cung cp hy cho bit s ngi ti thiu
n th vin trong 10 ngy ni trn l bao nhiu ?
5. 2n k th thi u vng trn hai lt, mi lt hai k th bt k thi u vi nhau ng mt trn (thng
c 1 im, thua 0 im v ha 1/2 im). Ngi ta nhn thy rng lt hai, tng im ca mi k th
thay i khng nh hn n. Chng minh rng cc thay i ny ng bng n.
6. (Bulgarian MO 2003) Trong mt nhm n ngi c 3 ngi i mt quen nhau v mi mt ngi ny
quen nhiu hn 1 na s ngi trong nhm. Tm s t nht c th s b ba ngi i mt quen nhau.
m bng hai cch v mt s nh l trong l thuyt ti u t hp

Cho F l h cc tp con ca X. Vi x thuc x, ta gi d(x) l s phn t ca F cha x.
nh l 1. Cho F l h cc tp con ca tp hp X. Khi
Chng minh. Xt ma trn k M = (mx,A) ca F. Ngha l M l ma trn 0-1 vi |X| dng
nh s bi cc im x X v |F| ct nh s bi tp A F sao cho mx,A = 1 khi v ch
34 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

khi x A. rng d(x) bng s s 1 trn dng th x cn |A| l s s 1 trn ct th A.
Nh vy c v tri v v phi u biu din s s 1 ca M.
Nu ta xt th G = (V, E) trn tp nh V nh mt h cc tp con 2 phn t ca V th ta
c nh l Euler.
nh l 2. (Euler, 1736) Trong mi th, tng bc cc nh ca n bng hai ln s cnh
ca n v nh th, lun l mt s chn.
nh l sau c th c chng minh bng cch tng t
vi mi Y X.
nh l 3.
(Hai tng ng thc u ng vi s s 1 trn cc hng Y. Cc tng ng thc th hai

m s ln xut hin ca x trong cc tp c dng A B).
Trng hp c bit khi F = E l tp con 2 phn t, ta c
nh l 4. Vi th G = (V, E), ta c
(Xem thm bi Cc bi ton ti u v h cc tp hp)

5. Nguyn l cc hn
Mt tp hp hu hn cc s thc lun c phn t ln nht v phn t nh nht. Mt tp
con bt k ca N (hoc Nk) lun c phn t nh nht. Nguyn l n gin ny trong
nhiu trng hp rt c ch cho vic chng minh. Hy xt trng hp bin! l khu
quyt ca nguyn l ny.
Mt s v d m u
Ta xem xt mt s v d s dng nguyn l cc hn
V d 1. C 3 trng hc, mi trng c n hc sinh. Mi mt hc sinh quen vi t nht
n+1 hc sinh t hai trng khc. Chng minh rng ngi ta c th chn ra t mi trng
mt bn sao cho ba hc sinh c chn i mt quen nhau.
Gii.
Gi A l hc sinh c nhiu bn nht mt trng khc. Gi s ny l k. Gi s A
trng 1 v nhng bn quen A l B1, B2, ..., Bk trng 2. Ta c k
n +1
. Cng theo gi
2
thit, c t nht 1 hc sinh C trng 3 quen vi A. Gi s C khng quen vi Bi vi mi

i=1, 2, ..., k th C quen vi nhiu nht n - k hc sinh ca trng 2. Suy ra C quen vi t
nht n+1 - (n-k) = k+1 hc sinh trng 1, iu ny mu thun vi cch chn A. Vy C
phi quen vi mt Bi no . Khi A, Bi v C chnh l 3 hc sinh cn tm.
35 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
V d 2. Chng minh rng khng tn ti s n l, n > 1 sao cho 15n + 1 chia ht cho n
Gii. Gi s tn ti mt s nguyn l n > 1 sao cho 15n + 1 chia ht cho n. Gi p l c s
nguyn t nh nht ca n, khi p l. Gi s k l s nguyn dng nh nht sao cho 15k
1 chia ht cho p.
V 152n 1 = (15n-1)(15n+1) chia ht cho p. Mt khc, theo nh l nh Fermat th 15p-1
1 chia ht cho p. Theo nh ngha ca p, suy ra k l c s ca cc s p-1 v 2n. Suy ra k |
(p-1, 2n). Do p l c s nguyn t nh nht ca n nn (n, p-1) = 1. Suy ra (p-1, 2n) = 2.
Vy k | 2. T k = 1 hoc k = 2. C hai trng hp ny u dn ti p = 7. Nhng iu
ny mu thun v 15n + 1 lun ng d 2 mod 7
Bi tp
1. Cho n im xanh v n im trn mt phng, trong khng c 3 im no thng hng. Chng minh
rng ta c th ni 2n im ny bng n on thng c u mt khc mu sao cho chng i mt khng
giao nhau.
2. Trn ng thng c 2n+1 on thng. Mi mt on thng giao vi t nht n on thng khc. Chng
minh rng tn ti mt on thng giao vi tt c cc on thng cn li.
3. Trong mt phng cho n > 1 im. Hai ngi chi ln lt ni mt cp im cha c ni bng mt
vc-t vi mt trong hai chiu. Nu sau nc i ca ngi no tng cc vc t v bng 0 th ngi
th hai thng; nu cho n khi khng cn v c vc t no na m tng vn cha c lc no bng 0 th
ngi th nht thng. Hi ai l ngi thng cuc nu chi ng?
Nguyn l cc hn v bt ng thc
Nguyn l cc hn thng c p dng mt cch hiu qu trong cc bt ng thc c
tnh t hp, dng chng minh tn ti k s t n s tha mn mt iu kin ny .
V d 1. (Moscow MO 1984) Trn vng trn ngi ta xp t nht 4 s thc khng m c
tng bng 1. Chng minh rng tng tt c cc tch cc cp s k nhau khng ln hn .
Gii.
Ta cn chng minh rng vi mi n 4 s thc khng m 1, ..., n, c tng bng 1, ta c
bt ng thc
a1a2 + a2a3 + ... + an - 1an + ana1 1/4.
Vi n chn n (n = 2m) iu ny c th chng minh d dng: t a1 + a3 + ... + a2m - 1 = a;
khi , r rng,
a1a2 + a2a3 + ... + an - 1an + ana1 (a1 + a3 + ... + a2m1) (a2 + a4 + ... + a2m) = a(1 a)
1/4.
36 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Gi s n l v ak l s nh nht trong cc s cho. ( thun tin, ta gi s 1 < k < n
1 iu ny khng lm mt tnh tng qut khi n 4.) t bi = i, vi i = 1,..., k 1, bk
= ak + ak + 1 v bi = ai + 1 vi i = k + 1,..., n 1. p dng bt ng thc ca chng ta cho
cc s b1,..., bn - 1, ta c:
a1a2 + ... + ak - 2ak - 1 + (ak - 1 + ak + 2) bk + ak + 2ak + 3 + ... + an - 1an + ana1 1/4.
Cui cng, ta s dng bt ng thc
ak - 1ak + akak + 1 + ak + 1ak + 2 ak - 1ak + ak - 1ak + 1 + ak + 1ak + 2 (ak - 1 + ak + 2) bk.
suy ra iu phi chng minh.
nh gi trn y l tt nht; du bng xy ra khi 2 trong n s bng 1/2, cn cc s cn
li bng 0.
V d 2. Cho n 4 v cc s thc phn bit a1, a2, , an tho mn iu kin
n
a
i =1
= 0, ai2 = 1.
i =1
Chng minh rng tn ti 4 s a, b, c, d thuc {a1, a2, , an} sao cho

n
a + b + c + nabc ai3 a + b + d + nabd .

i =1
V d 3. Tng bnh phng ca mt 100 s thc dng ln hn 10000. Tng ca chng

nh hn 300. Chng minh rng tn ti 3 s trong chng c tng ln hn 100.
Gii. Gi s 100 s l C1 C2 ... C100 > 0. Nu nh C1 100, th C1 + C2 + C3 >
100. Do ta c th gi s rng C1 < 100. Khi 100 - C1 > 0, 100 - C2 > 0, C1 - C2 0
C1 - C3 0, v vy
100(C1 + C2 + C3) 100(C1 + C2 + C3) - (100 - C1)(C1 - C3) - (100 - C2)(C2 - C3) =
= C12 + C22 + C3(300 - C1 - C2) >
> C12 + C22 + C3(C3 + C4 + ... + C100)
C12 + C22 + C32 + ... + C1002 > 10000.
Suy ra, C1 + C2 + C3 > 100.
Bi tp
1. Trong mi ca bng 2 x n ta vit cc s thc dng sao cho tng cc s ca mi ct bng 1. Chng
minh rng ta c th xo i mi ct mt s sao cho mi hng, tng ca cc s cn li khng vt qu
n +1
.
4
2. 40 tn trm chia 4000 euro. Mt nhm gm 5 tn trm c gi l ngho nu tng s tin m chng
c chia khng qu 500 euro. Hi s nh nht cc nhm trm ngho trn tng s tt c cc nhm 5 tn
trm bng bao nhiu?
Nguyn l cc hn v phng trnh Diophant
37 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nguyn l cc hn ng dng trong phng trnh Diophant c nhc ti trong bi
phng php chng minh phn chng. Trong phn ny, ta trnh by chi tit ba v d p
dng nguyn l cc hn trong phng trnh Fermat, phng trnh Pell v phng trnh
dng Markov.
V d 1. Chng minh rng phng trnh x4 + y4 = z2 (1) khng c nghim nguyn dng.
Gi s ngc li, phng trnh (1) c nghim nguyn dng, v (x, y, z) l nghim ca
(1) vi z nh nht.
(1) D thy x2,y2,z i mt nguyn t cng nhau
(2) T nghim ca phng trnh Pythagore, ta c tn ti p, q sao cho
x2 = 2pq
y2 = p2 - q2
z = p2 + q2
(3) T y, ta li c mt b ba Pythagore khc, v y2 + q2 = p2.
(4) Nh vy, tn ti a,b sao cho
q = 2ab
y = a2 - b2
p = a2 + b2
a,b nguyn t cng nhau
(5) Kt hp cc phng trnh ny, ta c:
x2 = 2pq = 2(a2 + b2)(2ab) = 4(ab)(a2 + b2)
(6) V ab v a2 + b2 nguyn t cng nhau, ta suy ra chng l cc s chnh phng.
(7) Nh vy a2 + b2 = P2 v a = u2, b = v2. Suy ra P2 = u4 + v4.
(8) Nhng by gi ta thu c iu mu thun vi tnh nh nht ca z v:
P2 = a2 + b2 = p < p2 + q2 = z < z2.
(9) Nh vy iu gi s ban u l sai, suy ra iu phi chng minh.
V d 2. Tm tt c cc cp a thc P(x), Q(x) tha mn phng trnh
P2(x) = (x2-1)Q2(x) + 1 (1)
Gii. Khng mt tnh tng qut, ta ch cn tm nghim trong tp cc a thc c h s khi
u dng.
Nu ( x + x 2 1) n = Pn ( x) + x 2 1Qn ( x) (2) th ( x x 2 1) n = Pn ( x) x 2 1Qn ( x) (3)
38 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nhn (2) v (3) v theo v, ta c
1 = ( x + x 2 1) n ( x x 2 1) n = ( Pn ( x) + x 2 1Qn ( x))( Pn ( x) x 2 1Qn ( x))
= Pn2 ( x) ( x 2 1)Qn2 ( x)
Suy ra cp a thc Pn(x), Qn(x) xc nh bi (2) (v (3)!) l nghim ca (1). Ta chng

minh y l tt c cc nghim ca (1). Tht vy, gi s ngc li, tn ti cp a thc
P(x), Q(x) khng c dng Pn(x), Qn(x) tha mn (1). Ta xt cp a thc (P, Q) nh vy
vi degQ nh nht.
t ( P ( x) + x 2 1Q( x))( x x 2 1) = P * ( x) + x 2 1Q * ( x) (4)
Th r rng
( P ( x) x 2 1Q( x))( x + x 2 1) = P * ( x) x 2 1Q * ( x)
Suy ra (P*, Q*) cng l nghim ca (1).

Khai trin (4), ta thu c P*(x) = xP(x) (x2-1)Q(x), Q*(x) = xQ(x) P(x). Ch l t
(1) ta suy ra (P(x) xQ(x))(P(x)+xQ(x)) = - Q2(x) + 1. V P(x) v Q(x) u c h s khi
u > 0 v degP = degQ + 1 nn ta c deg(P(x)+xQ(x)) = degQ + 1. T y, do deg(Q2(x) + 1) 2deg(Q) nn ta suy ra deg(Q*(x)) deg(Q) 1 < deg Q.
Nh vy, theo cch chn cp (P, Q) th tn ti n sao cho (P*, Q*) = (Pn, Qn).
Nhng khi t (4) suy ra
P( x) + x 2 1Q( x) = ( P * ( x) + x 2 1Q * ( x))( x + x 2 1)
= ( x + x 2 1) n ( x + x 2 1) = ( x + x 2 1) n +1
Suy ra (P, Q) = (Pn+1,Qn+1), mu thun.

