Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 1K views

    Downhole Drilling Tools

    Uploaded by

    Takacs Csaba
    this book is about a lot of holes drilling holes and drilling machines and the guy who drills all day long and gets home to his wife and when she wants her hole drilled he says oh dear good no more holes I beg you no more HOLES !!!

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content

    You might also like

    Downhole Drilling Tools

    Uploaded by

    Takacs Csaba
    1K views162 pages
    this book is about a lot of holes drilling holes and drilling machines and the guy who drills all day long and gets home to his wife and when she wants her hole drilled he says oh dear good no more holes I beg you no more HOLES !!!

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    this book is about a lot of holes drilling holes and drilling machines and the guy who drills all day long and gets home to his wife and when she wants her hole drilled he says oh dear good no more holes I beg you no more HOLES !!!

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    1K views162 pages

    Downhole Drilling Tools

    Uploaded by

    Takacs Csaba
    this book is about a lot of holes drilling holes and drilling machines and the guy who drills all day long and gets home to his wife and when she wants her hole drilled he says oh dear good no more holes I beg you no more HOLES !!!

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    of 162
    cering/Petroleum Engineering/Driling/Offshore bello Samuel \e first and only comprehensive guide for engineers on downhole drilling tools, this aust-have for the drilling community. Downhole Drilling Tools describes all the critical for the engineer and covers the practical aspects of downhole equipment. Going be- | the basic bottomhole assembly, this guide includes detailed mechanics and theory tbulars, fishing, cementing, coiled tubing and various other downhole tools. \e complexity of drilling scenarios increases around the globe, a unique combination »wnhole tools is necessary to capture the full potential of each formation. With tech- gy advancing onward, the various tools available for well applications provide today's reers with limitless alternatives. This book provides the critical knowledge needed to 2 the right choices and to utilize these tools effectively. ndbook for both the engineering professional and student alike, this textbook des worked examples and additional references at the end of each chapter. In its en- 1, Downhole Drilling Tools enables the reader to: 2cognize drilling benefits and limitations associated with each tool nd solutions to common drilling problems while reducing costs 2rform successful well completions ut the Author: sbello Samuel is a senior technical advisor with Halliburton, specializing as a technical angineering lead for well planning in drilling, completions and well services operations also an adjunct faculty member at the University of Houston teaching advanced drill- ind complex well architecture courses. Co-author of Drilling Engineering, Dr. Samuel »ublished over 50 journal articles and conference papers, and he is an active member iME and SPE. He serves on numerous committees, including co-chairman of the SPE ilateral Technical Interest Group. He eamed BS and MS degrees in Mechanical Engi- ing from University of Madurai and the College of Engineering, Anna University and nd PhD degrees in Petroleum Engineering, both from Tulsa University. ted Title: Pump Guides: Progressing Cavity Pumps, Downhole Pumps and Mudmotors Jelik and Jim Brennan -13: 978-0-976511-31-1, 243 pp, Published 2005 1g and Liners for Drilling and Completion 3. Byrom 13: 978-1-933762-06-7, 396 pp., Published 2007 ISBN 978-1933762135 Gulf Publishing Company www.gpcbooks.com Defining the Art of Engineering Excellence 81933"762135) 9 ishi ‘© } Gulf Publishing Company am DOWNHOLE DRILLING TOOLS Theory and Practice for Engineers and Students OCR CE G. Robello Samuel 07B 3035 Theory and | Practice ice for Engineers and Students Gulf Publishing Company Houston, Texas 7 OF © §O85 Downhole Drilling Tools: Theory and Practice for Engineers and Students Copyright © 2007 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the publisher. HOUSTON, TX: Gulf Publishing Company 2. Greenway Plaza, Suite 1020 Houston, TX 77046 AUSTIN, TX: 427 Sterzing Street, Suite 101 Austin, TX 78704 10987654321 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Samuel, G. Robello. Downhole drilling tools: theory and practice for engineers and students / G. Robello Samuel. p. cm, Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-933762-13-6 (978-1-933762-13-5 : alk. paper) 1. Boring—Equipment and supplies. 2. Oil well drilling—Lquipment and supplies, 3. Oil well drilling. 4. Gas well drilling, 1. Title TN871.5.8235 2007 622'.23—de22 2007009879 Printed in the United States of America Printed on acid-free pape ‘Text design and composition by ExecuStaff “For since the fabric of the universe is most perfect and the work of the most wise Creator, nothing at all takes place in the universe in which some rule of maximum or minimum does not appear.” Leonard Euler Preface Acknowledgments . Meet the Author .. CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Summary and Organization . Overview, Concepts, and Definitions . Nomenclature References ... Drilling Parameters . Torque and Horsepower Requirements . Standard Bit Nozzle Hydraulics Calculations . Hydraulics of Fluted Nozzles . . Hole-Enlarsing 10ols 3 64, Geometrical and Hydraulic Optimization of Hole-Enlarging Tools 0.2.2... 0.02002 00e0e2ee eee 76 Retractable Rock-Cutting Tool . Supplementary Problems Nomenclature ‘i a REfOrences o.oo ccc v cece eect eee e eet ee ee eee ‘100 TUBULARS | ese ee Drillpipe, Heavy-Weight Drillpipe, and Drillcollars Loading and Torque . . Tubular Buckling... Bending Stress Magnification Factor . Maximum Permissible Dogleg Severity | Length-Change Calculations Tubular Stresses... Fatigue Calculations : Corrosion Effects on Tubulars 0.20... .0.20.00eeeeeeee vil viii CONTENTS CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 PipoRoumess 180 Supplementary Problems. . 182 Nomenclature .. 188 References .... 191 MISCELLANEOUS DOWNHOLE TOOLS ..... ‘Conventional stabilizers); == 222 Bottomhole Assembly with Stabilizers. Reamers . a Key Seat Wipers... eas Hole-Cleaning Tools ................ Mechanical Hole-Cleaning Device (MHCD) Cuttings Bed Impeller (CBI) Circulating Subs/Port Collars . .. Stand-Off Devices Rotary Subs Drillstring Blowout Preventers Mechanical Friction-Reduction Tools Coring Tools Miscellaneous Tool Passage Force Gel Strength and Pressure to Break Gel . Supplementary Problems . Nomenclature .. References ..... DOWNHOLE MOTORS ......... Downhole Percussion Hammers . ... . Positive Displacement Motors (PDM) Downhole Turbines ............... Electrodrill Motor (EDM) Miscellaneous Downhole Motors (MDM) . Supplementary Problems ..............4+ Nomenclature References ... IMPACT TOOLS . ++ SSL Jars ....... 351 Accelerators 370 Bumper Subs . 372 Shock Subs . . 379 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CONTENTS ix Hydraulic Thrusters Weight-on-Bit Equalize Tractors/Crawlers ..... Harmonic Isolation Tool Compact High-Pressure Jet Drill Hydraulic Pulse Drilling Tool High-Pressure Rotary Jetting Tools Downhole Intensifier Supplementary Problems . Nomenclature . References .. DEFLECTION TOOLS vee 409 Bent Subs .......... A409 Double-Bend Assembly Stabilizers and Stabilizer Gage Whipstocks ... Directional Drilling Calculations and Reference Terms Kick Pad Eccentric Stabilizer or Offset Stabilizes Supplementary Problems . Nomenclature .... References .......... FISHING TOOLS .........+. External Catch Fishing Tools . Internal Catch Fishing Tools . Junk-Catching Tools ... Accessory Fishing Tools Milling and Washover Tools . Remedial and Repair Fishing Tools Fishing Economics ............. Supplementary Problems . Nomenclature . References .... DRILLSTEM TESTING TOOLS... Downhole Test Tools . . . Reciprocating Test Tools . Slip-Joint Safety Valve Volume-Pressure-Balanced Slip Joints . x CONTENTS CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 APPENDIX Reverse-Circulating Subs . pace-OUt fe Full-Opening Drillstem Testing Drillstem Testing for Deep Wells . References : CEMENTING TOOLS Float Equipment .. . Cementing Plug System . 561 568 Stage Collar Packer-Stage Collar S71 Stage/Port Collars . . 576 Cement Retainers .. 2 S77 External Casing Packers odo. Centralizers -580 589 592 593 93 595 Turbulator/Solid-Body Flow Diverter Inter-String Centralizer Sub Spherical Stand-Off Device ... Inner-String Cementing Tools . Casing-Flotation Device ... . Surge and Drag Analysis... Supplementary Problems Nomenclature ......... References ........ 000.0225 COILED-TUBING DRILLING TOOLS .............615 Introduction . . Coiled-Tubing Drilling CTD Equipment ..... CT Advantages and Capabilities Limitations ...... he Sidetracking TT-CTD Process Overview of the TT- Nomenclature .. Reference idetracking Process . CONVERSION FACTORS ...... eee eee 633 INDEX . PREFACE My intention for writing this book is several-fold, while the important moti- vating factors are two-fold. In the early 1980s, at the beginning of my career as a drilling engineer, I had great difficulty in finding out the details, under- lying theory, and principles concerning downhole drilling tools. This di culty still exists today for young drilling engineers and petroleum engineering students, and this motivated me to write this book. My second primary objective is to present information on most of the available downhole drilling and associated cementing tools in one place along with the germane theories and principles. My intent is neither to present a complete survey.of all the tools avail- able in the market, nor to compare the pros and cons of tools from various manufacturers. References are given at the end of the chapters for readers who want a more in-depth understanding of these tools. I always advise my students to stay ahead and strive-to be the best of the best by following a simple LEAP-square rule: @ Learn or Leave @ Evaluate or Eliminate ® Accomplish or Adios @ Publish or Perish The components in the LEAP” rule are self-explanatory, and the rule implies that to achieve quantum leaps in life and make great accomplish- ments, it is necessary to sustain success at all levels. I hope that this book, to some extent, will help the reader achieve this. This textbook includes worked examples and gives supplementary prob- lems at the end of each chapter, making it suitable as a companion textbook for undergraduate and graduate students. The reader can make use of the illustrative examples and associated supplementary problems, along with the presented description of various tools, to develop a more meaningful under- standing of the tools. It is my sincere hope that this book provides new insight to different downhole tools for young petroleum engineers and students. xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I especially thank the following who have graciously shared their time and contributed to this book: ® Edward Akin, professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University; president, Vortexx® Research and Development, USA (Fluted Nozzles). @ Mike Churchill, director, Churchill Drilling Tools, USA (Circulating Subs). J. Carlos Cunha, associate professor, Department of Civil and Envi- ronmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada (Bits and Fishing Economics). Jeff Ehlinger, engineering manager, Davis-Lynch Inc., USA (Cementing Tools). @ Douglas Farley, global product line manager, Weatherford, USA (Friction Reduction Tools). @ David Y. Indrupsky, consultant, Aquatic Company, Russia (Retractable Rock Cutting Tool). § Jack Kolle, president, Tempress Technologies, Inc., USA (Jetting Tools). @ Xiushan Liu, professor and deputy director, Petroleum Drilling Research Institute, Sinopec Corporation’s Exploration & Production Research Institute, China (Bent Sub Theory and Calculations). ® Don McClatchie, business development manager, BJ Services Company, Canada (Coiled-Tubing Drilling Tools). ® Robert Mitchell, Fellow, Halliburton Drilling, Evaluation and Digital Solutions, USA (Buckling). ® Roger Parish, president, GOTCO International, USA (Fishing Tools). Jodo Carlos Ribeiro Placido, senior research engineer, Petrobras, Brazil (Drillpipe Fatigue). Textend heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to my colleagues and stu- dents, who motivated me to write this book. I also want to express sincere xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS thanks to my friends who spent their time preparing several illustrations. I thank Dr. Stefan Miska for allowing me to use some of his class notes on downhole tools. Dr. Miska has always been an inspiration to me, and I have tried to emulate his style of teaching. Words fail to adequately thank Dr. Suresh Lee, Jerry Walters, Rishi Adari, Tim Calk, and Jodie Allen who