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LNG Vaporizer Selection
LNG Vaporizer Selection
Dhirav Patel
John Mak
Daniel Rivera
Joanne Angtuaco
Fluor
ABSTRACT
There are numerous methods for regasification and the selection of an optimum process depends on plant
site location, climatic conditions and the throughput capacities. Todays the LNG landscape is changing.
Many of these newer LNG import terminals are smaller in size and are mainly located in South East Asia and
South America. These new terminals place a strong emphasize on energy efficiency and emissions. This
paper highlights the results of a LNG vaporization screening study for LNG regasification facilities located in
warm climate and cold climate regions of the world. The objective is to provide a guideline in the selection of
an LNG vaporization design that is suitable for todays terminals.
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, base load regasification terminals have used two types of vaporizers: 70% uses the Open rack
Vaporizer (ORV), 25% uses the Submerged Combustion Vaporizer (SCV) and the remaining 5% uses the
Intermediate Fluid vaporizer (IFV). In addition to these vaporizers, other types of vaporizers such as the
direct air vaporizers, the Ambient Air Vaporizers (AAV), have been used in smaller regasification plants and
peak shaving facilities.
The vaporizer selection is project specific and is typically selected based on site conditions, environmental
compliance, and energy efficiency. In the past, LNG regasification terminals were used to produce natural
gas to supply sales gas pipelines and were considered utility companies. Integration with power plants and
recovery of waste heat for heating were seldom practiced. With todays high energy prices and concerns for
carbon emissions, integration with waste heat from power plants can be attractive and may be justified on a
case by case basis.
LNG Regasification terminals are built where there is shortage of gas supply. With the growth of shale gas
in North America, many North America import terminals are unused and are being planned to be converted
into export terminals. Similar shale gas growth is expected to occur in China, which will eventually slow down
the amount of LNG import. Most of the new LNG terminals are expected to be built in the equatorial and
subequatorial regions. These terminals will serve smaller markets, and the size of the terminals and
regasification facilities will tend to be smaller.
Another development is the use of LNG regasification vessels and FSRU with built-in regasification facility.
There are a number of projects in the planning and construction stage for LNG RV and FSRU vessels
around the world (e.g. Indonesia, Lithuania and East Mediterranean), which testifies to their growing
popularity. These regasification ships are constructed in ship yards and can be deployed in a shorter time
than land-based plants.
FSRU can be used to supply fuel gas for power generation of a medium size power plant. Generally when
used for power generation, the LNG sendout requirement is relatively low. For example, with an efficient
combined cycle design, the regasification plant sendout requirement is about 100 MMscfd to support a 400
to 500 MW power generation station.
The countries where these new regasification terminals are located can be broadly classified into two
regions. First, there is the equatorial countries where the site ambient temperatures are fairly constant and
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do not fall below 18C. Second, there is the sub-equatorial region where the site ambient temperatures can
fall below 18 C during winter months.
The following countries fall under the equatorial region definition:
The paper presents the results of a vaporizer study for these two regions based on proven and conventional
vaporizer equipment. The vaporizer selection for two baseload regasification plants is also presented.
Currently, there are other proprietary and more advanced vaporization systems but they are excluded from
this evaluation.
Types of Vaporizers
Typical types of vaporizers that have been used worldwide for LNG regasification are:
Open rack vaporizers (ORV) and submerged combustion vaporizers (SCV) are the most common
vaporization methods in existing regasification terminals, which have generally been located in the
subequatorial region. Recent LNG receiving terminal activities have been shifting to the equatorial region
where the weather is warmer, and the use of intermediate fluid vaporizers (IFV) is found to be attractive.
Important factors that should be considered in the LNG vaporizer selection process are:
Safety in design
Does the seawater containing significant amounts of heavy metal ions? These ions will attack the
zinc aluminum alloy coating and will shorten its life.
Does the seawater contain significant amount of sand and suspended solids? Excessive sediment
will cause jamming of the water trough and the tube panel. Proper seawater intake filtration system
must be designed to prevent silts, sands and sea life from reaching the seawater pumps and
exchangers.
The design must consider the environmental impacts of the seawater intake and outfall system, and
minimize the destruction of marine life during the construction period and normal plant operation.