Vy iu gi s l sai v ta c iu phi chng minh.
V d 3. Tm tt c cc gi tr k sao cho phng trnh (x+y+z)2 = kxyz c nghim nguyn
dng.
V d 4. (CRUX, Problem 1420) Nu a, b, c l cc s nguyn dng sao cho
0 < a2 + b2 abc c
Chng minh rng a2 + b2 abc l s chnh phng.
Gii. Gi s ngc li rng tn ti cc s nguyn dng a, b, c sao cho 0 < a2 + b2 abc
c v k = a2 + b2 abc (1) khng phi l s chnh phng.
By gi ta c nh k v c v xt tp hp tt c cc cp s nguyn dng (a, b) tha mn
phng trnh (1), tc l ta xt
S(c, k) = {(a, b) (N*)2: a2 + b2 abc = k}
Gi s (a, b) l cp s thuc S(c, k) c a + b nh nht. Khng mt tnh tng qut c th
gi s a b. Ta xt phng trnh
39 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

x2 bcx + b2 k = 0
Ta bit rng x = a l mt nghim ca phng trnh. Gi a1 l nghim cn li ca phng
trnh ny th a1 = bc a = (b2 k)/a.
Ta c th chng minh c rng (bn c t chng minh!) a1 nguyn dng. Suy ra
(a1, b) cng thuc S(c, k).
Tip theo ta c a1 = (b2-k)/a < a2/a = a, suy ra a1 + b < a + b. iu ny mu thun vi cch
chn (a, b).
Bi tp
1. (IMO 88) Nu a, b, q = (a2+b2)/(ab+1) l cc s nguyn dng th q l s chnh phng.
2. (PTNK 03). Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng k sao cho phng trnh x2 - (k2-4)y2 = - 24 c nghim
nguyn dng.
3. (Mathlinks) Cho A l tp hp hu hn cc s nguyn dng. Chng minh rng tn ti tp hp hu hn
cc s nguyn dng B sao cho A B v xB x = xB x2.
4. (AMM 1995) Cho x, y l cc s nguyn dng sao cho xy + x v xy + y l cc s chnh phng.
Chng minh rng c ng mt trong hai s x, y l s chnh phng.
5. (IMO 2007) Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng sao cho 4ab 1 chia ht (4a2-1)2. Chng minh rng a = b.
6. Sp th t
Sp th t l mt cch gim s trng hp cn xt v to ra cc iu kin b sung
gip chng ta c th lm vic d dng hn.
V d 1. Cho x1, x2, , xn l n s thuc on [0, 2]. Chng minh rng
n
| x
i =1 j =1
x j | n2.
V d 2. (Bt ng thc Schur m rng) Cho x, y, z l cc s thc khng m, r l mt s

thc dng bt k. Chng minh rng ta c bt ng thc
ar(a-b)(a-c) + br(b-a)(b-c) + cr(c-a)(c-b) 0
V d 3. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc i mt khc nhau. Chng minh rng
1
1
1 9
a 2 + b 2 + c 2
+
+
2
2
2
a
b
b
c
c
a
(
)
(
)
(
)
Bi tp
1. Cho x, y, z thuc [0, 1]. Chng minh rng (x+y+z)((x-y)2+(y-z)2+(z-x)2) 4.
40 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
2. (IMO 2006) Tm s thc M nh nht sao cho bt ng thc

|ab(a2 - b2) + bc(b2 - c2) + ca(c2 - a2)| < M(a2 + b2 + c2)2
ng vi mi s thc a, b, c.
3. (Vietnam MO 2008) Cho x, y, z l cc s thc khng m khc nhau. Chng minh rng
1
1
1
( xy + yz + zx)
+
+
4.
2
2
( y z)
( z x) 2
( x y)
Ti liu tham kho

1. on Qunh, Don Minh Cng, Trn Nam Dng, ng Hng Thng, Ti liu gio
khoa chuyn ton, i s 10, Nh xut bn Gio dc 2009.
2. on Qunh, Don Minh Cng, Trn Nam Dng, ng Hng Thng, Ti liu gio
khoa chuyn ton, Bi tp i s 10, Nh xut bn Gio dc 2009.
3. Nguyn Vn Mu, Trn Nam Dng, V nh Ha, ng Huy Run, Chuyn chn
lc T hp v Ton ri rc, Nh xut bn Gio dc 2008.
4. Arthur Engel, Problem Solving Strategies, Springer 1998.
5. N.Agakhanov, Cc bi thi Olimpic Ton ton Nga 1996-2006, Nh xut bn MCCME
2007.
6. A. Kovaldzi v A. Kanel-Belov, Gii bi ton khng mu mc nh th no, Nh xut
bn MCCME 2006.
7. Stasys Jukna, Extremal Combinatorics, Springer 2001.
41 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Nguyn l chung v th
Nguyn l chung v th (hay cn c gi l nguyn l Dirichlet) khng nh mt s
kin hin nhin rng n+1 con th khng th c xp vo n chung sao cho mi con
th u ring mt chung. Mt cch tng qut hn, nguyn l chung v th khng
nh rng:
Nu mt tp hp gm nhiu hn kn i tng c chia thnh n nhm, th c mt nhm
no c nhiu hn k i tng.
Chn l ny rt d kim tra: nu nhm no cng c nhiu nht k i tng th tng cng
ch c nhiu nht kn i tng c chia ra.
y l mt trong nhng nguyn l khng xy dng (non-constructive) lu i nht: n
ch ni n s tn ti ca mt chung trong c nhiu hn k vt m khng ni g n
cch tm ra chung ny. Ngy nay chng ta c nhng tng qut ha rt mnh ca
nguyn l ny (cc nh l kiu Ramsey, phng php xc sut).
Mc d nguyn l chung v th c pht biu rt n gin, n c hng lot cc ng
dng khng tm thng. Ci kh ca vic ng dng nguyn l ny l xc nh c xem
th l g v chung l g. Chng ta s minh ha iu ny bng mt s v d.
1. Mt s v d m u
khi ng, chng ta s bt u bng nhng ng dng n gin nht. Bc ca mt nh
trong th G l s d(x) cc cnh ca G k vi x.
Mnh 1. Trong mi th tn ti hai nh c cng bc.
Chng minh. Gi s ta c th G c n nh. Ta to ra n ci chung c nh s t 0
n n-1 v xp nh x vo chung th k khi v ch khi d(x) = k. Nu nh trong mt
chung no c nhiu hn 1 nh th ta c pcm. V th ta c th gi s rng khng c
chung no cha hn 1 nh. C tt c n nh c chia vo n ci chung, nhng vy mi
mt chung c ng 1 nh. Gi x v y l cc nh nm trong cc chung nh s 0 v n1 tng ng. nh x c bc 0 v vy n khng c ni vi cc nh khc, trong c y.
Nhng y c bc n-1 nn n li c ni vi tt c cc nh, trong c x, mu thun.
Nu G l mt th hu hn, ch s c lp (independent number) (G) l s ln nht
cc nh i mt khng k nhau ca G. Sc s (chromatic number) (G) ca G l s nh
nht cc mu cn dng t cc mu ca G sao cho khng c hai nh k nhau c t
cng mu.
42 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Mnh 2. Trong mi th G vi n nh ta c n (G).(G).

Chng minh. Ta chia cc nh ca G thnh (G) nhm (cc tp hp cc nh c cng
mu). Theo nguyn l chung v th, mt trong cc nhm c cha t nht n/(G) nh,
v cc nh ny i mt khng k nhau. Nh vy (G) n/(G) v chnh l iu cn
chng minh.
Mt th l lin thng nu gia hai nh bt k ca n c mt ng i.
Mnh 3. Cho G l mt th n nh. Nu mi nh ca G c bc t nht l
th G lin thng.
(n-1)/2
Chng minh. Ta xt hai nh x, y bt k. Nu hai nh ny khng k nhau th c t nht n1 nh ni chng vi cc nh cn li, v c x v y u c bc t nht l (n-1)/2. V ch cn
n-2 nh khc, nguyn l chung v th suy ra rng phi c mt trong cc nh ni vi
c x v y. Ta chng minh c rng mi cp nh th hoc k nhau, hoc c nh k
chung, v nh vy G lin thng.
Ghi ch. Mt kt qu l tt nht nu nh kt lun khng cn ng khi ta lm yu i mt
iu kin. V d, trong kt qu trn: gi s n l chn v G l hp ca hai th y
vi n/2 nh th bc ca mi nh bng (n-2)/2 nhng th khng lin thng.
Bi tp 1. Gi s 5 im c chn trong hnh vung cnh 1. Chng minh rng tn ti t nht 1 cp im
cch nhau khng qu 1/2.
Bi tp 2. Cc vin ca 8 mu khc nhau c xp vo 6 ci hp. C 20 vin cho mi mu. Chng
minh rng tm c mt hp cha hai cp c cng mu khc nhau.
Bi tp 3. Chng minh rng mt tp hp bt k gm n+1 phn t c chn t {1, 2,,2n} u cha
mt cp phn t c tng bng 2n+1. Hy chng minh kt qu ny l tt nht.
Bi tp 4. Chng minh rng mt tp hp bt k gm n+1 s nguyn c chn t {1, 2,, 2n} cha hai
s m s ny chia ht cho s kia.
2. nh l Erdos-Szekeres
Cho A = (a1, a2,, an) l dy gm n s phn bit. Mt dy con k phn t ca A l dy B
gm k s hng phn t ca A xut hin theo ng th t m chng xut hin trong A. C
ngha l B = (ai1, ai2,, aik) vi i1 < i2 < < ik. Dy con B c gi l tng nu ai1 < ai2
<< aik, v gim nu ai1 > ai2 >> aik.
Ta quan tm n di ln nht ca dy con tng v gim ca A. Suy lun trc quan cho
thy phi c mt s cn i nht nh gia hai di ny. Nu nh dy con tng di nht
l ngn, chng hn c chiu di l s, th mi dy con ca A c di s+1 phi cha cp
43 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

phn t gim, nh vy c rt nhiu cp phn t gim. V th ta trng i rng dy con
gim di nht s ln. Mt trng hp cc bin xy ra khi s = 1. Khi c dy s A l
gim.
Lm sao ta c th s ha iu d cm rng di ca dy con tng di nht v dy con
gim di nht khng th cng nh ? Kt qu ni ting ca Erdos v Szekeres (1935) cho
chng ta cu tr li cho cu hi ny v y l mt trong nhng kt qu u tin ca ti u
t hp.
nh l 4 (Erdos-Szekeres 1935). Cho A = (a1, a2,, an) l dy gm n s thc phn bit.
Nu n rs + 1 th hoc A c dy con tng di s+1 hoc A c dy con gim di r+1
(hay c hai).
Chng minh. (ca Seidenberg 1959). Ta cho tng ng mi phn t ai ca A vi cp
im s (xi, yi) trong xi l s phn t ca dy con tng di nht kt thc ti ai v yi l
s phn t ca dy con gim di nht bt u t ai. Ch rng khng c hai phn t no
c cng im s, tc l (xi, yi) (xj, yj) vi mi i j. Tht vy, nu ta c ... ai ... aj ..., th
hoc ai < aj v dy con tng di nht kt thc ti ai c th ko di n aj (v do xi < xj),
hoc ai > aj v dy con gim di nht bt u t aj c th c bt u t ai (v nh th yi
> yj).
By gi ta to ra mt li gm n chung th.
n
1
1
Ta t mi phn t ai vo chung vi ta (xi, yi). Mi mt phn t ca A c th c

t vo mt chung v 1 xi, yi n vi mi i = 1, 2, ..., n. Hn na, khng c chung
no c cha nhiu hn mt phn t, v (xi, yi) (xj, yj) vi mi i j. V |A| = n rs +
1, ta c nhiu vt hn l s chung th c t m trong hnh v trn. Nh vy phi c
mt phn t ai nm ngoi min t m. Nhng iu ny c ngha l xi s+1 hoc yi r +
1 (hoc c hai), ng iu chng ta cn.
Tp hp cc s thc c sp ton phn. iu ny c ngha l vi hai s phn bit x, y
th hoc x < y hoc y < x. B di y, thuc v Dilworth, s tng qut ha nh l
Erdos-Szekeres cho cc tp hp m trong hai phn t c th khng so snh c.
44 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Mt th t b phn (yu) trn tp hp P l quan h hai ngi < gia cc phn t ca P. Ta