proof- read the chapters and were boundlessly helpful throughout the process. I am grateful to publisher Phil Carmical and Sheryl Stone for their coop- erative and untiring efforts to bring this book to print. I thank all the compa- nies who contributed text and images of downhole tools. Permission Credits Andergage Ltd.; Aquatic Company; Baker Hughes; BJ Services; Churchill Drilling Tools; Davis Lynch, Inc.; Drilling System International; GOTCO International, Inc.; Halliburton; Parveen Industries, Ltd., India; International Completions Engineers; Pilot Drilling Control (PDC)-UK; Smith Inter- national, Inc.; Stabeco-Nql, Stabil Drill; Tam International, Inc.; Tempress Technologies, Inc.; Trimax; United Diamond; Varel International; Weatherford; Western Well Tool, Inc. Without the valuable suggestions and constructive criticisms of many associates, I could not have completed this book. Naming everyone to whom Tam indebted is impossible. Additional suggestions to improve this book are welcome. Finally, I thank my wife Cynthia, son Nishanth, and daughter Sharon, who were patient once again. Their understanding and support were tremen- dous during this writing effort, and I gratefully dedicate this book to them. This book is also dedicated to my loving and affectionate parents and parents-in-law for their unconditional support, love, and prayers. MEET THE AUTHOR G. Robello Samuel has been a senior technical advisor (Drilling) in the Dril- ling, Evaluation, and Digital Solutions division of Halliburton since 1998. He has extensive experience in domestic and international oil/gas drilling and comple- tion operations, management, consulting, and teaching. His skills include well planning, design, cost estimates, super- vision of drilling and completion opera- tions, personnel and technical review, project management, and creative estab- lishment of project relationships through partnering and innovation. Presently, he is a technical and engineering lead for a well planning applica- tion suite for drilling, completions, and well services operations. Also he is an adjunct professor at the University of Houston, teaching advanced drilling and complex well architecture courses Dr. Samuel has written or co-written more than 50 journal/technical articles and conference papers on tubular design, thermal and flow phenom- ena and their effect on loading of wellbore tubulars, drilling optimization, and downhole tool hydrodynamics. He has given several graduate seminars at various universities. Dr. Samuel has been the recipient of numerous awards, including the “CEO for a Day (Halliburton)” award. He is presently serving as a review chairman on the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Drilling and Completions Editorial Review Committee, Journal of Energy Resources Technology, and co-chairman of SPE Multilateral Technical Interest Group. He has also worked at Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, India, from 1983 to 1992 as a drilling engineer. Dr. Samuel holds B.S. and M.S. (mechanical engineering) degrees from ity of Madurai (Madurai) and College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University (Chennai), and M.S. and Ph.D. (petroleum engineering) degrees from Tulsa University. He is a member of ASME, SoR, and SPE, and is the co- author of the textbook Drilling Engineering (Pennwell Publishing, 2007). His areas of research include wellbore fluids hydraulics, tubular design, thermal xv xvi MEET THE AUTHOR and flow phenomena and their effect on loading of wellbore tubulars, drilling and well cost optimization, and downhole tool hydrodynamics, Dr. Samuel can be reached via e-mail at robellos @hotmail.com. CHAPTER INTRODUCTION SUMMARY AND ORGANIZATION The continued refinement of advanced technologies is paramount for suc- cessful well completions when drilling in high-risk, high-cost environments (for example, ultra-deep water). There remain significant challenges associ- ated with extreme depths, high temperatures, and situations where the small differences between formation pore pressure and wellbore pressures will unintentionally fracture a formation. Steering wells through small reservoir zones require new, complex downhole tools. In the overall well construction process, downhole tool selection is an important factor. There are many downhole tools currently available in the market (some of the tools that can be used in bottomhole assembly (BHA) are shown in Figure 1.1). Some of these tools are unique and used for specific operations, while other tools have multiple, generic purposes. Before selecting a down- hole tool for a particular BHA or a drillstring, a basic knowledge and under- standing of the fundamental theory behind the tool is essential so that you can effectively use the tool at optimum operating conditions. Whether the tool is simple or complex, your ultimate aim is to derive its full potential. Also, some of these tools are used for energy conversion, and they need meticulous planning so that the operating variables are optimized properly. Manufacturers usually provide performance characteristics of these tools, which you can use to accomplish the important task of evaluating their per- formance under downhole conditions. To ensure that the tools have a reason- able life, they must be used optimally. Some of the tools are very simple and work on fundamental operating principles. Many times the absence of all downhole drilling tools in one place inhibits the ability to visualize the usage. Simple crossover sub to complex tools, such as hydromechanical jars, are necessary to understand the working principle. Often, a unique combination of downhole tools are used for which a knowledge of the energy conversion mechanism, the limitation of the tools, 1 2 CHAPTER 1 FIGURE 1.1 = Rotary drilling system. and the vulnerability of these tools is required to effectively use them in the system. Even though the tools’ performance characteristics, specifications, and operation details often lack a detailed explanation of the underlying prin- ciple, energy conversion, and operating envelop are necessary. Frequently, drilling engineers construe that greater importance is given to the operation of the tools rather than the fundamental theory behind the operation. This often prevents the tools from operating at optimum parameters. Your pri- mary aim should be to focus on the detailed analysis of various parameters, coupled with the tools that help to add additional dimensions to the well planning process. You should use