Chlorination of the seawater is necessary to slow down marine growth. However, residual chlorine in
the seawater effluent can impact the marine life and the usage must be minimized.
Seawater discharge temperature must comply with local regulation. The temperature drop of
seawater is typically limited to 5C in most locations.
Location of the seawater intake and outfall must be studied to avoid cold seawater recirculation.
If site is located in a cold climate region, supplementary heating may be necessary to maintain the
outlet gas temperature. Boiloff gas from LNG storage tanks can be used as fuel to these heaters.
Is a backup vaporization system provided? This may be necessary during partial shutdown of the
seawater system or during peaking demand operation.
Is the regasification facility located close to a waste heat source, such as a power plant? Heat
integration using waste heat can reduce regasification duty and would minimize the environmental
impacts.
Natural Gas
To Metering
Seawater in
LNG
Seawater
To Outfall
Seawater
Intake Pumps
Natural Gas
To Metering
Stack
LNG
Air
Burner
Air Blower
Fuel Gas
Ambient air heater is advantageous in hot climate equatorial regions where ambient temperature is high all
year round. In the cooler subequatorial areas, where winter temperature is lower, supplementary heating
may be required to meet the sales gas temperature.
Ambient Air
Natural Gas
to Metering
LNG
Glycol-Water
Hot Water
There are several options to warm the glycol-water solution prior to recycling it back into the shell and tube
LNG vaporizers, such as:
Air heater
Seawater heater
Using air for heating will generate water condensate, especially in the equatorial regions. The water
condensate is of rain water quality which can be collected and purified for in-plant water usage and/or export
as fresh raw water. Conventional air fin type exchanger consists of fin tubes are not designed for ice buildup.
With the use of an intermediate fluid such as glycol-water, the glycol temperature can be controlled at above
water freezing temperature hence avoiding the icing problems.
Similarly, the reverse cooling tower design, which extracts ambient heat by direct contact with cooling water
via sensible heat and water condensation, would require an intermediate fluid. The heat of the cooling water
can be transferred to the intermediate fluid by a heat exchange coil.
Seawater may be also be used. However, the use of seawater is more prone to exchanger fouling, and the
exchanger (plate and frame type) need to be cleaned periodically. The plate and frame exchangers are very
compact and low cost. Typically, spare seawater exchangers are provided for this option.
Fired heater may be used at the costs of fuel expense. For environmental compliance related to CO and
NOx emissions, a selective Catalytic Reduction System can be fitted into the flue gas duct of the fired heater.
Natural Gas
To Metering
Waste Heat
Recovery Unit
or Fired Heater
Intermediate
Fluid Vaporizer
Atmos
AND/OR
Saturated
Air
OR
Air Heater
Air
LNG form
Sendout
OR
Surge
Drum
Seawater
Intake
OR
Seawater
Outfall
Seawater
Heater
Plate & Frame
Exchanger
Glycol-Water
Circulation Pumps
Figure 4: Glycol-water Intermediate Fluid Vaporizer Integration with Different Heat Sources
Intermediate Fluid (Hydrocarbon) in Rankine Cycle
This system uses propane, butane or other hydrocarbon refrigerant as an intermediate heat transfer fluid
(HTF). The use of a hydrocarbon avoids the potential freezing problems encountered with seawater. This
vaporizer arrangement allows the use of cold seawater as low as 1C to minimize fuel consumption in the
downstream trim heater.
LNG heating is achieved using two heat exchangers operating in series: a first evaporator exchanger that
uses the latent heat of propane condensation to partially heat LNG, and a second heat exchanger using
seawater to further heat the LNG to the final temperature. The second exchanger is also used to vaporize
propane that is recycled to the first exchanger.
Since the heating by seawater only occurs in the second exchanger, it avoids direct contact with cryogenic
LNG, and hence freezing of seawater can be avoided. For this reason, seawater close to freezing can be
used in this configuration. The basic flow arrangement is illustrated in Figure 5.
Propane or butane can also be used as a working fluid for power production with the addition of a propane
gas expander. More power can be produced using the vaporized LNG as the working fluid in a natural gas
expander. In most facilities, the pipeline gas pressure is lower than the HP sendout pump discharge
pressure, and there is opportunity for power production. For example, when LNG is pumped to 100 barg or
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higher, heated and then expanded to 30 barg pressure, a significant amount of power can be generated. The
expanded gas is cooled which needs to be reheated with seawater to meet the pipeline temperature.