ni hai phn t x v y l so snh c nu x < y hoc y < x (hoc c hai). Mt xch l
mt tp hp Y P sao cho hai phn t bt k ca Y l so snh c. Nu khng c hai
phn t khc nhau no ca Y l so snh c, th Y c gi l i xch.
B 5 (Dilworth 1950). Trong mi th t b phn trn tp hp P gm n sr + 1 phn
t, tn ti xch c kch thc s+1 hoc i xch c kch thc r+1.
Chng minh. Gi s rng khng c xc di s+1. Khi ta c th nh ngha hm s f:
P {1,..., s} trong f(x) l s phn t ln nht ca mt xch c phn t ln nht x.
Theo nguyn l chung v th, s c r+1 phn t ca P c cng nh qua nh x f. Theo
nh ngha ca f, cc phn t ny khng so snh c; v nh vy chng to thnh mt
i xch c kch thc r+1.
Bi tp 5. T b Dilworh hy suy ra nh l Erdos-Szekeres.
Bi tp 6. Cho n2+1 im trong mt phng. Chng minh rng tn ti dy gm n+1 im
(x1,y1),(x2,y2),,(xn+1,yn+1) sao cho x1 x2 xn+1 v y1 y2 yn+1, hoc dy gm n+1 im sao
cho x1 x2 xn+1 v y1 y2 yn+1
3. nh l Mantel
Di y chng ta s tho lun v mt tnh cht ti u c trng ca th. Mt th G
gm 2n nh khng cha tam gic c th c bao nhiu cnh? Tam gic l tp hp {x, y,
z} gm ba nh m hai nh bt k u c ni vi nhau bi mt cnh. D nhin l G c
th cha n2 cnh m khng cha tam gic: ch cn ly th hai phe y gm hai tp
hp mi tp hp c n nh v tt c cc cnh ni gia hai tp hp. Thc t l n2 chnh l
s cnh ln nht c th: nu ta thm mt cnh v th th s xut hin tam gic.
Ta s a ra 4 chng minh cho kt qu p ny: chng minh th nht dng nguyn l
chung v th, chng minh th hai da trn phng php m bng hai cch, chng
minh th ba s dng bt ng thc AM-GM v chng minh th t s dng l lun dch
chuyn (ta s cp ti chng minh ny trong phn sau).
nh l 6 (Mantel 1907). Nu th G vi 2n nh c n2+1 cnh th G cha tam gic.
Chng minh th nht. Ta chng minh bng quy np theo n. Vi n = 1, th G khng th c
n2+1 cnh v v vy mnh ng. Gi s mnh ng n n, ta xt th G vi
2(n+1) nh v (n+1)2 + 1 cnh. Gi x v y l hai nh k nhau trong G, v H l th con
cm sinh trn 2n nh cn li. Nu H cha t nht n2+1 cnh th theo gi thit quy np, ta
c ngay pcm. Gi s rng H c nhiu nht n2 cnh, khi c t nht 2n+1 cnh ca G s
ni t x v y n cc nh ca H.
45 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Theo nguyn l chung v th, gia 2n+1 cnh ny c t nht 1 cnh ni t x v mt cnh
ni t y n cng mt nh z thuc H. Nh vy G cha tam gic {x, y, z}.
Chng minh th hai. Cho G l th trn tp hp V gm 2n nh v c m n2+1 cnh.
Gi s rng G khng cha tam gic. Khi cc cnh k nhau khng c nh k chung, do
d(x) + d(y) 2n vi mi cnh {x, y} E. Cng theo tt c cc cnh ca G, ta c
d ( x)
xV
(d ( x) + d ( y)) 2mn.
{ x , y }E
Mt khc, s dng bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz v ng thc Euler
d ( x) = 2m , ta
xV
c
2
d ( x)
2
xV
= 2m .
2
d
(
x
)
=
|V |
n
xV
T hai bt ng thc ny suy ra m n2, mu thun vi gi thit.

Chng minh th ba. Gi s G = (V, E) l th trn tp V gm 2n nh v gi s G
khng cha tam gic. Gi s A V l tp hp c lp ln nht, tc l tp hp ln nht
cc nh sao cho khng c nh no k nhau trong G. V G khng cha tam gic tt c
cc nh k vi nh x V to thnh mt tp c lp v ta suy ra d(x) |A| vi mi x.
Tp hp B = V A giao vi mi cnh ca G. Tnh cc cnh ca G tng ng vi nh
cui ca chng trong B, ta c | E | xB d ( x) . By gi bt ng thc AM-GM cho ta
| A | + | B |
2
| E | xB d ( x ) | A | . | B |
=n .
2
4. nh l Turan
Mt k-clique l mt th vi k nh m hai nh bt k u c ni vi nhau bi mt
cnh. V d tam gic l 3-clique. nh l Mantel khng nh rng nu th vi n nh
khng cha 3-clique th n c nhiu nht n2/4 cnh. Cn nu k > 3 th sao?
Cu tr li c cho bi kt qu c bn ca Paul Turan, kt qu m u cho l thuyt
th ti u.
nh l 7 (Turan 1941). Nu th G = (V, E) trn n nh khng cha (k+1)-clique, k
2, th
2
1n
| E | 1 .
k 2
(1)
Cng ging nh nh l Mantel, nh l ny c nghin cu nhiu ln vi nhiu cc

chng minh khc nhau. y chng ta a ra chng minh nguyn thy ca Turan. Php
46 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

chng minh da trn l lun dch chuyn trng lng s c cp trong phn bi
tp. Ngoi ra s cn mt cch chng minh s dng mt tng hon ton khc l lun
xc sut.
Chng minh. Ta s dng php quy np theo n. Khi n = 2, bt ng thc (1) l hin nhin
ng. Trng hp k=2 chnh l nh l Mantel. By gi gi s bt ng thc ng cho
mi th trn nhiu nht n-1 nh, v G = (V, E) l th trn n nh khng c (k+1)clique v c s cnh ln nht. th ny d nhin l phi cha k-clique, bi nu khng ta
c th thm cnh. Gi s A l k-clique v B = V A.
k
V mi cp nh ca A c ni bi mt cnh, A cha e A = cnh. Gi eB l s cnh

2
ni cc nh ca B v eA,B l s cnh ni gia cc cnh ca A v B. Theo gi thit quy
np, ta c
2
1 (n k )
.
e B 1
2
k
V G khng c k+1 clique nn mi x B k vi nhiu nht k-1 nh thuc A, v ta thu

c
eA,B (k-1)(n-k).
Cng cc bt ng thc ny li v s dng ng thc
2
2
k n
1n
=
1
k 2 2 2
ta suy ra rng
k k n k
| E | e A + e B + e A, B +
+ (k 1)(n k )
2 2 2
2
2
k n k
1n
= 1
= 1 .
k
k 2
2
2
Bi tp 7. Gi s rng n l bi s ca k. Hy xy dng mt th khng cha (k+1)-clique, trong s

cc cnh t c cn trn (1) trong nh l 7.
Bi tp 8. Nhc li ch s c lp (G) ca th G l s ln nht cc nh i mt khng k nhau ca G.
Hy chng minh i ngu ca nh l Turan: Nu G l th vi n nh v nk/2 cnh, k 1, th (G)
n/(k+1).
5. nh l Dirichlet
y ta trnh by mt ng dng ca nguyn l chung v th m Dirichlet s dng,
v chnh v ng dng ny m nguyn l ny c gn vi tn ng. N lin quan n vn
tn ti xp x hu t tt cho cc s v t. Kt qu ny thuc v l thuyt s nhng l
lun l t hp.
47 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
nh l 8 (Dirichlet 1879). Nu x l mt s thc. Vi mi s nguyn dng n,tn ti s

hu t p/q sao cho 1 q n v
x
1
1
p
<
2.
q nq q
Chng minh. Cho chng minh ny, ta gi {x} l phn l ca s thc x, tc l {x} = x
[x].
Nu x l s hu t th khng c g chng minh. V th, ta gi s rng x l v t v xt
n+1 s {ax}, a = 1, 2, , n+1. Ta t n+1 s ny vo n chung
1 1 2 n 1
,1.
0, , , ,...,
n n n n
(Khng c s no trong cc s ni trn trng vi u mt cc on, v x l v t). Theo

nguyn l chung v th, c mt on no cha nhiu hn mt s, v d l {ax} v
{bx}vi a > b, v do cch nhau khng qu 1/n. t q = a b, ta thy rng tn ti s
nguyn p sao cho |qx p| < 1/n, t suy ra kt qu cn chng minh bng cch chia cho
q. Hn na, q l hiu ca hai s nguyn thuc 1, 2, , n+1, do q n.
6. th c t c sc
Ta t mu cc cnh ca th y Kn trn n nh. Ta ni rng th c t c sc
(swell-colored) nu mi tam gic cha 1 hoc 3 mu, nhng khng cha 2 mu v th
c nhiu hn mt mu. C ngha l, ta cn s dng t nht 2 mu v vi mi tam gic,
hoc l tt c cc cnh ca n c cng mu hoc c mu khc nhau.
Ta c th chng minh c rng (hy chng minh!) Kn khng th c t c sc vi
ng hai mu. Cng c th thy rng K3 v K4 l nhng th Kn duy nht c th t c
sc vi 3 mu; cc th Kn khc cn nhiu mu hn v chng c bc lin thng cao hn.
S dng nguyn l chung v th, ta c th chng minh c chn di sau.
nh l 9 (Ward-Szabo 1994). th y trn n nh khng th c t c sc vi t
hn n + 1 mu.
Chng minh. Gi s Kn c t c sc vi r mu khc nhau. Gi N(x, c) l s cnh k
vi nh x c t mu c. C nh x0 v c0 sao cho N(x0, c0) ln nht, v k hiu gi tr
ln nht ny l N.
n-1 cnh k vi x0 c th c chia thnh r nhm mu, mi nhm c N hoc t hn
phn t. Theo nguyn l chung v th
N.r n 1.
48 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Gi x1, x2, , xN l cc nh k vi x0 bi N cnh c mu c0. Gi G l th con (y )
ca Kn cm sinh t tp hp cc nh {x0, x1,..., xN}. Tnh c sc ca Kn c cm sinh
cho G v nh vy mi cnh ca G c cng mu c0. V Kn c t nht hai mu nn tn ti
nh y thuc Kn khng nm trong G v sao cho t nht mt cnh ni y vi G c mu khc
c0 .
Khng nh 10. N+1 cnh ni y ti G c t mu khc nhau v khc vi c0.
T khng nh ny ta suy ra r N + 2, t , cng vi bt ng thc N.r n 1 suy ra
r(r-2) n 1, v t r n + 1 l iu cn chng minh. Nh vy ta ch cn cn chng
minh khng nh trn.
Nu mt cnh ni y ti G, v d {y, x1}, c mu c0 th theo tnh c sc, cnh {y,x0} phi
c t mu c0, mu thun vi cch chn y (nhc li l x1, x2,,xN l tt c cc nh k
vi x0 c ni bng cnh mu c0). Tip theo, nu hai cnh no ni y vi G, chng
hn {y, x1} v {y, x2} c cng mu th theo tnh c sc ca Kn ta c cnh {x1, x2} cng
c t bng mu . Nhng {x1, x2} thuc G v c mu c0 v nh vy {y, x1} phi c
mu c0 l iu m ta chng minh trn l khng th. iu ny kt thc php chng
minh khng nh v cng l kt thc chng minh nh l.
Tnh ti u ca cn di cho bi nh l 9 c th c chng t s dng mt cu hnh
gi l mt phng afine. Ta hiu rng mt phng afine AG(2,q) bc q cha ng q2 im
v ng q+1 lp (c gi l bt ch) cc ng thng song song, mi lp cha q
ng thng (hai ng thng l song song nu chng khng c im chung). Hn na,
hai im bt k nm trn ng mt ng thng.
Khi c 1 mt phng nh vy, ta c th xy dng mt php t c sc cho K q vi q+1
2
mu nh sau. Ta ng nht cc nh ca K q vi cc im ca AG(2,q) v cho tng ng

2
mt mu duy nht cho mi mt trong s q+1 bt ch cc ng thng song song. xc

nh cch t c sc, ta xt hai im khc nhau x v y ca K q . Hai im ny thuc duy
2
nht mt ng thng v ng thng ny, n lt mnh thuc duy nht mt bt ch. Ta

t mu cnh {x,y} bng mu ca bt ch ny. V hai im bt k nm trn mt ng
thng duy nht v hai ng thng song song khng c im chung, mi cnh ca mt
tam gic s c t bng cc mu khc v nh vy, php t l c sc nh mong mun.
Thc t, Ward v Szabo (1994) chng minh rng iu ngc li cng ng: nu th
K q (q 2) c th t c sc bng q+1 mu th php t ny c th c dng xy dng
2
mt phng afine bc q.
[Trch t cun Extremal Combinatorics ca Stasys Jukna]
49 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Gii phng trnh hm bng cch lp phng trnh

Trn Nam Dng
Trng H KHTN Tp.HCM
Cuc sng l chui nhng phng trnh
m ta kim tm li gii
Gii bi ton bng cch lp phng trnh v h phng trnh l mt phng php thng
dng trong cc bi ton i s. tng l tm mt n s no , ta a vo cc n s
ph, s dng cc d kin cho to ra mi lin h gia cc n s (cc phng trnh),
gii h phng trnh, tm ra gi tr ca n s cn tm. Phng php tng t cng c th
p dng cho cc bi ton hnh hc tnh ton (chng hn bi ton gii tam gic, t gic),
cc bi ton m (phng php dy s ph).
Trong bi ny, chng ta cp ti phng php lp phng trnh, h phng trnh gii
cc bi ton phng trnh hm. tng chung cng l tm mt gi tr f(x) hoc f(a)
no , ta s dng phng trnh hm tm ra mi lin kt gia cc i lng, ni cch
khc, to ra cc phng trnh s. Gii cc phng trnh s ny, ta c th tm ra f(x) hoc
f(a) vi a l mt gi tr no .
1. Gii phng trnh hm da vo tnh xon ca hm s
Hm s (x) c gi l xon i vi php hp nu tn ti s nguyn dng k sao cho
k(x) = x vi mi x. y 1(x)=(x), 2(x)=((x)), , k(x) = (k-1(x)). Ta c th
s dng tnh xon ca mt s hm s gii mt s dng phng trnh hm vi mt bin
t do. Chng ta bt u t nhng v d n gin:
Bi ton 1. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R \ {0} R tho mn iu kin
1
( x 1) f ( x ) + f = x 2
x
(1) vi mi x 0
Gi
i. Trong (1), thay x bng 1/x, ta c
1
1 1
1 f + f ( x ) = 2
x
x x
(2)
Gii h (1), (2), coi f(x) v f(1/x) l cc n s, ta c