the performance characteristics given at ambient conditions to redraw the operating envelope for the downhole con- ditions encountered in that particular well. Often, it may be ambiguous ini- tially, but it can be corrected or fine tuned as more data are extracted from the well as the drilling progresses. Introduction — 3 Within the last decade, numerous downhole drilling and cementing tools have been introduced to the market. The phenomenal increase in the tools is evident through new downhole technologies such as point-the-bit, push-the- bit, etc. Of all the operations used in upstream petroleum operation, drilling tools, perhaps the most complicated, provide the most reliable results. The evolution of bits from a simple design to a highly complex, forced-balanced expandable bit is one example. The drillstring, the major component of the whole drilling system, is designed to connect the bit to the surface tool and equipment and provide a conduit for circulation of the drilling fluid. The drillstring consists of bit, bit sub, bottomhole assembly, and drillpipes. A typical bottomhole assembly consists of drillcollars, different downhole tools, and heavy-weight drillpipe. Various downhole tools such as stabilizers, reamers, positive displacement motors, etc. are added for various purposes. These tools are added to achieve best bit performance so that a usable and less tortuous hole is drilled. (Fig- ure 1.2 shows some of the drillstring and BHA hookups). The bit is rotated Stabilizer Drillcoltars Cdl bth ts MWD Tools. ‘Mud Motor Sub Underreamer Bit FIGURE 1.2 ® Bottomhole assembly. 4 CHAPTER 1 using either a rotary table with a kelly bushing or a downhole motor. Depending on the mode of operation, the drillstring and the downhole tools are exposed to stresses and torque. Improper design of the drillstring can result in the failure of the drillstring components. Bottomhole assembly with different tools is an important part of the overall well planning process to have good bit-BHA performance. This involves modeling and well construction design experience because the BHA response controls the wellbore inclination and azimuth. BHA and the down- hole tool selection involves the inclusion of simple to complex tools in addi- tion to the primary drillstring components such as drillpipes, heavy-weight drillpipes, and drillcollars. See Figure 1.3. Many technological advances have been made in the design of bit and hole-opening tools. The development of various new tools has contributed greatly to the advancement of downhole tools technology. The most recent advance is the ream-while-drilling tools with polycrystalline diamond com- Drill pipe Dritlcottars Stabilizer MWD Toots, —p Mud Motor Sub Undereamer Bit FIGURE 1.3 ™ Drillstring. Introduction — 5 pact (PDC) technology, which generates cutting action by shearing, Although PDC bits have inherent advantages, bit balling is still not fully understood. The bit is the common denominator for all downhole drilling tools, Chapter 2 includes the optimization of various drilling parameters, such as weight on bit, bit rotational speed, and flowrate, to satisfy the desired objective functions of maximum rate of penetration, etc. When the flow is split, hydraulic energy must be used optimally in achieving not only the desired rate of penetration but also to maintain proper hole-cleaning beneath the bit as well as at split components. Conventional hydraulic optimization criteria, such as the maximizing concepts of bit hydraulic power, jet impact force, impact force per square inch of the drilled hole, and jet velocity, must be balanced between the split-flow components so that the desired energy level is obtained at the respective cutting tools. After establishing the funda- mentals of the bits, the bits are given an optimization treatment. A new type of nozzle is also discussed, along with the fundamental parameter calcula- tion for hydraulic horsepower per square inch. Chapter 3, Tubulars, discusses loading, torque, buckling, stresses, and fatigue. For basic understanding of tubulars see my book Drilling Engineer- ing (Pennwell Publishers, 2007). This chapter also discusses the procedure to facilitate the calculation and estimation of the bending stress magnifica- tion, and, using advanced models, presents a theoretical understanding of the effects of corrosion on tubulars. Chapter 4, Miscellaneous Downhole Tools, covers stabilizers, reamers, key-seat wipers, hole-cleaning tools, stand-off devices, rotary subs, circulat- ing subs, downhole blowout preventers, mechanical friction reduction tools, and coring tools, with emphasis on the underlying theory and principles There are several varieties of subs intended for operations ranging from sim- ple to complex. This book does not include an exhaustive discussion but addresses typical subs. It provides the selection criteria and the most com- monly represented tool specifications wherever possible. Chapter 5, Downhole Motors, covers various bit-driving tools such as positive displacement motors, turbines, and downhole motors. The down- hole motors that can be used are percussion hammer, positive displacement motor, turbine, and electric and square motors, but only positive displace- ment motors and turbines are presently accepted for use. Recent improve- ments in bit technology have facilitated vast improvements in downhole steerable tools. At the present time, downhole motors have inherently become a workhorse as well as a weaker drilling component. Consequently, service companies are developing an efficient downhole motor to break the barriers of a weak link in the drilling system. Special emphasis is placed on the 6 CHAPTER 1 motor’s power section. This section also describes the advantages and disad- vantages of percussion, positive displacement, and turbine motors. Turbo- drills are compared with positive displacement motors. Also described are electrodrill and certain conceptual designs of miscellaneous downhole motors. Generalized equations for cross-sectional areas of shaft, housing, vol- ume generated, and torque for multilobe motors help identify opportunities to improve the motor design. The optimal relationship between the pitch of the motor and the diameter of the housing is obtained to achieve a maximum motor torque. This helps to optimally relate the vertical cross-sectional geom- etry with the horizontal cross section. Apart from these intrinsic parameters, the worked out examples and theory applications incorporated give meaning to the abstraction of