For a typical LNG terminal, the power generated by the Rankine cycle and gas expansion can be used to
reduce or even eliminate power import. The power can be generated without any fuel input or emissions
which are very attractive for most terminals.
HP IFV vapor
LP IFV
LNG
Vaporizer
IFV Expander
IFV
Vaporizer
NG Trim
Heater
Seawater
Intake
Seawater
Outfall
LNG
Natural Gas
To Metering
liquid
Seawater
Heater
IFV
Circulation Pump
NG Expander
SCV
LNG
Natural Gas To
Metering
Hot Water
Atmos
Fuel Gas
Cold Water
Direct Contact
Heating Tower
Circulation
Pump
Hot Exhaust
Fuel Gas
Purge
Ambient Air
Air Chiller
IFV (Water)
Power Plant
Option 2 uses propane as the intermediate fluid with seawater as the heat source.
Option 3 uses glycol water as the intermediate fluid with air as the heat source.
Option 4 uses glycol water as the intermediate fluid with seawater as the heat source.
Option 5 uses SCV using fuel gas and waste heat from cogeneration plant as depicted in Figure 6.
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Qualitative Comparison
Table 1: LNG Vaporization Option Qualitative Comparison
Options
HEATING
MEDIUM
Seawater (SW)
Propane (C3) /
Seawater (SW)
Glycol-water
(GW) / Air
Glycol-water
(GW) /
Seawater
Air
FEATURE
Direct LNG
vaporization
using sea water
Indirect LNG
vaporization by
condensing
propane which is
heated by
seawater
Indirect LNG
vaporization by
glycol which is
heated by air fin
exchanger
Indirect LNG
vaporization by
glycol which is
heated by
seawater
Indirect LNG
vaporization by hot
water which is
heated by waste
heat and SCV
Direct LNG
vaporization
using air
MAJOR
APPLICATION
Cold climate
application and
avoid freezing of
seawater
For warm
climate
application. IFV
makes up 5 %
of base load
plants
Similar to
Option 3 except
seawater is
used as the
source of
heating
For energy
conservation with
use of waste heat.
SCV is used in
25% of base load
plants
For warm
climate
application,
peak shavers
and where real
estate is not a
constraint.
OPERATION &
MAINTENACE
Seawater
pumps and
filtration system
Similar to Option
1 with addition
of a glycol loop
and propane
system
Similar to
Option 2 with a
glycol loop and
use of air as
the source of
heat
More Complex,
requiring
coordination
with power
plant.
More complex
control. Need to
balance waste
heat and fuel gas
to SCVs. Require
coordination with
power plant
operation
Cyclic
operation,
requiring
adjustment of
the defrosting
cycle according
to ambient
changes
Maintenance of
vaporizers and
cleaning of
exchangers
UTILITIES
REQUIRED
Seawater and
electrical power
Seawater and
electrical power
Electrical power
only
Seawater and
electrical power
Electrical power
only
CHEMICALS
Chlorination for
seawater
treatment.
Similar to Option
1 but lower
chlorination
None
Similar to
option 1 but
lower
chlorination
Neutralization
required for pH
control and NOx
reduction by SCR
None
EMISSION &
EFFLUENTS
Impacts on
marine life from
cold seawater
and residual
chloride
content
Impacts on
marine life from
cold seawater
and residual
chloride content
No significant
impact on
environment
except dense
fog
Impacts on
marine life from
cold seawater
and residual
chloride content
No significant
impact on
environment
except dense
fog
SAFETY
Leakage of HC
from ORV to
atmosphere at
ground level
Leakage of HC
to atmosphere at
ground level.