f ( x) =
x4 x3 +1
.
x3 x2 + x
50 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Trong v d trn, ta cn tm f(x). Ta coi f(x) l n s chnh, cn f(1/x) l mt n ph.
Phng trnh (1) cho chng ta mt s lin kt gia n s chnh v n ph. Thay x bng
1/x, ta hy vng s tm ra c mi lin kt mi. Trong trng hp ny, chnh l
phng trnh (2). V phng trnh (2) khng to ra n s mi, tc l s phng trnh
bng s n s, cho gii tm c f(x) nn ta dng li. Trong v d tip theo, chng ta
s thy qu trnh to cc mi lin kt c th to ra cc n s mi.
Bi ton 2. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R \ {0, 1} R tho mn iu kin
2
1 + x x +1
f ( x) + ( x + 1) f
=
1 x x 1
(1)
1+ x
. (1) cho ta mt phng trnh kt
1 x
1+ x
th c
ni 2 n s ny. Ta tm cc mi lin kt khc. Trong (1) ta thay x bng
1 x
2
1 + x 1 + x + 1
1+
1+ x 1 + x 1 x 1 x
f
+ 1 f
=
+
1+ x
1 x 1 x 1 1+ x
1
1 x
1 x
2
x2 +1
1+ x
1
f
f =
(2)
+
x( x 1)
1 x 1 x x
1
Nh vy, trong (2) li xut hin mt n s ph mi, l f . Nu dng li y th
x
Gii. n s y ang l f(x) v n s ph l f
s n s nhiu hn s phng trnh v ta s khng tm c f(x). Trong (1), tip tc thay

x bng -1/x th ta c
1
1
+1
1
x2 +1
1 1
1 1 1 x
x = x2
f + + 1 f
f + + 1 f
=
(3) Ta
x( x + 1)
x x 1 + 1 1 1
x x 1+ x
x
x
1 x
tip tc nhn c mt n s ph mi, l f
. . Trong (1), ta li thay x bng
1+ x
1 x
th c
1+ x
2
1 x 1 x + 1
1
1 x 1 x 1+ x 1+ x
f
+ 1 f
=
+
1 x
1+ x 1 + x 1+ 1 x
1+ x
1+ x
x2 +1
1 x 2x
( 4)
f
f (x ) =
x +1
1+ x 1+ x
51 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

n y th n s mi khng xut hin, nh vy ta c 4 phng trnh (1), (2), (3),
1+ x
,
1 x
(4) vi 4 n s l f ( x), f
1
f ,
x
1 x
f
. Gii h ny nh mt h phng trnh
1+ x
bc nht 4 n, ta tm c
x2 +1
.
f ( x) =
x( x 1)
Quan st li gii ca hai bi ton trn, ta thy rng phng php tng t c th p dng
cho bi ton tm tt c cc hm f(x) tho mn phng trnh
f(x) + a(x)f((x)) = b(x) (1)
Trong a(x), b(x) l cc hm s cho, cn (x) l mt hm cho tho mn tnh cht
k(x) = x vi mi x. S k nh nht tho mn iu kin k(x) = x c gi l bc ca hm
s (x).
Cc v d thng gp v hm (x) chnh l (x) = -x, (x) = 1/x. Hm ( x) =
trong v d 2 l mt hm bc 4. C th rng kim tra hm s ( x) =
3+x
1 3x
1+ x
1 x
c bc l 3.
Ch rng a s cc hm s l khng xon. Chng hn trong cc hm a thc, ch c

hm s f(x) = x v f(x) = a x l xon. Mt lp hm phn thc xon c m t phn
bi tp.
Ngay c vi phng trnh hm cha cc hm xon, ta cng c th gp kh khn khi do
tnh i xng, ta khng to ra s phng trnh gii (c th xy ra trng hp c
mt phng trnh no l h qu ca cc phng trnh khc). V d:
Bi ton 3. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R R tho mn iu kin
f(x) + f(-x) = x2
vi mi x thuc R.
Gii. Trong ng thc f(x) + f(-x) = x2 (1) thay x bng x th ta c
f(-x) + f(x) = (-x)2
(2)
Nh vy khng xut hin n s mi nhng cng lc , (2) cng khng phi l phng
trnh mi, m hon ton ging nh (1). Nh vy, ta khng th gii c h (1), (2) ra
gi tr duy nht ca f(x).
Cng tng t nh trong trng hp h phng trnh tuyn tnh vi s n s nhiu hn
s phng trnh trng hp ny h ca chng ta, hay ni cch khc, phng trnh (1) s
c v s nghim. C th trong bi ton ny, t g(x) = f(x) x2/2 th ta c g(x) + g(-x)
= 0, suy ra g(x) l mt hm s l. Ngc li, nu f(x) = x2/2 + g(x) vi g(x) l mt hm s
l bt k th r rng ta c
f(x) + f(-x) = x2/2 + g(x) + x2/2 + g(-x) = x2.
52 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Vy tt c cc hm s f(x) tho mn iu kin bi l f(x) = x2/2 + g(x), trong g(x) l

mt hm s l bt k xc nh trn R.
Bi tp
1. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R R sao cho vi mi x {-1, 1} ta c
x 3
3+ x
f
+ f
=x
x +1
1 x
2. Gi s a 0. Tm hm s f(x) bit rng

a2
= x
f ( x) + f
ax
3. Tm hm s f(x) bit rng

x
3 x 2 13x 4
2f
3f
=
2
2 x + 1 2 x 3x
x 1
4. a) Chng minh rng hm s ( x) =
1 + 3x
3x
l xon
b) Tm tt c cc gi tr a sao cho hm s ( x) =
a+x
l xon.
1 ax
5. Tm tt c cc hm s f(x): R R sao cho vi mi x khc 0 ta c

f(x) + f(1/x) = 2
6. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R \ {0, 1} R tho mn phng trnh
1 2(1 2 x)
f ( x) + f
=
1 x x(1 x)
vi mi x thuc min xc nh ca f.
2. Gii phng trnh hm bng cch lp phng trnh
Vi nhng phng trnh hm c 2 (hoc nhiu hn) phng trnh iu kin, ta c th tm
cch kt hp cc phng trnh tm ra f(x). Phng php c bn vn l to ra cc
mi lin kt, hay cc phng trnh bng cch tnh mt gi tr bng hai cch khc nhau.
i) f(-x) = -f(x) vi mi x thuc R;
ii) f(x+1) = f(x) + 1 vi mi x thuc R;
53 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

1
x
iii) f =
f ( x)
vi mi x khc 0.
x2
Gii. Tt c cc iu kin u trn mt bin x. Trong trng hp ny, ta c th dng mt

cht khi nim v th hiu con ng i n li gii. Ta xem cc s thc nh cc
nh ca mt th. nh x s c ni vi cc nh x+1, -x, 1/x. Cc iu kin bi s
cho chng ta cc mi lin h gia gi tr ca hm s ti cc nh c ni bi mt cnh.
Nu chng ta tm c mt chu trnh th mt cch t nhin, chng ta s c 1 phng trnh
( trnh hm s c hai gi tr khc nhau).
Ta th tm mt chu trnh nh vy
x x +1
1
1
1
x
x +1
1
1
1
=
=1+ x
x +1
x +1
x +1 x +1
x
x
x
t y = f(x) th t chu trnh trn, ta ln lt c

y +1
1
y +1
y +1
1
x
f ( x + 1) = y + 1, f
, f
, f
=
=
=1
2
2
( x + 1)
( x + 1) 2
x + 1 ( x + 1)
x +1
x +1
y +1
1
( x + 1) 2 x 2 + 2 x y 1 2 x y
x + 1
f
=
, f =
, f ( x) = 2 x y
=
2
x2
x2
x
x
x
x + 1
T suy ra 2x y = y, tc l y = x. Vy f(x) = x.
Trong l lun trn, ta cn n iu kin x khc 0 v -1. Tuy nhin t iu kin f(x+1) =
f(x) + 1 ta d dng suy ra f(0) = 0 v f(-1) = 1. Vy f(x) = x l tt cc nghim ca bi
ton.
f(x2-y) = xf(x) f(y) vi mi x, y thuc R
Gii. Thay x = y = 0 vo phng trnh hm, ta c f(0) = - f(0), suy ra f(0) = 0. Thay y
= 0 v phng trnh hm, ta c
f(x2) = xf(x)
(1)
T suy ra
f(x2y) = f(x2) f(y)
Thay x = 0, ta c f(y) = f(y). Thay y bng y, ta c
f(x2+y) = f(x2) f(y) = f(x2) + f(y) vi mi x, y.
T , kt hp vi tnh cht hm l, ta suy ra f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) vi mi x, y.
By gi ta c f((x+1)2) mt mt c th tnh theo cng thc (1), tc l bng (x+
1)f(x+1) = (x+1)(f(x)+f(1)). Mt khc, ta c th khai trin
f((x+1)2) = f(x2+2x+1) = f(x2) + 2f(x) + f(1) = xf(x) + 2f(x) + f(1).
T ta c phng trnh (x+1)(f(x)+f(1)) = xf(x) + 2f(x) + f(1), suy ra f(x) = f(1)x.
t f(1) = a, ta c f(x) = ax. Th li vo phng trnh ta thy nghim ng.
54 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Vy f(x) = ax vi a R l tt c cc nghim ca bi ton.

Phng php to ra cc mi lin kt cng c th p dng hiu qu trong cc bi ton
phng trnh hm trn Q, N, Z. Ta xem xt mt s v d
Bi ton 6. Tm tt c cc hm s f : Q+ Q+ tho mn cc iu kin
i)
f(x+1) = f(x) + 1 vi mi x thuc Q+;
ii)
f(x2) = f2(x) vi mi x thuc Q+.
Gii. T iu kin i) ta d dng suy ra f(n) = n vi mi n thuc Z v f(r+n) = f(r) + n vi
mi r thuc Q v n thuc Z. By gi ta tnh f(r) vi r =
p
. tng ta s tnh f((r+q)2)
q
theo f(r) bng hai cch.

Trc ht
f((r+q)2) = f2(r+q) = (f(r) + q)2 (1)
Mt khc
f((r+q)2) = f(r2+2p+q2) = f(r2) + 2p + q2 = f2(r) + 2p + q2 (2)
T (1) v (2) ta suy ra f2(r) + 2qf(r) + q2 = f2(r) + 2p + q2 => f(r) = p/q = r.
Vy f(r) = r vi mi r thuc Q.
Bi ton 7. Tm tt c cc hm s f: N N sao cho
f(m2+n2) = f2(m) + f2(n) vi mi m, n thuc N
Gii. Cho m = n = 0, ta c f(0) = 2f2(0), suy ra f(0) = 0. Cho m = 1, n = 0, ta c f(1)
= 0 hoc f(1) = 1. Ta xt trng hp f(1) = 1, trng hp f(1) = 0 xt tng t. Vi f(1) =
1, ta ln lt tnh c
f(2) = f(12+12) = f2(1) + f2(1) = 2
f(4) = f(22+02) = f2(2) + f2(0) = 4
f(5) = f(22+12) = f2(2) + f2(1) = 5
Nhng lm sao tnh, chng hn f(3)? R rng f(3) khng th tnh c theo s trn
c, v 3 khng biu din c di dng tng ca hai bnh phng.
Ta nh li mt bi ton lp 3. C 1 ci cn a vi 2 qu cn 1kg, 5kg v 1 bao ng
nng 10kg. Hy cn ra 7kg ng bng 1 ln cn. R rng, vi cch cn thng thng
th ta ch cn c 1kg ng, 4kg ng (5-1), 5 kg ng v 6kg ng. Tuy nhin,
nu tinh 1 cht, ta c th c phng n cn c 7kg ng nh sau: t vo a bn
tri qu cn 1kg v 10kg ng, a bn phi l qu cn 5kg, sau chuyn dn ng
t bn tri sang bn phi sao cho cn cn bng, khi s ng cn li a bn phi
l 7kg !
By gi ta cng th thut tng vi bi ton ny. Ta khng tnh c trc tip f(3) nhng
ta li c f2(5) = f(25) = f(32+42) = f2(3) + f2(4). T ta c f(3) = 3.
Tng t nh vy ta c th tnh c f(6) nh vo ng thc 62 + 82 = 102, trong f(8)
= f(22+22) = 2f2(2) = 8, f(10) = f(32+12) = f2(3) + f2(1) = 10.
55 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Tip tc, tnh f(7), ta 72 + 1 = 50 = 52 + 52, t f(7) = 7. Cng nh th, do 112 +
22 = 102 + 52 nn ta suy ra f(11) = 11.
Cch lm ny c th tng qut ho nh th no? tng l nu m2 + n2 = p2 + q2 (1) th
f2(m) + f2(n) = f2(p) + f2(q). Do nu ta tnh c f(n), f(p), f(q) th f(m) cng s tnh
c.
Lm th no c c nhng ng thc dng (1) dng tng qut, cho php ta chng
minh f(n) = n vi mi n bng quy np? Ch rng (1) c th vit li thnh (m-p)(m+p) =
(q-n)(q+n) = N. Do nu chn nhng s N c 2 cch phn tch thnh tch ca nhng s
c cng tnh chn l, ta s tm c nghim cho (1). Chn N = 8k = 2.4k = 4.2k v N =
16k = 4.4k = 8.2k, ta c h
m p = 2, m+p = 4k, q n = 4, q + n = 2k
v
m p = 4, m+p = 4k, q n = 8, q + n = 2k
T c cc hng ng thc tng ng
(2k+1)2 + (k-2)2 = (2k-1)2 + (k+2)2
v
(2k+2)2 + (k-4)2 = (2k-2)2 + (k+4)2
T hai ng thc ny, vi ch l ta chng minh c f(n) = n vi n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, ta d dng chng minh bng quy np c rng f(n) = n vi mi n N.
Trng hp f(1) = 0, cng bng cch l lun nu trn ta suy ra f(n) = 0 vi mi n thuc
N.
Bi tp.
1. Tm tt c cc hm s f: Q Q tho mn cc iu kin
i) f(x+1) = f(x) + 1 vi mi x thuc Q;
ii) f(x3) = f3(x) vi mi x thuc Q;
2. Tm tt c cc hm f: R \ {0} R tho mn ng thi cc iu kin
i) f(1) = 1;
1
= f + f
ii) f
x
x+ y
y
iii) (x+y)f(x+y) = xyf(x)f(y)
vi mi x, y m xy(x+y) 0.
3. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R R tho mn
f(x5 y5) = x2f(x3) y2f(y3) vi mi x, y thuc R.
4. Tm tt c cc hm s f: Z Z tho mn iu kin
56 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