the theory. Chapter 6, Impact Tools, addresses shock tools, bumper subs, jars, and accelerators. Even though analysis of the operating variables is complex, simple methodology is presented to enable you to clearly understand the operations. These tools can also be used with fishing strings apart from the normal drillstring. The practical usefulness of the theory, backed by funda- mental and optimal analysis, is demonstrated with numerical examples. For wellbore deviation (hole inclination) and wellbore torsion, down- hole directional tools play an important part (there are several directional tools). Chapter 7, Deflection Tools, discusses deviation tools including bent subs, whipstocks, double-bend assembly, kick pads, and eccentric stabiliz~ ers. The chapter also discusses the placement and angle calculations and wellbore torsion created using these tools. It is important to recognize that the proper placement of these tools is crucial for obtaining desired wellpath. Fishing is an unwanted, nonproductive operation in drilling. Chapter 8 discusses some of the economics and costs involved with fishing operations, including special downhole tools related to the fishing drilling tools. Chapter 9, Drillstem Testing Tools, covers the various tools associated with these operations. This chapter is taken from the book Floating Drilling: Equipment and Its Use: Practical Drilling Technology, Volume 2 by Riley Sheffield (Gulf Publishing, 1980). These tools facilitate a more accurate interpretation of the various drilling activities using downhole measured variables. The reliability of these tools has improved tremendously, and there are recent technical advancements for working in high-pressure and high-temperature environments. Chapter 10, Cementing Tools, includes the accessories and special attach- ments used for casing and cementing operations. Even though they are not downhole drilling tools, casing and cementing operations go hand-in-hand Introduction — 7 with drilling operations, because they are essential for the completion opera- tions of a drilling phase prior to the next phase of the well construction process. Chapter 11, Coiled-Tubing Drilling Tools (CT), covers special down- hole tools related to coiled-tubing drilling, which is very appropriate for slim-hole drilling technology because it involves a continuous drillstring permitting fast tripping in and out of the hole, as well as continuous fluid cir- culation. The benefits of coiled-tubing drilling (CTD) are, however, offset by several disadvantages, such as: ® Slow drillbit rate of penetration due to low weight on bit coupled with possibly inadequate bottomhole cleaning and/or cuttings transport. @ Frequent failures of downhole motors. & Increased time for trajectory corrections due to inability to rotate coiled tubing. @ Short fatigue life of CT and a relatively high cost of CT surface units. While coiled-tubing drilling represents a small fraction of the many uses of coiled tubing, it is still by far the most exciting and promising application of coiled tubing, owing to the possibility of drilling in 4 true underbalanced condition. There are mainly two systems that can be used in coiled-tubing drilling: drilling by motor and jet drilling. In coiled-tubing drilling by motor, the tubing conveys a hydraulically powered drilling motor to the target. Pumps located at the surface furnish the power necessary to rotate the drill- bit. On the other hand, jet drilling does not require a motor, Fluid (liquid or air) is pumped against the target and erodes it away. However, jet drilling technology has not yet evolved to the point of making it a feasible alterna- tive, and thus, coiled tubing by motor remains the most widely used tech- nique. The equipment required for coiled-tubing drilling operations consists of a trailer-mounted tubing reel, a tubing injector head with guide arch, blowout-preventer stacks for live well control, hoisting system, drill-fluid circulating and handling system, bottomhole assemblies for drilling, survey- ing, and the power, hydraulic, and control systems. Figure 1.4 shows the typ- ical equipments used in horizontal coiled-tubing drilling. The technological advances in downhole tools have contributed signifi- cantly to overall cost reduction and successful well completion over the past decade, As we seek to exploit deep and ultra-deep wells and in a more hos- tile environment, implementation and introduction of more downhole tools and real-time monitoring will continue to play a major role in combating the costly problems. 8 CHAPTER 1 Colled Tubing ‘with Wiratine Honing Sn sib viretne 8 irre” | enting Seok oc vie Bent Whipstock| ~Bit Dr Goller WD Downhole Motor FIGURE 1.4 ® Coiled-tubing drilling system OVERVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND DEFINITIONS This introductory chapter presents some of the basic terms involved in hydraulics and solid mechanics analysis. A review of the engineering con- cepts helps not only to increase the understanding of these concepts, but also facilitates more reliable and effective tool usage. The descriptions of various terms are simple enough and readers are advised, if needed, to read other books to gain more fundamental knowledge. The theory presented in the chapters can be further expanded to include fairly complex downhole-tool modeling for design and well planning purposes. More importantly, readers should realize that rigorous calculations and optimizations may be needed to analyze the system as a whole. The scope of this book does not include a detailed discussion about the fluid and solid mechanics involved with downhole tools. However, the pur- pose of the subtopics is to make available a concise and adequate summary of the commonly used concepts and definitions. This book includes the rele- vant definitions and terminology so that the reader understands them while reading about the tools in different chapters. A table of commonly used con- version factors between the unit systems is provided at the end of this book. Readers also are advised to refer to my Drilling Engineering. Introduction — 9 Loading ‘The loading type affects the tubulars’ and tools’ behavior. Tubular and down- hole tools undergo the following types of loadin @ Static loading—short duration. The tools or tubulars will be in equi- librium condition for the short duration with a maximum loading. ® Static loading—long duration. Tools or tubulars undergo maximum load for an appreciably long duration. ® Repeated loading—short duration. Tools