Operating a
propane liquid
system is
additional safety
hazard
Leakage of HC
to glycol system
which can be
vented to safe
location via
surge vessel
Leakage of HC
to glycol
system which
can be vented
to safe location
via surge
vessel
Leakage of HC to
water system
which can be
vented to safe
location via the
SCV stack and
surge vessel
Leakage of HC
from AAV to
atmosphere at
ground level
PLOT PLAN
Medium Size
Medium Size
Large Size
Medium Size
Small Size
Large Size
Rankings of Vaporizers
Warm ambient locations:
In warm ambient locations, for site locations in equatorial zone, where site ambient temperature stays above
18C, the ambient air vaporizers or the air heated intermediate fluid type vaporizer units can provide the full
LNG vaporization duty without trim heating. In addition, there is potential revenue to be gained by collecting
and marketing the water condensate from the air.
The 6 options in Table 1 are ranked for their performance in terms of environmental impacts, system
operability and maintenance requirement. The ranking system is based on a score of 1 to 6, with 1 being the
most desirable and 6 the least desirable. These scores are summed and the one with the lowest score is
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considered the most desirable option. The rankings are divided into two regions. Table 2 is for vaporizers in
the equatorial zones where ambient temperature is always greater than 18C and Table 3 is for vaporizers
that operate in the subequatorial zones where ambient is less than 18C.
For the hot climate zone, the environmental score for air heating is the top two most desirable (option 3 and
6) followed by seawater options (1 and 4). Option 5 uses fuel gas for heating in the SCV generating
emissions and hence the least desirable. The use of propane as an intermediate fluid (Option 2) requires an
additional propane system which is not required in a warm climate region and is also ranked low in the
rating.
For operability and maintainability, air heating (option 3 and 6) is the simplest to operate and maintain.
Option 3 using an intermediate fluid with the air heater, which eliminates the cyclic defrosting operation
required for AAV and is ranked the most desirable. For this reason, option 3, the use of glycol and air heating
is considered the most desirable. However, the score is only marginally higher than the AAV option. The final
selection depends on other factors, such as plot space requirement, capital and operating costs.
Table 2: Vaporizer Rankings for Ambient above 18C
Option
Environmental
Operability
Maintainability
Total
Rank
ORV (SW)
10
3rd
IFV (C3/SW)
15
5th
IFV (GW/Air)
1st
IFV (GW/SW)
11
4th
18
6th
AAV (Air)
2nd
12
Environmental
Operability
Maintainability
Total
Rank
1st
14
6th
3rd
2nd
13
5th
12
4th
The environmental and operability criteria ratings for the above two tables are different mainly due to the fuel
gas consumption when using SCV or FH for the two different climatic regions. For the maintenance criteria,
the rating was left unchanged between the two site conditions as the only difference is the use of SCV or FH
which is common for all options.
Option 5 in Warm ambient locations is ranked 1 (the most desirable) in the environmental category as it is
the only option that can avoid fuel gas usage when the power plant operation is operating. However, the
SCV must be provided to support the total regasification duty in case the power plant is down for
maintenance.
NUMBER OF VAPORIZER AND CAPACITY FOR BASELOAD PLANTS
The number and capacity of vaporizers for the above 6 options are analyzed for the two regasification plant
capacities: 3 MTA and 0.3 MTA. The 3 MTA plant is considered as the typical baseload plant in recent
projects. The 0.3 MTA is the plant size that can be used to supply fuel gas to a 300 MW combined cycle
power plant and is considered as a fit for purpose regasification plant.
Table 4 and Table 5 summarize the number of vaporizers and operating capacities for each of the 6 options
for these two plant capacities.
The numbers of vaporizers are determined by the maximum size manufactured by the vaporizer vendors, the
operating philosophy and sparing requirements. The design capacities of these vaporizers are:
Vaporizer
ORV
FV / SCV
AAV
13
1
SW
5
6
1
HW
C3 / GW / GW /
Air
(FG) /
SW
SW Air
SW
(AAV)
WH
C3 /
SW
GW /
Air
Above 18C
5
6
HW
GW /
Air
(FG) /
SW
(AAV)
WH
Below 18C
Number of Vaporizers
28
28
50
15
50
15
Number of SCV's
50
50
1
SW
5
6
1
HW
C3 / GW / GW /
Air
(FG) /
SW
SW Air
SW
(AAV)
WH
Above 18C
C3 /
SW
GW /
Air
5
6
HW
GW /
Air
(FG) /
SW
(AAV)
WH
Below 18C
100
50
100
50
100
14
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
Seawater Temperature, C
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