f(a3+b3+c3) = f3(a) + f3(b) + f3(c)
vi mi a, b, c thuc Z.
5. Cho hm s f: R R tho mn iu kin
i) f(x2) = f2(x) vi mi x thuc R;
ii) f(x+1) = f(x) + 1 vi mi x thuc R.
Chng minh rng f(x) = x.
3. Tnh gi tr ca hm s ti mt im c bit bng cch lp phng trnh
Trong phn trn, chng ta c th thy rng phng php lp phng trnh c th gip
chng ta tm c f(x) vi mi x, ni cch khc l gii c phng trnh hm. Trong
tnh hung tng qut, khng phi lc no ta cng thc hin c iu . Mi lin kt c
th ch tn ti i vi mt s cc gi tr c th. Ta xt mt v d:
Bi ton 8. Cho f l hm s khng gim xc nh trn on [0, 1], tho mn ng thi
cc iu kin
1) f(0) = 0
2) f(1x) = 1 f(x) x [0, 1];
3) f(x/3) = f(x)/2 x [0, 1].
Hy tnh f(1/13), f(1/7).
Gii. Tng t nh bi ton 4, ta thit lp th c nh l cc s thc thuc [0, 1] v
x c ni vi 1 x v x/3 (l cc i lng c th tnh c nu bit f(x)). Ta thit lp
chui
1
1 12
4
4
9
3
1
1 =
13
13 13
13
13 13 13 13
1
Nh vy, nu t f = y th ta ln lt c
13
1 y 1+ y 3 1+ y 1 1+ y
12
4 1 y 9
f = 1 y, f =
, f = 1
=
, f =
, f =
2
2
2
4
8
13
13
13
13
13
1+ y
1
1 1
Nh vy ta phi c y =
, t y = . Vy f = .
8
7
13 7
Lu rng li gii ni trn l rt c th cho s 1/13. V d vi 1/7 th chui nh trn

s khng ng c
1
6
2
5

7
7
7
7
Nh vy, cch gii trn y khng p dng cho 1/7. tm gi tr f(1/7), ta cn n cc

iu kin f khng gim v f(0) = 0 (cc iu kin ny khng cn n khi tnh f(1/13)!).
C th, t cc iu kin bi, ta suy ra
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1, f(1/3) = f(1)/2 = 1/2, f(2/3) = 1 f(1/3) = 1/2
57 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

T , do hm f khng gim nn ta suy ra f(x) = 1/2 vi mi x [1/3, 2/3]. p dng tnh
cht 3, ta suy ra f(x) = 1/4 vi mi x x [1/9, 2/9]. M 1/9 < 1/7 < 2/9 nn t y ta suy
ra f(1/7) = 1/4.
Trong cc bi ton phng trnh hm trn tp s nguyn, cc mi lin h dng bt ng
thc gia cc s cng c th l cha kho tm c gi tr ca hm s ti mt im.
Bi ton 9. Cho hm s f: N* N* tho mn ng thi cc iu kin sau
i)
f(2) = 4 ;
ii)
f(mn) = f(m).f(n) vi mi m, n thuc N* ;
iii)
f(m) > f(n) vi mi m > n.
Hy tm f(3).
Gii. D thy hm s f(n) = n2 tho mn c ba iu kin. Mt cch t nhin, ta ngh n
vic chng minh f(3) = 9.
Thng tin duy nht m ta c th c c t hai iu kin u l f(2k) = 4k. R rng, nu
khng c iu kin iii) th f(3) c th nhn gi tr tu , do f(3) khng tnh c.
Vi iu kin iii), ta c 4 = f(2) < f(3) < f(4) = 16, suy ra f(3) ch c th nhn gi tr trong
{5, 6, , 15}.
Tuy nhin, ch cn xt thm bt ng thc 8 < 9 l ta c th suy ra 64 = f(8) < f(9) =

f2(3), suy ra f(3) > 8. V bt ng thc 27 < 32 cho ta f3(3) = f(27) < f(32) = f5(2) =
1024, suy ra f(3) 10.
Nh vy, f(3) ch cn c th nhn 1 trong 2 gi tr 9 hoc 10.
Ta tm cch loi gi tr 10 bng 1 bt ng thc st hn. Tm kim trong cc lu tha ca
2 v 3, ta tm c cp bt ng thc 35 = 243 < 256 = 28. Nu f(3) = 10 th t bt ng
thc trn ta s suy ra 105 < 48 100000 < 65536, mu thun.
Vy ch cn trng hp f(3) = 9. Kt hp vi nhn xt ban u l hm s f(n) = n2 tho
mn tt c cc iu kin ca bi, ta kt lun f(3) = 9.
Ta c th s dng tng trn tnh f(n) vi n bt k, c th l chng minh f(n) = n2
vi mi n. Ni chung, trong mt phng trnh hm tng qut th vic tm gi tr hm s
ti tng im nh vy c th s gp kh khn. Tuy nhin, c th th
y rng, trong mt s phng trnh hm th vic tm cc gi tr c bit nh f(0), f(1), f(-1)
ng vai tr then cht trong li gii ca bi ton. Di y ta xem xt mt s v d.
58 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

f(xy) + f(x+y) = f(x)f(y) + f(x) + f(y)
(1)
Gii. Phng trnh trn l tng ca hai phng trnh

(2) f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y)
(3) f(xy) = f(x)f(y)
Ch l theo l thuyt v phng trnh hm Cauchy th nu hm s f: R R tho mn
ng thi hai phng trnh (2) v (3) th f(x) = x hoc f(x) 0. Do vy, ta ch cn chng
minh l t (1) suy ra (2) v (3) l xong.
tch c cc phng trnh trong (1), ta quan tm n tnh chn, l ca f. Chng hn
nu f l hm s l th thay y bng y, ta s thu c
f(-xy) + f(x-y) = f(x)f(-y) + f(x) + f(-y) (4)
Cng (1) v (4), ch f l hm l, ta s thu c
f(x+y) + f(x-y) = 2f(x)
T phng trnh ny v f(0) = 0 (suy ra t (1) bng cch cho x = y = 0), ta d dng suy ra
f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) vi mi x, y, tc l (1) tch c.
Quay tr li vi bi ton. Nh vy, ta quan tm n tnh chn l ca hm s f.
Mt cch t nhin, ta thay y = -1 trong (1) th c
f(-x) + f(x-1) = f(x)f(-1) + f(x) + f(-1)
(5)
Nu tm c f(-1) th c th kho st c tnh chn l ca f. Ta tm cch tnh
f(-1).
Ch rng trong phng trnh (5) c n 3 n s l f(-x), f(x-1), f(x). iu ny khng

cho php chng ta thit lp dy truy hi tnh cc gi tr f. Mt la chn khc l thay y
= 1 vo (1) c
f(x) + f(x+1) = f(x)f(1) + f(x) + f(1)
Suy ra
f(x+1) = f(1)f(x) + f(1)
(6)
Nh vy, theo ngn ng th dng trong cc bi ton 4, 8, ta tm c mi lin
kt x x+1.
T y, nu t f(1) = a th ta ln lt tnh c f(2) = a2 + a, f(3) = a3 + a2 + a, f(4) = a4
+ a3 + a2 + a.
Nu tip tc dy ny th s tnh c f(n) theo f(1). Tuy nhin, iu ta cn tm l f(1). V
th, ta cn tm mt phng trnh khc vi cng thc truy hi ni trn. iu ny c th c
c ngay nu ta thay x = y = 2 vo (1). Khi
f(4) + f(4) = f2(2) + 2f(2)
Thay cc gi tr ca f(4) v f(2) tnh theo a trn vo, ta c phng trnh
2(a4+a3+a2+a) = (a2+a)2 + 2(a2+a)

a4 = a2
T suy ra a ch c th nhn cc gi tr a = 0, a = -1, a = 1.
59 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

+ Nu a = 0 th t (6) ta suy ra f(x) = 0 vi mi x. y l mt nghim ca phng trnh
hm.
+ Nu a = 1 th t (6) ta suy ra f(x+1) = f(x) 1, tc l f(x) + f(x+1) = 1 vi mi x.
T y, thay x = 1, ch l f(0) = 0, ta c f(1) = 1. Thay vo (5), ta c f(x) +
f(x1) = 1. M f(x1) + f(x) = 1 nn t y suy ra f(x) = f(x), tc l f l hm chn.
By gi trong (1), ta thay y bng y th c
f(-xy) + f(x-y) = f(x)f(-y) + f(x) + f(-y) (4)
Tr (1) cho (4), ch l f l hm chn, ta suy ra f(x+y) f(xy) = 0 vi mi x, y. T y
suy ra f l hm hng. iu ny mu thun v f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1. Vy trng hp ny
khng xy ra.
+ Nu a = 1 th t (6) ta suy ra f(x+1) = f(x) + 1 (7). Thay x = 1, ta c f(1) = 1.
Thay vo (5), ta c f(x) + f(x1) = 1. Li c t (7) f(x1) = f(x) 1 nn t y ta suy
ra f(x) = f(x). Nh vy f l hm l. L lun nh phn tch ban u, ta c f(x) tho
mn h phng trnh (2), (3). p dng l thuyt phng trnh hm Cauchy, ta tm c
f(x) = x.
f(x2 + f(y)) = f2(x) + y
(1)
Gii. Vn mu cht trong bi ton ny l chng minh c f(0) = 0. Tht vy, nu ta
chng minh c f(0) = 0 th thay y = 0 vo phng trnh hm, ta c
f(x2) = f2(x)
(2)
Thay x = 0 vo (1), ta c
f(f(y)) = y
(3)
Thay y bng f(y) trong (1), ch rng f(f(y)) = y v f2(x) = f(x2), ta c f(x2+y)
=
f(x2) + f(y) vi mi x, y thuc R
T y d dng chng minh c rng
f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y)
(4)
vi mi x, y thuc R.
Nh vy f tho mn phng trnh hm Cauchy. Ngoi ra, do (2) nn ta c f(x) 0 vi
mi x 0. Kt hp vi (4), ta suy ra f l hm s tng. Nh vy, theo l thuyt c bn v
phng trnh hm Cauchy, f(x) = ax vi mi x, trong a 0. Thay vo phng trnh
hm, ta c a(x2+ay) = a2x + y vi mi x, y, suy ra a = 1. Vy f(x) = x l nghim duy
nht ca phng trnh hm.
Tt cc l lun trn y u da trn gi thit l ta chng minh c f(0) = 0. By gi
ta s chng minh iu ny.
t f(0) = a. Thay y = 0 vo (1), ta c
f(x2+a) = f2(x)
(5)
Thay x = 0 vo (5), ta c f(a) = a2
Thay x = 0 vo (1), ta c
60 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

f(f(y)) = a2 + y
(6)
2 2
By gi ta s tnh f(a +f (1)) bng hai cch. Mt mt
f(a2+f2(1)) = f(f2(1) + f(a)) = (f(f(1)))2 + a = (a2+1)2 + a
Mt khc
f(a2+f2(1)) = f(a2+f(1+a)) = (f(a))2 + 1 + a = a4 + a + 1
T y ta suy ra a4 + 2a2 + 1 + a = a4 + a + 1 suy ra a = 0. Tc l f(0) = 0. Li gii hon
tt.
Bi tp
1. Cho f l hm s khng gim xc nh trn on [0, 1], tho mn ng thi cc iu
kin
i) f(0) = 0
ii) f(1x) = 1 f(x) x [0, 1];
iii) f(x/3) = f(x)/2 x [0, 1].
a) Hy tnh f(18/1991);
b) Hy tnh f(1/n) vi n {1, 2, , 20}
c)* Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht mt hm s f tho mn ng thi cc iu kin
nu trn.
2. Tm tt c cc hm s f: N* N* tho mn cc iu kin
i) f(2) = 2;
ii) f(mn) = f(m).f(n) vi mi (m, n) = 1;
iii) f(m) > f(n) vi mi m > n.
3. Tm tt c cc gi tr k thuc N* sao cho tn ti hm s f: N* N* tho mn cc iu
kin
i) f(2) = k;
ii) f(mn) = f(m).f(n) vi mi m, n;
iii) f(m) > f(n) vi mi m > n.
4. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R R tho mn iu kin
f(xy) + f(x) + f(y) = f(x+y) + f(x)f(y) vi mi x, y thuc R.
5. Tm tt c cc hm s f : R R tho mn iu kin
(f(x+y))2 = f(x)f(x+2y) + yf(y) vi mi x, y thuc R.
6. Tm tt c cc hm s f: R R tho mn iu kin
f(x2 + y + f(y)) = f2(x) + 2y
vi mi x, y thuc R.
61 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Ti liu tham kho
[1] Nguyn Vn Mu, Phng trnh hm, Nh xut bn Gio dc 2001
[2] Nguyn Trng Tun, Bi ton hm s qua cc k thi Olympic, Nh xut bn Gio dc
2005.
[3] Phan c Chnh, L nh Thnh, Phm Tn Dng, Tuyn tp cc bi ton s cp,
Tp 1, i s, NXB i hc v THCN 1977
[4] Phan Huy Khi, Cc bi ton v hm s, Nh xut bn Gio dc 2007
[5] B.J.Venkatachala, Functional Equations A Problem Solving Approach, PRISM
2002.
[6] Pierre Bornsztein, Mobinool Omarjee, Cours Equations fonctionelles, Electronic
Edition 2003
[7] Titu Andreescu, Iurie Boreico, Functional Equations, Electronic Edition 2007
62 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Ti u t hp I: Cc bi ton ti u v h cc tp hp
Gil Kalai
Bi vit ny gii thiu v cc bi ton ti u lin quan n h cc tp hp. y l mt
trong nhng bi ging ca Gil Kalai ti seminar Cc khi nim c bn ti H TH
Hungari do David Kazhdan khi xng.
Paul Erds
1. Ba bi ton m u
Chng ta s bt u bng ba bi ton kh ging nhau, t rt d n rt kh.
Bi ton I: Cho N = {1,2, , n }. Hi kch thc ln nht ca h
cc tp con ca
tho mn iu kin hai tp hp bt k thuc c phn giao khc rng? (Mt h nh vy
c gi l h giao nhau)
Tr li I: Kch thc ln nht l
. Chng ta c th t c iu ny bng cc chn
tt c cc tp con cha phn t 1. Chng ta khng th t c con s ln hn, bi t
mi cp gm mt tp hp v phn b ca n, ta ch c th chn mt tp hp vo h cc
tp hp ca chng ta.
Bi ton II: Tm kch thc ln nht ca h
bt k thuc c hp khc ?.
cc tp con ca
63 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
sao cho hai tp hp