or tubulars undergo a load- ing or reversal stress wholly or partially many times in succession, rapidly or slowly for a short duration. & Repeated loading—long duration, Tools or tubulars undergo a loading or reversal stress wholly or partially many times in succession rapidly or slowly for a long duration. ® Dynamic loading. This loading occurs when the drillstring undergoes sudden loading due to impact, vibration, acceleration, etc. It also under- goes complex nonlinear stress levels. Axial Moment of Inertia The moment of inertia for a cross-sectional area is a measurement of the capacity to resist bending: The larger the moment of inertia, the less the capacity to bend. Axial moment of inertia is calculated as: 1, = fy’da a 1, = fxn (1.2) I= An(at -d') (3) where d, = outer diameter d; = internal diameter Polar Moment of inertia The polar area moment of inertia for a cross-sectional area is the measure- ment of the capacity to resist torsion: The larger the polar moment of inertia, the less the capacity to twist. 10 CHAPTER 1 Js freda (14) Je | (1.5) For cylinder: ~n(at -d!) (1.6) 32 Therefore, polar moment of inertia and axial moment of inertia can be related as: J= 21 (1.7) Bending Stiffness Bending stiffness or flexural stiffness (EI, Ibf-in.) is the product of the Young’s modulus and the moment of inertia. It measures the resistance to bending. Torsional Stiffness Torsional stiffness (GJ, Ibf-in.) is the product of modulus of rigidity and the polar moment of inertia, and represents the resistance of a beam to twisting. Flexural stiffness or beam stiffness and torsional stiffness are influenced by material and structural properties of the beam. For most materials E will be about 2.6 G. Stress-Strain Curve Figure 1.5 shows the stress-strain curve of ductile material under tensile force F. The proportional limit is shown up to a point where the stress (F/A) and strain are proportional. As the load is increased, the material will stretch rapidly, and the value is called the yield point of the material (see Fig- ure 1.5). After this value there is a sudden decrease in the cross-sectional area A of the material while the strain is increasing. The curve reaches a point at which again the cross-sectional area decreases resulting in the load F. The maximum value of F/A is called the ultimate strength, Modulus of Elasticity ‘Tensile or compressive modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus, is defined as the ratio of unit stress to unit strain and is given as: Introduction 141 Yield Stress cA Ultimate tensile strength Steel aatina etd eross Ultimate tensite strength ‘Stress F/A mB Strain off FIGURE 1.5 © Stress-strain curve. o E=— 18 . (1.8) where E = modulus of elasticity, psi © = unit stress, psi € = unit strain, in. Equation 1.8 can also be written with other parameters (1.9) cross-sectional area, in.” total strain or elongation, in. original length, in. Poisson's Ratio Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal ‘ain and is given ai 12 CHAPTER 1 as (1.10) Eong lateral strain, in. longitudinal strain, in. where £ Esong For most metals Poisson’s ratio varies from % to 4. Modulus of elasticity and shear modulus are related to Poisson’s ratio as follows: E = 2G. + w) (11) Therefore, | can be determined from experimental values of E and G. Minimum Yield Strength Yield strength is defined as the stress that will result in specific permanent deformation in the material. The yield strength can be conveniently deter- mined from the stress-strain diagram. Based on the test results minimum and maximum yield strengths for the tubulars are specified. Ultimate Tensile Strength The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of a material in tension, compression, or shear, respectively, is the maximum tensile, compressive, or shear stress resist- ance to fracture or rupture. It is equivalent to the maximum load that can be applied over the cross-sectional area on which the load is applied. The term can be modified as the ultimate tensile, compressive, or shearing strength. Fatigue Endurance Limit ‘The endurance limit pertains to the property of a material and is defined as the highest stress or range of cyclic stress that a material can be subjected indefinitely without causing failure or fracture. In other words, the maximum stress reversal that can be subjected indefinitely many times without produc- ing fracture. The magnitude of the endurance limit of a material is usually determined from a fatigue test that uses a sample piece of the material. Twist When a rod is subjected to torque, it undergoes twist given as: TL = JG (1.12) Introduction 13 where © = angle of twist (radians) (can be > 2m) L = length of section, ft T = torque, ft-lbf J = polar moment of inertia (in.‘) G = modulus of rigidity, psi 2 w E= modulus of elasticity, psi LL = Poisson’s ratio For pipe body the polar moment of inertia is a a2) and for pipe joint, Jooty = a=(Dbo - Div) (1.13) Tu Jy = 35(Dioo ~ Pi) (1.14) If the exact length of the joint is not known, the length can be approximated as 5% of the pipe length and the polar moment of inertia can be calculated as: Jroay * Jinn Snipe = ae Lis ee ee For drillcollars the calculation is the same as the drillpipe body: Tw Jhoiy = G5 (Div ~ Dis) (1.16) body outside diameter, in. ody inside diameter, in. Diop = tooljoint outside diameter, in. Dj = tooljoint inside diameter, in. Effective Weight Calculations Effective weight per unit length can be calculated using the relation: Weight per foot in drilling mud is the weight per foot in air minus the weight per foot of the displaced drilling mud. Wp = Ws + PiAi ~ PoAy (17) A Floss x(D,) +0.05 x (Dy) (1.18) 14 ~~ CHAPTER 1 = 710.95 x (1D,)° + 0.05 x (1D, (1.19) Without tooljoints: We = W, + PiAi ~ PoAc In the above equation unit weight of the steel can be given as: w, = pA, (1.20) Substituting in Eq. 1.17, Ws = PA, + Ai — PoAy (1.21) Further cross-sectional areas of the steel or pipe can be given as: A, = A, - Ay (1.22) Substituting this equation and rearranging the effective weight can be writ- ten as: Wa = PAs + PiAi ~Po(A, + Ai) = A,(p, Po) + Ai(Pi Po) (1.23) When the inside and outside fluid densities are the same: ws = A.