Cu tr li l hin nhin v bi ton II chng qua l bi ton I. Ch cn chuyn qua phn
b. V ta s c p s y nh bi ton I. Ta pht biu bi ton II khc.
Bi ton II mi: Tm kch thc ln nht ca h
cc tp con ca sao cho vi hai
tp hp bt k
thuc ta c giao ca chng khc rng v hp ca chng khc .
Mt v d ca mt h nh vy l tp hp tt c cc tp hp cha phn t 1 nhng khng
cha phn t 2. H ny c
tp hp. Phi mt vi nm sau khi Erds xut bi
ton ny, Kleitman mi chng minh c l khng c h no ln hn vi tnh cht ny.
Bi ton III (Gi thuyt Erds-Sos) Cho l h cc th vi N l tp cc nh. Gi sa
rng hai th bt k ca h c chung mt tam gic. Hi c kch thc ln nht bng
bao nhiu?
Tng s cc th vi n nh l
. (Ch : ta m cc th m khng tnh n s
ng cu ca chng.) Mt v d n gin ca h tp hp vi tnh cht cho l tt c cc
tp hp cha mt tam gic c nh no . V d tt c cc th cha cc cnh
{1,2},{1,3},{2,3}. H ny cha 1/8 ca tt c cc th. Tn ti hay khng mt h ln
hn cc th vi tnh cht cho? Erds v Sos a ra gi thuyt l cu tr li l khng
chng ta khng th tm c h ln hn. Gi thuyt ny hin nay vn l mt vn
m.
Vera Sos
2. Hai nh l c bn v h cc tp con vi cc iu kin giao cho trc.
nh l Erds-Ko-Rado: Mt h giao nhau cc k-tp con ca
ti a
tp hp.
64 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
, trong
cha

nh l Fisher; deBruijn-Erds: H cc tp con ca sao cho hai tp hp khc nhau
bt k ca h c ng mt phn t chung c nhiu nht n phn t.
(Erds v deBruijn kt lun rng n im khng thng hng trn mt phng xc nh t
nht n ng thng. Hy th suy ra iu ny t nh l trn!)
Tt c cc k-tp con ca N cha phn t 1 cho v d v du bng cho nh l Erdos-KoRado. Vi nh l Erds deBruijn ta ly h {{1} , {1,2} {1,3} {1,n}} hoc thay tp
hp u tin bi {2,3,,n}, hoc ly mt mt phng x nh hu hn.
Mt phng Fano cc im x nh hu hn bc 2.
3. Php chng minh nh l deBruijn Erds bng i s tuyn tnh.
Php chng minh nh l Fisher; de Bruijn-Erds c th trnh by nh sau: Gi s rng
c m tp hp
trong h. Xt ma trn lin kt ca h: Phn t (i,j) ca ma
trn ny bng 1 nu i thuc .
S kin ct yu y l cc ct
.
y suy ra
ca ma trn lin kt l c lp tuyn tnh, t
Lm th no c th chng minh rng cc ct l c lp tuyn tnh? Trc ht, chng ta

gi s rng c t nht 2 tp hp. Khi ta vit
, v tnh tch trong
.
Ta lu rng nu i v j khc nhau th
Nh vy
.
65 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nh vy tch ny ch c th bng 0 khi tt c cc h s
u bng 0.
Chng minh ny l mt v d ca cc l lun v chiu trong t hp.

4. nh l Sperner
nh l Sperner (1927) khng nh rng kch thc ln nht ca h
l mt i xch i vi quan h bao hm l h s nh thc
chng minh n gin v p cho nh l Sperner:
cc tp con ca N
. Lubell tm c mt php
l mt i xch nh vy v gi s rng n c tp hp k phn t. Ta tnh cc cp

trong =
l mt hon v ca {1,2, ,n} v S l tp hp
thuc h c khi u l , c th l S={
} vi k no . Vi mi hon
v ta tm c nhiu nht mt khi u S trong h (do iu kin i xch). Nu S l
mt tp hp k phn t, ta c th tm c ng k! (n-k)! hon v vi S l khi u. Kt
hay ni cch khc
.
hp hai s kin ny, ta c
Bt ng thc ny (c gi l bt ng thc LYM) suy ra kt qu cn chng minh.
Gi
Bella Bollobas, mt trong nhng ngi pht hin ra bt ng thc LYM.

nh l Erds-Ko-Rado c mt php chng minh tng t vi chng minh trn.
tng l tnh cch cp
quanh
trong l mt tp hp trong h,
l mt khong lin tc i vi .
l hon v vng
Mt mt ta c (n-1)! hon v vng quanh v d dng thy rng vi mi mt hon v nh

vy, ta c th chn c nhiu nht k khong i mt giao nhau. Mt khc, vi mi tp
hp S c k!(n-k)! hon v vng quanh m trong S l mt khong lin tc.
Nh vy
k! (n-k)!
v iu ny cho chng ta nh l Erds Ko Rado.
Quay tr li mt cht v cu d dng nhn thy. Phn ny s dng iu kin

.
Mt cch l lun cho phn ny nh sau: xt khong J m phn t tn cng bn tri l nm
bn tri nht v ch rng c k khong giao vi J m phn t tn cng bn tri nm
66 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

bn phi z. Mt cch khc l xt mt khong J bo c di k v ch rng 2k-2
khong c giao vi khong ny c chia thnh k-1 cp m mi cp cha hai khong
khng giao nhau.
5. nh l Turan v bi ton Turan
Trng hp c bit ca nh l Turan cho th khng cha tam gic c chng minh
bi Mantel vo nm 1907.
S ln nht cc cnh (k hiu l
) ca mt th n nh v khng ch tam gic t
c th hai phe y n nh vi kch thc hai phe cng gn nhau cng tt (c th
l [n/2] v [(n+1)/2].
nh l Turan dng tng qut c chng minh vo nhng nm 40 ca th k trc.
S ln nht cc cnh (k hiu l
) ca th n nh khng cha th con y
(r+1) nh t c ti th r phe y vi n nh, trong kch thc ca cc phn
cng gn nhau cng tt.
Paul Turan
Chng minh nh l Turan: Thc s nh l Turan khng kh; gn nh cch tip cn
no cng c th thnh cng. Sau y l mt cch tip cn nh vy: n gin, ta xt
trng hp tam gic. Xt nh v vi bc ln nht v chia cc nh cn li ca th thnh
hai phn: A cc nh k vi v, B l cc nh cn li. By gi ch l cc nh thuc
A lp thnh mt tp hp c lp (tc l khng c cnh ni gia cc nh ca A). Vi mi
nh thuc B ta xo i tt c cc cnh cha nh ny v thay vo , ni nh ny vi tt
c cc nh thuc A. rng trong th mi, bc ca mi nh u khng nh hn
bc th ban u. V, hn na, th mi l th hai phe (trong A l mt phe).
Cui cng ta ch cn chng minh l vi th hai phe th s cnh l ln nht khi hai phn
c s nh cng gn nhau cng tt.
Sau y l mt chng minh khc. Xo i mt nh ca th G vi n+1 nh khng ch
. S cnh ca th cn li khng vt qu
. Thc hin iu ny i vi tt c cc
nh v ch rng mt mt cnh c tnh n-1 ln. Ta thu c rng s cnh trong G (v
67 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

ngha l
) khng vt qu phn nguyn trn ca
ny cho chng ta kt qu chnh xc ca bi ton.
. nh gi
Chng ta kt thc chuyn tham quan th v ny bng bi ton m Turan a ra vo nm

1940. Chng ta mun tm s phn t ln nht ca tp hp cc b ba lp t {1,2,,n}
khng cha mt t din, tc l khng cha bn b ban c dng
{a,b,c},{a,b,d),{a,c,d},{b,c,d}.
Nu c gi cha bit p s, hy th a ra d on ca mnh. Turan a ra mt gi
thuyt ca mnh v gi thuyt ny hin nay vn cn l mt vn m.
Trn Nam Dng dch v gii thiu (t web site ca Seminar: Ti u t hp I)
Mt s ghi ch thm ca dch gi:
i xch: Trong mt tp sp th t (partial order set), mt i xch l mt h cc phn t
i mt khng so snh c vi nhau.
LYM: Lubell, Yamamoto, Meshalkin l nhng ngi chng minh nh l ny mt
cch c lp. Bollobas l ngi th t cng tm ra kt qu ny mt cch c lp.
68 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
V k thi chn i tuyn Vit Nam tham d IMO 2010

Trn Nam Dng
K thi chn i tuyn Vit Nam tham d IMO 2010 (VTST 2010) c t chc trong hai
ngy 17, 18/4 vi s tham gia ca 42 th sinh n t cc tnh thnh v cc trng H.
Thnh phn tham d TST nm nay c kh nhiu im c bit. Hai i c lc lng
hng hu nht tham d TST l Ngh An (6 em) v Nng (5 em). Cc n v ln u
tin c th sinh d TST l B Ra Vng Tu (2 em), HSP Tp HCM (1 em). Mt im
ni bt na l Ph Yn vi 3 hc sinh tham d TST. Bn cnh , c th nhn mnh s
vng mt ca mt s n v c truyn thng nh Hi Phng, Thanh Ha, H Vinh hay s
xung sc ca cc n v c s m khc nh Vnh Phc, PTNK.
Nh thng l, thi chn i tuyn nm nay c 6 bi. im c bit l nm nay ch c
1 bi hnh, 1 bi i s. Cc phn mn S hc v T hp c u i hn vi 2 bi.
Bi 1 v 4 c coi l cc bi d ca k thi. Bi 2 thuc loi trung bnh. Cc bi 5, 6
c nh gi l kh v bi 3 l rt kh. nh gi chung l nm nay khng kh bng
nm ngoi.
Cng tc chm thi c tin hnh ngay sau k thi v kt qu chn c 6 thnh
vin tham d IMO 2010.
Tri vi d on lc quan ca nhiu ngi, im thi nm nay khng cao hn nhiu so vi
nm ngoi, im cao nht i tuyn l 24 v im thp nht l 18. Nh vy, k thi nm
nay mt ln na li khng nh chn l: Nu lm 3 bi chc n th s lt vo i tuyn.
Kt qu ny tip tc cho thy im yu chung ca th sinh vn l hai mng S hc v T
hp, cng nh khu trnh by ca th sinh rt c vn . Sau k thi, kh nhiu th sinh
tuyn b mnh lm c 4 bi nhng kt qu thc t cho thy khng phi nh vy.
C mt s kin cho rng cc bi ton 5, 6 khng ph hp vi thi chn i tuyn v
em li li th cho nhng ai bit nh l Hall v nh l Lucas. Tuy nhin, theo kin
ca chng ti, mc k thi chn i tuyn, nu chng ta mun c mt i tuyn
mnh, sc tn cng cc bi ton 3, 6 ca IMO th cn phi nng tm kin thc cng
nh suy lun ca hc sinh n mc cc nh l ny. Ch l cc nh l ny rt s
cp v cha ng nhiu phng php t duy v l lun p v hay.
Cui cng, xinh chc mng cc th sinh vt qua k thi Vietnam TST va qua, chc
i tuyn Vit Nam c thnh tch xut sc ti IMO 2010!
69 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

CHN I TUYN VN D THI TON QUC T
Ngy 1, 17/4/2010
Thi gian lm bi: 240 pht.
BI 1. (6 im) Cho tam gic ABC khng vung ti A c trung tuyn AM. D l mt
im chy trn AM. Gi (O1), (O2) ln lt l cc ng trn i qua D v tip xc vi
BC ti B v C. CA ct (O2) ti Q. BA ct (O1) ti P.
a) Chng minh rng tip tuyn ti P ca (O1) v tip tuyn ti Q ca (O2) phi ct nhau.
Gi giao im ny l S.
b) Chng minh rng S lun chy trn mt ng c nh khi D chy trn AM.
BI 2. (6 im) Vi mi s n nguyn dng, xt tp sau
Tm tt c n sao cho khng tn ti a khc b thuc Tn sao cho a-b chia ht cho 110.
BI 3. (8 im) Hnh ch nht kch thc 1*2 c gi l hnh ch nht n. Hnh ch
nht 2*3 b di 2 gc cho nhau (tc cn c 4 ) gi l hnh ch nht kp. Ngi ta
ghp kht cc hnh ch nht n v hnh ch nht kp c bng 2008*2010. Tm s b
nht cc hnh ch nht n c th dng lt c nh trn.
Ngy 2, 18/4/2010
Thi gian lm bi: 240 pht.
BI 4. (6 im) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng tha mn iu kin
.
Chng minh rng
.
BI 5. (7 im) C n mi nc c k i din (n > k > 1). Ngi ta chia n.k ngi ny
thnh n nhm mi nhm c k ngi sao cho khng c 2 ngi cng nhm n t 1 nc.
Chng minh rng c th chn ra n ngi n t cc nhm khc nhau v n t cc nc
khc nhau.
BI 6. (7 im) Gi Sn l tng bnh phng cc h s trong khai trin ca (1+x)n. Chng
minh rng S2n + 1 khng chia ht cho 3.
70 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Li gii v Nhn xt
Bi 1.
Ta c MB2 = MC2 nn M thuc trc ng phng ca (O1) v (O2). Suy ra DM l trc
ng phng ca 2 ng trn. Do A thuc trc ng phng ca 2 ng trn.
Suy ra AP.AB = AQ.AC => t gic BCPQ ni tip.
Gi tip tuyn ca (O1) l Px th xPB = PBC = PQA, suy ra Px tip xc vi (APQ)
hay (APQ) tip xc vi (O1). Tng t suy ra (APQ) tip xc vi c (O1) v (O2).
Tam gic APQ ng dng vi ACB nn APQ khng vung. Suy ra tip tuyn ti P v Q
phi ct nhau ti S.
V SP2 = SQ2 nn S thuc trc ng phng ca (O1) v (O2), chnh l ng thng AM,
hay S thuc mt ng thng c nh.
Bi 2.
t s(k,h, n) = 11(k + h) + 10(nk + nh). Do s(h,k) = s(k, h) nn ta lun gi s k h.
Ta thy nu n m th s(k,h, n) s(k,h,m) mod 110, do ta ch cn tm cc n 11.
Xt s(6,6,n) s(1,1,n) = 110 + 20n(n5-1). Do nu n(n5-1) chia ht cho 11 th n khng
tha mn iu kin.
T y ta loi cc gi tr n = 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11.
Xt s(8,2,n) s(6,4,n) = 10(n8-n6+n2-n4) = 10(n6-n2)(n2-1). Do nu n2 1 chia ht cho
11 th n khng tha mn iu kin. Vy ta loi gi tr n = 10.
Ta chng minh vi n = 2, 6, 7, 8 th s(k,h,n) s(k,h,n) khng chia ht cho 110 vi mi
b {k, h} {k,h}.
Trc ht bng cch th trc tip, ta thy rng vi n = 2, 6, 7, 8 th nk nh mod 11 vi
mi k h. (*)
Tht vy, nu s(k,h,n) s(k,h,n) chia ht cho 110 th 11(k+h-k-h) + 10(nk+nh-nk-nh)
chia ht cho 110, suy ra
k+h k h 0 mod 10 (1)
v
nk + nh nk nh 0 mod 11 (2)
T (1) suy ra k k h h (mod 10). T y, theo nh l nh Fermat, ta c nk-k nh-h
(mod 11)
Vit (2) li thnh nk(nk-k-1) nh(nh-h-1) (mod 11).
Theo l lun trn th nk-k-1 nh-h-1 mod 11. Theo (*) th nk-k-1 nh-h-1 0. Nh vy
ta c th chia hai v cho nk-k-1 c nk nh (mod 11). T (*) suy ra k = h. T (1) suy
ra k = h. Nh th {k,h} = {k, h}. Ta c iu phi chng minh.
Nhn xt. C th a ra c trng ngn gn cho cc s n tha mn iu kin l: n phi l
cn nguyn thy modulo 11. Bi ton c th tng qut ha bng cch thay 11 bng 1 s
nguyn t bt k (v d nhin 10 c thay bng p-1 v 110 c thay bng p(p-1).
y l mt bi ton kh p. tng n gin nhng khng tm thng.
71 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Bi 3. Ta chng minh s hnh ch nht n nh nht cn s dng l 1006.
Trc ht ta ch ra cch ghp kht to thnh hnh ch nht 2008 x 2010 vi 1006 hnh ch
nht n (v cc hnh ch nht kp).
Khi 1
Khi 2
Khi 3
Khi 4
Trn hnh v m t cch ghp hnh ch nht 10 x 16. Hnh ch nht 2010x2008 c th
c to thnh t cu hnh trn nh sau:
+ Thm dng bng cch chn thm cc khi c dng
vo gia cc khi hp thnh t 4 ct lin tip. Mi ln thm c 2 dng.

+ Thm ct bng cch lp li cc khi 4 ct lin tip (ch tnh tun hon ca cc khi
ny: Khi 1 ~ Khi 3, Khi 2 ~ Khi 4 ).
+ Theo nh cch ghp trn th ta chia hnh ch nht 2010x2008 thnh 502 khi, mi khi
gm 4 ct. khi 1 v khi 502 ta cn dng 3 hnh ch nht n (tng ng vi cc khi
1 v 4 nh trong v d trn). Cc khi cn li ta dng 2 hnh ch nht n.
Nh vy tng cng trong cch ghp trn ta dng 500 x 2 + 2 x 3 = 1006 hnh ch nht
n.
Xoay hnh ch nht 2010x2008 li, ta c hnh ch nht 2008 x 2010.
By gi ta chng minh phi cn t nht 1006 hnh ch nht n ph hnh ch nht
2008 x 2010. Xt mt php ph hp l, gi x, y, z, t ln lt l s hnh ch nht 1 x 2, 2 x
1, 2 x 3, 3 x 2 s dng trong php ph ny. T trng cc hng l, t en cng hng chn.
in s i vo hng th i. Ta c
Nhn xt 1. 2(x+y) + 4(z+t) = 2008 x 2010. (*)
72 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nhn xt 2. Xt trn ton bng, hnh ch nht khuyt v hnh ch nht 2 x 1 c s trng
bng s en. Suy ra s hnh ch nht 1 x 2 cc hng trng = s hnh ch nht 1 x 2
cc hng en = x/2. Nh vy x chn.
Nhn xt 3. Vi mi hnh ch nht ca php ph, ta xt tng cc s trong en tng
cc s trong trng. Khi i vi hnh ch nht 3 x 2 i lng ny = 0, vi hnh ch
nht 2 x 3 i lng ny bng 2, vi hnh ch nht 2 x 1 i lng ny bng 1. Cui
cng, tng cc s trong hnh ch nht 1 x 2 l mt s chn thuc [2, 2.2008]. Do ta c
bt ng thc
Tng cc s en Tng cc s trng = 1004.2010 (x/2)(2.2008-2) + y +
2z.

1004.2010 2007x + y + 2z. (**)
i ch hng v ct, ta c
1005.2008 2009y + x + 2t (***)
Cng (**) vi (***) ri (*), ta c
1005.2008 2007x+2009y 2009(x+y)
Suy ra x + y 1005.2008/2009 > 1004. V x, y chn nn x + y 1006.
Nhn xt.
1. y l bi ton kh nht ca ngy th nht v cng l bi ton kh nht ca c k thi.
im mu cht ca li gii l tm ra cch ph ti u v chng minh tnh ti u ca n.
Vic tm ra cch ph cho hnh ch nht 4 x 2n vi 4 hnh ch nht n l khng kh
nhng rt d dn n ng nhn l vi hnh ch nht 4m x 2n (2m < n) ta c th nhn cch
ph trn thnh cch ph ti u s dng 4m hnh ch nht n. Trong thc t, cch ph
ti u s dng 1 hnh ch nht kp thay hai hnh ch nht n cho cc khi k nhau.
2. Sau khi tm ng cch ph ti u, ta cn chng minh tnh ti u ca n. Mt cch
tip cn truyn thng l t mu. Tuy nhin, mt vi php th v sai cho thy cch t mu
en trng hoc A, B, C, D n gin khng gii quyt c vn v ta phi s dng n
nhng mi lin h su sc hn gia cc v s ha cc mi lin h ny bng cch a
trng s vo.
3. C kin cho rng bi s 3 ging vi mt bi ton thi chn i tuyn Vit Nam nm
1993. Tuy nhin, nu xem xt k li gii th s ging nhau ch l hnh thc. Bi 3 nm
nay kh hn rt nhiu so vi bi 1 nm 1993.
(VTST 1993, Bi 1) Gi hnh ch nht kch thc 2 x 3 (hoc 3 x 2) b ct b mt hnh
vung 1 x 1 mt gc l hnh ch nht khuyt n. Gi hnh ch nht kch thc 2 x 3
(hoc 3 x 2) b ct b hnh vung 1 x 1 hai gc i din l hnh ch nht khuyt kp.
Ngi ta ghp mt s hnh vung 2 x 2, mt s hnh ch nht khuyt n v mt s hnh
ch nht khuyt kp vi nhau, sao cho khng c hai hnh no chm ln nhau, to
thnh mt hnh ch nht kch thc 1993 x 2000. Gi s l tng s cc hnh vung 2 x 2
73 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

v hnh ch nht khuyt kp cn dng trong mi cch ghp hnh ni trn. Tm gi tr ln
nht ca s.
Li gii bi ton trn kh n gin (khng phi ngu nhin bi ny c t v tr bi
s 1 ca k thi): T mu cc hng xen k en trng th s c 997 hng en v 996 hng
trng, suy ra s en nhiu hn s trng l 2000. Mi mt hnh vung 2 x 2 v mi
mt hnh ch nht khuyt kp lun c ng 2 trng, 2 en, cn mi mt hnh ch nht
khuyn n c s en tr s trng = 1 hoc -1. V vy nu gi x, y, z ln lt l s
hnh vung 2 x 2, s hnh ch nht khuyt kp, s hnh ch nht khuyt n th ta ln
lt c:
1) 4x + 4y + 5z = 1993 x 2000 (s )
2) 2000 z (s en s trng)
T y suy ra
4x + 4y 1988 x 2000
Suy ra s = x + y 994000. Php ph ti u c th xy dng d dng nh cu hnh c bn
sau:
Bi 4.
p dng bt ng thc AM-GM, ta c
suy ra
Cng bt ng thc ny vi hai bt ng thc tng t, ta suy ra
Hn na, ta li c
V vy,
74 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
(1)
By gi, s dng bt ng thc c bn
ta suy ra
tc
(2)
Kt hp (1) v (2), ta c ngay kt qu cn chng minh. ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi
Nhn xt.
nh gi
l kh c bn v t nhin, ng
thi cng l bc mu cht n gin ha bt ng thc.