(p, -.) = Ap[i- 2) =w -2) (1.24) 5 Ps where | 1 — | is the buoyancy factor ; = outside diameter of component body = outside diameter of tooljoint inside diameter of component body insider diameter of tooljoint external area of the component internal area of the component cr -ctional area of the steel annular mud weight at component depth in the wellbore Introduction 15 P; = internal mud weight at component depth inside the component P, = density of the steel Natural Frequency This is the frequency of a mechanical system at which the system will vibrate or oscillate freely and is given as: (1.25) It can also be written as: E ®, = cm where @, = undamped angular frequency of oscillation, rad/sec m = mass of the system, Ib k = stiffness of the spring, Ibf/in. C = static compliance of the system, inverse of spring stiffness, in bf Root Mean Square Displacement, Stress, Amplitude Forcing function, which induces vibrational responses in the drillstring, is a stochastic process. Because the drillstring vibration is a random process, cal- culating a detailed time history response is very difficult and complicated. So calculation of root mean square (rms) values of responses, such as dis- placement, stress, phase angle, and amplitude, help to identify the impact of wear, fatigue, and fretting wear.” Mud Gradient Pressure inside the wellbore is expressed in terms of gradient and is expressed in psi/ft of depth. In oilfield units: Py = 0.052 x pp psifit (1.26) where p,, = mud weight in ppg al in. 0.052 = (1.27) Hydrostatic pressure, P,, at any measured depth in the wellbore can be calculated as: 16 CHAPTER 1 P, = Pe X Drvpy psi (1.28) where D,y, = corresponding true vertical depth at the measure depth in ft Equivalent Mud Weight ‘The pressure in the wellbore or formation can be expressed in terms of equiv- alent mud weight (EMW). It is the density that would exert a static pressure at the consideration depth. A convenient way to compare the pressures at any depth is P EMW = ———_— (1.29) 0.052 x Dis If the well is deviated o:° from the vertical, the EMW is given a EMW = (1.30) 0.052 x D, cosa. where D, = measure depth Equivalent Circulating Density When the fluid is circulated, the frictional pressure loss increases the bot- tomhole pressure, and the equivalent mud weight is expressed in terms of equivalent circulating density (ECD). Equivalent circulating density results from the addition of the equivalent mud weight caused due to the annulus pressure loss to the original mud weight. This pressure has an effect similar to an increase in mud weight. ECD is dependent upon the flowrate, density of the fluid rheology, and annular geometry. Thus, ECD is ECD = p, + ——AP# a3iy In deviated wells vertical depth should be used and the equation for multiple sections is: ECD = p, +{| —=—— (1.32) 0.052 x FAD yg i Introduction ued b> EXAMPLE 1.1 Calculate the ECD for the following data: Inclination of the well = 30° Measured depth = 5,000 ft Calculated true vertical depth based on minimum curvature method = 4,330 ft Annular pressure loss gradient = 0.03 psi/ft Mud weight = 9.2 ppg Total annular pressure loss = 0.03 x 5,000 = 150 psi P, = 0.036 (psi/ft) x 4,500 (ft) = 162 (psi) 150 "0.052 x 4,330 ECD = 9.2 + = 9.866 ppg Plastic Viscosity, Yield Point, and Zero Gel Strength (PV, YP, and Zero Gel) Plastic viscosity, yield point, and zero-second gel can be calculated from the Fann reading using the relationships: PV = O60) — O300 (1.33) YP = 205 — S409 (1.34) Tw = 0; (1.35) Alternatively, the dial readings can be reverse calculated by using PV, YP, and zero gel as below: O39 = PV + YP (1.36) sq) = 2PV + YP (1.37) 8, = T where @,9) = Fann dial reading at 600 rpm Oso) = Fann dial reading at 300 rpm 0, = Fann dial reading at 3 rpm Shear Stress and Shear Rate Shear stress and shear rate can be calculated using the following relationships: cS (oo06sje(**) (1.38) 18 CHAPTER 1 bf = (Ll 1.39) % =(I oos)o{ 2) (1.39) Y= (.703)x{ =) (1.40) sec 1 here N = dial d in { —— wee = dt petin (2) Rheological Models The rheological (flow) properties of the fluid that are used in the downhole drilling tools are important for successful operation as well as to ascertain the optimum performance. Fluid can be characterized using the following rheological models that are commonly used in drilling: 1. Power law 2. Binghm plastic 3. Herschel-Bulkley (yield power law) 4. Casson 5. Robertson stiff 6. Generalized Herschel-Bulkley Equations for some models and the pressure loss equations and criterion for those models are presented in the following section. POWER LAW. Rheological equation for the power-law model can be given as: t=Ky (41) where y = shear rate (1/sec) 7 = shear stress (Ib/ft”) Flow behavior index can be given as: n= 3222ia( 22) (1.42a) 300 and for modified power law it can be given as: n= 3,32log| P+ 2PV (1.42b) YP + PV where PV = plastic viscosity YP = yield point Consistency index, K in ( al) is given as: ft sec’ 5108309 (511") Consistency index, K for modified power law is given as: YP + 2PV ~ (100)(1,022") Average fluid velocity in pipe (ft/sec): 4\( Q oe (23) where D = pipe inside diameter, ft Q = fluid flowrate, ft'/sec Average fluid velocity in annulus, f/sec: *-(loptae) where D, = pipe outside diameter, ft D,, = annulus diameter, ft Geometry factor for annulus: Geometry factor for pipe: G, = (2) - Introduction 19 (1.43a) (1.43b) (1.44) (1.45) (1.46) (47) 20 CHAPTER 1 Reynolds number for pipe: - py," (D") ° G,K Reynolds number for the annulus: _ PME "(Dy ~ Do)" be (3 (1.48) Critical Reynolds number for pipe: Laminar boundary = 3,470 — 1,370n Turbulent boundary = 4,270 — 1,370n Critical Reynolds number for annulus: Laminar boundary = 3,470 — 1,370n Turbulent boundary = 4,270 — 1,370n Friction factor for pipe: Laminar: R= (1.49) Transition: 7 log(n) + 3.93 (1.50) 50 b= a) (1.51) Laminar Reynold’s number is given as: R, = 3,470 — 1,370n (1.52) eee) Introduction 24 Turbulent: A log(n) + 3.93 54) 50 b= 1.75 ~ log(n) (1.55) 7 a B RP (1.56) Friction factor for annulus: Laminar: 24 Ee 5 Ry (1.57) Transition: po log(n) + 3.93 (1.58) 50 p= £75 =loe(n} (1.59) 7 R, = 3,470 ~ 1,370n (1.52) 24 R,-R, 24 p= (24)4(@=8) =. |-|2 (1.60) Rp 800 Ry Ry Turbulent: a los(n) +3.93 en 50 15 bo 1,75 — log(n) (1.62) (1.63) 22 CHAPTER 1 Pressure loss in pipe: P= ever (2) (1.64) Be D where L = pipe or annulus section length, ft p = fluid density, Ibm/ft* Pressure loss in annulus, Ib/ft’: P= Pun] (1.65) Dy — Dp Be BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL. In this model the deformation of the fluid occurs after a minimum value of shear stress is exceeded. The rheological equation for the Bingham plastic model is given as: t=, +Ky (1.66) Apparent viscosity for annulus: 2p? PV, = PV + 62.675(YP)(Dy — p52] (1.67) Apparent viscosity for pipe: D PV, = PV + 62.675(YP) oO: (1.68) Modified Reynolds number for annulus: R, = 1,895.28(p)(Dy - mlapiaa| (1.69) (Dy? — Dp Modified Reynolds number for pipe: R, = isso pe (1.70) ny — Dy sp Introduction 23 Pressure loss in annulus: Tf R, > 2,000, then: .00121(p"*)(PV")(Q'°)L 125 175 (71) (Du - Dp)’ (Da - Dy?) Tf laminar flow, then: .00085(PV os} ones) ay ~De} | (Dy - Dp) (Dy? - Dy?) Pressure loss in pipe: If R, > 2,000, then: 00121(p”*)(Pvs)(Q'"")L Re a (1.73) If laminar flow, then: YP .00085( PV P= [9() + [eh (1.74) Critical velocity and flow in annulus: veo (1.75) ice Evy PV Ibxsec 47,880.3 fi” ‘VE ibt ** 00 1008? 