Sau khi tm c nh gi
, ta s dng iu kin
mt cch trc tip a bt ng thc cn chng

minh v dng thun nht
n y, ta c nhiu phng hng chng minh khc nhau, trong c cch trnh by
trong li gii.
Bi 5.
Cch 1. Ta nhn xt rng vi iu kin ca bi th vi mi h thuc {1, 2, , n} th tp
hp cc i biu h nhm bt k s n t t nht h nc. Tht vy, h nhm gm hk i
din, m mi nc ch c k i biu suy ra s nc c i din trong h nhm ni trn
khng th di h nc.
Ta gi tnh cht h nhm bt k c i biu ca t nht h nc l tnh cht (*). chng
minh bi ton, ta chng minh rng ta c th chuyn bt cc i din ra khi cc nhm sao
cho
1) Mi nhm ch cn li mt i din
2) iu kin (*) vn c tha mn
R rng nu khi ta chn cc i din cn li trong phng th chnh l n ngi tha
mn yu cu bi ton, v theo iu kin (*) vi h = n th cc i din ny s l i biu
n t n nc.
Ta chng minh khng nh ni trn bng cch s dng nguyn l cc hn. Trong cc
cch chuyn bt cc i din ra khi cc nhm sao cho iu kin (*) vn c tha mn,
chn cch chuyn c s i din c chuyn ln nht. Ta chng minh rng vi cch
chuyn ny, mi nhm ch cn li 1 i din.
75 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Tht vy, gi s c 1 nhm no no , chng hn nhm 1 cha t nht 2 ngi x, y.
Nu ta b i ngi x khi phng ny th theo cc chn cch chuyn trn, iu kin (*)
s khng cn c tha mn. Tc l tn ti q nhm i1, i2, , iq sao cho trong cc nhm
1 ( b ngi x), i1, i2, , iq
(1)
ch cha nhiu nht i din ca q nc.
Tng t, tn ti p nhm j1, j2, , jp sao cho trong cc nhm
1 ( b ngi y), j1, j2, , jp
(2)
ch cha nhiu nht i din ca p nc.
Trong cc ch s i v j, gi s c r ch s trng nhau: i1 = j1, , ir = jr cn cc ch s kia
khc nhau. Khi do cc nhm i1, i2, , ir cha i din ca t nht r nc nn c t nht
r nc trng nhau hai danh sch (1) v (2). Do , hai danh sch (1) v (2) gp li cha
nhiu nht i din ca q + p r nc (3).
Mt khc, hp hai danh sch cc phng ni trn li, ta c danh sch cc phng phn
bit
1, i1, i2, , ir, ir+1, , ik, jr+1, , jp
(nhm 1 thiu x v nhm 1 thiu y hp li thnh nhm 1).
p dng iu kin (*) ta thy hp ca hai danh sch ny cha i din ca t nht 1 + q +
p r nc, mu thun vi (3).
Bi ton c gii quyt hon ton.
Cch 2. li gii t nhin, chng ti trnh by thm phn dn dt. Trong li gii c th
b i phn in nghing.
thun tin trnh by, ta pht biu bi ton di dng tp hp: Cho A1, A2, , An l n
tp con k phn t ca X = {1, 2, ,n}, trong mi phn t xut hin ng k ln. Khi
tm c a1, a2, , an i mt khc nhau sao cho ai thuc Ai.
D thy hp ca p tp hp bt k cha t nht p phn t.
tng l ta s chn a1 mt cch bt k t tp A1, a2 l mt phn t khc a1 chn t A2.
Ta c chn ngu nhin theo nguyn tc nh th cho n khi khng chn c na. Tc l
ta gp trng hp gp tp hp Ap+1 trong tt c cc phn t ca n c chn
trc . Gi s ai thuc Ai, i = 1, 2, , p l cc phn t c chn.
Ta t J1 = { i {1, 2, , k}| ai Ak+1}. Nu
th ta
chn a thuc B. Gi s a thuc Ai1 th theo nh ngha, ai1 thuc Ak+1, khi ta i li,
chn a t Ai1 cn ai1 t Ak+1. Nh vy ta m rng cch chn cc phn t phn bit
n Ak+1.
Trong trng hp B1 = , ta li t J2 = {i {1, 2, , k} |
}. Nu
th ta chn a thuc B2. Gi s a thuc Ai1 th ai1 s thuc
Ai2 vi i2 no thuc J1, suy ra do ai2 thuc Ak+1. By gi ta chn a t Ai1, ai1 t Ai2
v ai2 t Ak+1. Nh vy ta m rng cch chn cc phn t phn bit n Ak+1.
76 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Nu B2 = th ta li tip tc thc hin qu trnh trn .
By gi vo li gii chnh.
Ta xt th c hng G gm p+1 nh: 1, 2, , p, p+1. nh i c ni n nh j nu
ai thuc Aj. Ta t
J = { i {1, 2,, p+1}| c ng i t i n p+1}
Vi mi i {1, 2,, p}, ta c ai A ai thuc Aj vi j no thuc J c cnh ni
t i n j J G cha ng i t i n p+1 i J.
T {i | i {1, 2,, p}, ai A} = J \ {p+1} = J*.
t B = A \ {ai| i J*}. Khi B {a1, a2,, ap} = v |B| = |A| - |J*| = |A| - |J| + 1
1.
Xt a B. Khi a Aj vi j J no . R rng j p+1. Nh vy c 1 ng i t j
n p+1. Gi s l j0=j, j1,, jl = p+1. Ch rng I = {j0, j1,, jl} J. By gi nu
t bj0, bj1, , bjl tng ng l a, aj0, , aj(l-1) th r rng bi Ai vi mi i thuc I. t
bp+1 = ajl, bi = ai vi mi i I. Khi b1, b2, , bk+1 l cc phn t phn bit ly t A1,
A2, , Ap+1 tng ng.
Nh vy ta m rng c cho p+1 tp hp. Bi ton c chng minh hon ton.
Cch 3. Li gii ny s dng nh l Hall sau y:
B : Cho A1, A2, , An l mt h cc tp con ca mt tp hp X tha mn iu kin
vi mi I X.
(*)
|
Khi tn ti a1, a2, , an phn bit sao ca X sao cho ai Ai vi mi i = 1, 2, , n.
Chng minh.
Ta chng minh bng quy np theo n. Vi n = 1, kt lut ca b l hin nhin.
Gi s b ng vi mi h tp con F c |F| < n. Xt h F = (A1, A2, , An). Ta xt hai
trng hp.
Trng hp 1: Tn ti mt tp ch s I {1, 2, , n}, | I | < n sao cho |
.
, Aj* = Aj \ A vi mi j J. Ta chng minh h cc
t J = {1, 2, , n} \ I,
Aj* tha mn iu kin (*). T p dng gi thit quy np cho cc h Ai, i I, Aj*, j
J ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Gi s ngc li, tn ti K J sao cho |
Khi , do
nn ta c
|
|
Mt khc, do
nn v tri ca ng thc trn
|
Mu thun.
77 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
bng
Trng hp 2: Vi mi I {1, 2, , n}, | I | < n, ta c |

. Khi chn mt
phn t bt k a1 t A1. t Ai* = Ai \{a1} vi mi i = 2, 3, , n. Khi vi mi I { 2,
, n}, ta c
|
Nh vy h (A2*, , An*) tha mn iu kin (*) v theo gi thit quy np, ta c th
chn c cc phn t phn bit a2, a3, , an sao cho ai Ai* vi mi i = 2, , n. Kt
hp vi a1 ta c cc phn t phn bit a1, a2, , an trong ai Ai.
Quay tr li bi ton, bng cch m hnh ha cc i din ca cc nc nh cc phn t,
cc nhm nh cc tp con, bng cch l lun tng t nh li gii 1, ta thy cc tp con
ny tha mn iu kin (*) v do tm c cch chn tha mn yu cu bi ton.
Nhn xt. Vi k=1 v k = n, kt lun ca bi ton l hin nhin. Vi k = 2, ta c mt
cch gii kh n gin nh sau: nhm 1, ta ly ra 1 i din bt k thuc nc i1, tip
theo, ta n nhm c ngi cn li ca nc i1, ly ngi cn li trong nhm (thuc
nc i2) lm i din cho nhm ny, li chuyn sang nhm c ngi cn li ca nc i2
Nu qu trnh ny c th ko di mi n ht n nhm th xong. Nu khng s xy ra
trng hp sau khi chn i din cho nhm k thuc nc ik th ngi cng nc vi cn
li trong nhm ny li thuc nhm 1. Nh th cc nhm 1, 2, , k to thnh mt xch, ta
loi xc ny i v lm vic vi nhng nhm cn li bng cch tng t.
Bi 6.
Ta c .
So snh h s ca
2 bn ta c
.
Tip theo ta chng minh
khng chia ht cho .
Gi s 2n c biu din tam phn l
vi ai {0, 1, 2}.
Trng hp 1: cc ai thuc tp {0, 1}, Khi a0 + a1 + + ak = 2p.
4n c biu din tam phn l
(do ai = 0 hoc 1) v theo nh l Lucas, ta
c
Trng hp 2: tn ti i nh nht m ai = 2, khi h s tng ng ca 4n l 1. Do

78 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
nn
Nhn xt.
V nh l Lucas khng c s dng nn th sinh khi s dng phi chng minh
li nh l ny.
Cng c th trnh by li gii trc tip khng thng qua nh l Lucas, tuy nhin
c l khng th trnh khi vic s dng h tam phn v l lun t hp di y.
Cch tip cn ca bi, yu cu chng minh S2n + 1 khng chia ht cho 3 c hai
mc ch: 1) Kim tra xem th sinh c tnh c S2n khng? V y cng l ch
cho im.
2) a ra bn cht t hp ca
t gi n cch khai trin a thc
theo m-un.
* hon chnh li gii, chng ti trnh by cch chng minh nh l Lucas.
nh l Lucas. Cho m v n l cc s nguyn khng m, p l s nguyn t v
m = mkpk + mk-1pk-1 + + m1p + m0
n = nkpk + nk-1pk-1 + + n1p + n0
l cc biu din p phn ca m v n tng ng. Khi
.
Chng minh. Ta lm vic trn cc a thc vi h s c xt theo modulo p. Do
vi mi k = 1, 2, , p-1 nn ta c
(1+ x)p 1 + xp (mod p)
T bng quy np ta suy ra
(mod p)
Nh vy ta c
(mod p)
H s ca xn v tri l
v phi l
. Do biu din p phn ca n l duy nht nn h s ca xn
T y ta c iu phi chng minh.
Li gii trn y c s dng p n chnh thc, li gii v tng ca cc bn LTL,

Phm Minh Khoa, V Quc B Cn, Traum v mt s tho lun khc trn din n
www.mathscope.org.
79 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010
Bt ng thc: Mt s v d v bi tp chn lc
1. (USA MO 2004) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng. Chng minh rng
(a5 a2 + 3)(b5 b2 + 3)(c5 c2 + 3) (a+b+c)3
2. (IMO 2005) Chng minh rng nu a, b, c l cc s dng c tch ln hn hay bng 1
th
a5 a2
b5 b 2
c5 c 2
0
+
+
a 5 + b 2 + c 2 b5 + c 2 + a 2 c5 + a 2 + b 2
3. (Kvant) Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng tho mn iu kin a + b + c = 1. Chng minh

rng ta lun c
1 1 1
+ + + 48(ab + bc + ca ) 25
a b c
4. (Mathlinks) Cho a, b, c, x, y, z l cc s thc tha mn iu kin

(a+b+c)(x+y+z) = 3, (a2+b2+c2)(x2+y2+z2) = 4
Chng minh rng ax + by + cz 0.
5. (Vit Nam 2002) Cho x, y, z l cc s thc tho mn iu kin x2 + y2 + z2 = 9. Chng
minh rng 2(x+y+z) xyz 10.
6. Cho x, y, z l cc s thc tho mn iu kin x + y + z = 0 v x2 + y2 + z2 = 6. Tm gi
tr ln nht ca biu thc F = x2y + y2z + z2x.
7. (Vasile Cirtoaje) Cho cc s thc khng m tha mn iu kin a + b + c = 4. Chng
minh rng
a2b + b2c + c2a + abc 4.
8. (IMO 1999) Cho n 2 l mt s nguyn dng c nh, tm hng s C nh nht sao
cho vi mi s thc khng m x1, x2, , xn
n
xi x j ( x + x ) C x i
1i < j n
i =1
2
i
2
j
9. Cho a, b, c l cc s thc dng cho trc v x, y, z l cc s thc dng thay i

tho mn iu kin xyz = ax + by + cz. Chng minh rng gi tr nh nht ca x + y + z
bng b + c + 2bc / d + c + a + 2ca / d + a + b + 2ab / d , trong d l s thc dng xc
nh bi phng trnh
a
b
c
+
+
= 1.
a+d b+d c+d
80 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

10. (Romanian TST 2007) Cho n 2 v x1, , xn ; y1, , yn l 2n s thc tho mn iu
kin
n
ai2 = 1,
i =1
bi2 = 1, ai bi = 0,
i =1
i =1
2
Chng minh rng ai + bi n.

i =1
i =1
11. (IMO Shortlist 2007) Cho a1, a2, , a100 l cc s thc khng m tho mn iu kin
a12 + a22 + + a1002 = 1. Chng minh rng
a12a2 + a22a3 + + a1002a1 < 12/25.
12. IMO Short List 2003) Cho n 2 l s nguyn dng v x1, x2, , xn, y1, y2, , yn l
2n s thc dng. Gi s z2, z3, , z2n l cc s thc dng sao cho z2i+j xiyj vi mi i,
j thuc {1, 2,,n}. t M = max{z2, z3,, z2n}. Chng minh rng
M + z 2 + z 3 + ... + z 2 n
2n
x1 + ... + x n y1 + ... + y n
n
n

13. Cho a1, a2, , an l cc s thc sao cho a12 + a22 + + an2 = 1. Tm gi tr ln nht
ca biu thc a1a2 + a2a3 + + an-1an.
14. Cho x1, x2, , xn l cc s dng. Gi A l s nh nht trong cc s
x1 , x 2 +
1
1
1 1
, x3 + ,..., x n +
, , cn B l s ln nht trong cc s ny. Chng minh
x1
x2
xn 1 x n
rng gi tr ln nht ca A bng gi tr nh nht ca B v hy tm gi tr ny.

15. Tng n s thc dng x1, x2, x3, ..., xn bng 1. Gi S l s ln nht trong cc s
x1/(1 + x1), x2/(1 + x1 + x2), ..., xn/(1 + x1 + x2 + ... + xn). Tm gi tr nh nht ca S. Vi
nhng gi tr no ca x1, x2, x3, ..., xn th gi tr ny t c?
81 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

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Phn chng trong cc bi ton bt ng thc

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Nh vy, ta cn chng minh rng

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Tip tc p dng bt ng thc Cauchy Schwarz

Nh vy ta ch cn cn chng minh a + b + c ab + bc + ca.

By gi gi s ngc li, ta c a + b + c < ab + bc + ca th

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15. (Pu-Ro Loh) Cho a, b, c > 1 tha mn iu kin

cc gc PAB, PBC, PCA nh hn hoc bng 300.

Mt s nh l v tnh cht chng minh bng phng php phn chng

10 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

V G(g) tr mt trong R2, ta tm c s thc y sao cho (y, g(y)) thuc D. By gi xt

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

12 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

13 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

Vi n = 1, bt ng thc hin nhin ng. Gi s bt ng thc ng n n = k, ta

Do , s dng gi thit quy np ta c

Cui cng, ta phi chng minh

15 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.

4. Cho x1, x2, , xn l cc s thc dng. Chng minh rng

trong xn+1 = x1, xn+2 = x2.

i = 1, 2, , n ( y an+1 = a1, a0 = an). Chng minh rng khi ta c bt ng thc

16 | Trn Nam Dng 6/2010

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

19 k n +1 97 = 19 2 (19 k n 97) + 97(19 2

chia ht cho 2n+1 (pcm).

Quy np trong cc bi ton tr chi

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

T bng kt qu, c th d on c l ngi th nht s thng nu n c s d l 1, 2,

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

Quy np trong bi ton m

Vietnamese IMO Team Training Camp 2010

Suy ra (P, Q) cng l nghim ca (1).