24 CHAPTER 1 Q. = va($}(Os =D) (1.76) Critical velocity and flow in pipe: o.= va( 2) (77a) ROBERTSON AND STIFF MODEL. It is a three-parameter model” to describe the fluid with yield value and is given as: tz=aytost>%= ack (1.78) The parameters a and b are similar to the power law consistency index and fluid exponent, respectively, where as c is given as: = Yon 24 - —t (1.79) — Ynax where Y,,in = low shear rate Ymax = Maximum shear rate ¥ = shear rate corresponding to the geometric mean of the shear stress CASSON MODEL. It is a two-parameter model" to describe the fluid, and the relationship is Ve = vty + hot (1.80) where [ly = Newtonian viscosity T = yield stress The coefficients tT, and [ty can be evaluated from the Fann data by least squares linearization of the square roots of the t and Y values. GENERALIZED HERSCHEL BULKLEY MODEL. This model encompasses the con- ventional Newtonian, Bingham plastic, Casson, and Herschel Bulkley models. Introduction — 25 Table 1.1 illustrates the relationship of this model with other models. The model is in parameter form and is given in dimensionless form as follows: (ey CEJ 27) 7 where Y= viscometric shear rate, s Trot m = shear stress exponent n= shear rate exponent The generalized Herschel-Bulkley model provides the flexibility of accommodating other models as shown in the table. Equivalent shear is given as: (1.82) where Tp = 47.88 Pa (= 1 Ib,/ft’) = effective fluid shear rate, directly relating to frictional pressure TABLE 1.1 = Rheological Models and Parameter Comparison Model Parameters Newtonian 0 1 1 Bingham Plastic YP. 1 4 Power Law 0 i: n Herschel-Bulkley ie 1 n Casson we a 0.5 eee Generalized Herschel-Bulkley H % m n 26 CHAPTER 1 Flow regime is calculated based on the Reynolds number and is pv, (D, — D, = Pa(Ds = Dy) 1.83) Ne where p = fluid density D, = hole/casing diameter D, = outside diameter of the pipe vy, = annular velocity YN. = equivalent viscosity Equivalent viscosity is als (1.84) Ye where 1, = effective viscosity, the ratio of effective shear stress to effective shear rate Hydraulic Diameter/ Equivalent Diameter These calculations are useful in several applications, and there are different definitions and calculation methods. Some of these are presented below. The equivalent diameter concept helps to use regular pipe flow equations for other geometries by converting it to equivalent diameter. The most commonly used definition is the ratio of four times the cross- sectional area to the wetted perimeter. __ 4X cross-sectional area Diya = (1.85) wetted perimeter For a rectangular duct of width, W, and height, H, the hydraulic diameter is a 1.86 = TWH) (1.86) Another criterion to obtain the equivalent diameter given by Lamb is (1.87) Another simple and convenient form of expression to calculate the equiv- alent diameter is obtained by comparing the Lamb’s equation and the slot flow approximation for annulus and is Introduction 27 D, = 0.816(Dz ~ Df) (1.88) This equation when compared with the Lamb’s equation will yield same results when the ratio D,/D,, is bigger than The fourth expression is empirical and based on different wells and is given as:° (1.89) (1.90) where D, is The sixth expression is called the Exlog technique and is for power law fluids. It applies the correction to the hydraulic diameter calculated using the first expression and can be expressed as:' D, D, = — 1.91 ag (1.91) where the geometrical parameter G, is given by: [1+ Ve-2\a +0] ce n(4—Z) where n = power law index 28 CHAPTER 1 (1.92) where Y = 0.37" (1.93) Equation of State Equation of perfect state for density is p aM (1.94) ZRT where P = pressure M = molecular weight Z = compressibility factor universal gas constant T = temperature Acoustic Speed This is the speed at which sound propagates through a medium and is a= yRT (1.95) where R = universal gas constant T = temperature c 'y = ratio of heat capacities and is y, = ce > Gage and Absolute Pressures Pressure expressed as the difference between the fluid pressure and that of the surrounding atmosphere is relative to ambient or atmosphere. Absolute pressure of a fluid is expressed relative to that of vacuum and is given as: Pros = Patrvambicat + Pyage (1.96) Relationship between gage and absolute pressures are shown in Figure 1.6. Introduction 29 Gauge Pressure Absolute Pressure ‘Atmospheric Pressure Zoro Pressure FIGURE 1.6 ® Absolute gage and atmospheric pressures. NOMENCLATURE BHA = bottomhole assembly coiled-tubing drilling, coiled-tubing drilling drillstem testing pipe inside diameter equivalent diameter hydraulic diameter = annulus diameter pipe outside diameter equivalent circulating density equivalent mud weight friction factor for pipe friction factor for annulus geometry factor geometry factor for pipe G, = geometry factor for annulus. H = height K = consistency index L m M = pipe or annulus section length, ft ear stress exponent molecular weight 30 CHAPTER 1 Pate Paeanbient Pease = power law index, shear rate exponent pressure pipe or annulus pressure loss, Ib-sec/ft apparent viscosity for annulus apparent viscosity for pipe, cp apparent viscosity, Ib-sec/ft” absolute pressure atmospheric or ambient pressure gage pressure fluid flowrate, ft/sec critical flow rate in annulus, ft/sec critical flowrate in pipe, ft/sec universal gas constant Reynolds number for annulus Reynolds number at laminar flow boundary Reynolds number for pipe temperature average fluid velocity for pipe, ft/sec average fluid velocity for annulus, ft/sec critical velocity in annulus, ft/sec critical velocity in pipe, ft/sec width, in. yield point, 1b/100 ft compressibility factor fluid density, Ib/ft? lateral strain, in. = longitudinal strain, in. equivalent viscosity shear stress, Ib/ft” zero shear stress, Ib/ft’, Pa reference fluid shear stress, = 47.88 Pa = | Ibf/ ft effective shear stress Ib/ft® shear rate (1/sec) viscometric shear rate. finite high shear limiting viscosity, Pa-s effective shear rate (1/sec) ratio of heat capacities, ¥ = ie

    You might also like