ACen iat PTT UTD Uso‘The author anc publisher of this book have used their efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard fo these programs to documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out ‘of, ths furnishing, performance, or use of these programs, Original Ecition entitled Gas Dynamics, Third Edition, by Jon, James E.A.; Keith, Theo G., published by Pearson Education, Inc, publishing es Prentice Hail, Copyright © 2005 Indian edition published hy Dorling Kindersley India Pvt. Ltd. Copyright ©2010 Al righls reserved. This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be fent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of biading or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored m oF introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above-mentioned publisher of this book. ISBN 978-81-317-3267-0 10987654321 This edition is manafactured in India and is authorized for sale only in Indfa, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakisian, Nepal, Sri Lanka ancl he Mldives.Creulation ofthis eon outside ofthese territories ts UNAUTHORIZED. Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pu, Lid, licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia, Head Office: 71h Floor, know ledge Boulevard, A-8(A) Sector-62, Noida (U.P) 201309, India Registered Office: 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Dethi !10 017, India Printed in India by Rabul print O Pack.Contents Preface xiii Chapter 1 Basic Equations of Compressible Flow 1 1.1 Fluids: Liquids and Gases 1 1.2 Continuum 2 1.3. Viscosity and the Boundary Layer 3 1.4 Equations of Motion 4 1.5 Units of Measurement 4 1.6 Equation of State 5 1.7 Control-Volume Approach 8 1.8 Conservation of Mass 10 1.9 Conservation of Momentum 14 1.10: Conservation of Energy: The First Law of Thermodynamics 18 1.11 Second Law of Thermodynamics 23 1,12 One-Dimensional Flow 28 1.13 Chapter Capstone Application: The Jet Ejector 30 1.14 Summary 34 115 References 44 1.16 Problems 34 Chapter 2_ Wave Propagation in Compressible Media 39 2. introduction 39 2.2. Wave Propagation in Elastic Media 39 23, Velocity of Sound at 2.4 Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 51 2.5 Mach Number 37 2.6 Chapter Capstone Application: The Speed of Sound in a Real Gas 58 2.7 Summary . 63 2.8 References 64 2.9 Problems 64 vilvili_ Contents Chapter 3 _Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas 68 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2. Equations of Motion 69. 3.3. Subsonic and Supersonic Isentropic Flow Through a Varying, Area Channel n 3.4 Stagnation Properties 4 _ 3.5_Isentropie Flow in a Converging Nozzle 83 3.6 Isentropic Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle 89: 3.7 Chapter Capstone Application: Depressurization of a Storage Reservoir of Finite Size 93 3.8 Summary 101 3.9 References 102 3.10 Problems 102 Chapter 4 Stationary Normal Shockwaves 107 44 Introd uetion tT 4.2 Formation of a Normal Shockwave 00 TT 4.3. Equations Governing a Stationary Normal Shockwave 10 44 Stationary Normal Shockwave in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle 131 4,5 Determining The Location of a Stationary Normal Shock ina C-D Nozzle 137 46 Converging-Diverging Supersonic Diffuser 139 47 Chapter Capstone Application: Supersonic Wind Tunnels 13 48 Summary 149 4.9 References 150 4.10 Problems 150 Chapter 5 Moving Normal Shockwaves 157 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2. Moving Normal Shockwaves 157 53 Reflected Normal Shockwaves 168 5.4 Chapter Capstone Application: The Shock Tube (The Riemann Problem) 173 55 Summary 184 56 References 184 5.7 Problems 185 Chapter 6 Oblique Shockwaves 189 6.1 Introduction : igo 6.2. Equations of Motion for a Straight Oblique Shockwave 190 6.3 Oblique-Shock Reflections 210 6.4 Chapter Capstone Application: The Intersection of Two Oblique Shocks 212 6.5 Summary 224 66 References 204 6.7 Problems 225Contents ix Chapter 7 Prandtl-Meyer Flow 229 7.1 Introduetion 229 7.2. Thermodynamic Considerations 29 7.3 Gradual Compressions and Expansions 230 7.4 Flow Equations for a Prandtl~Meyer Expansion Fan 234 7.5_Prandtl-Meyer Flow in a Smooth Compression 243 7.6 Maximum Turning Angle for Prandt-Meyer Flow 243 77 Reflections 244 7.8 Chapter Capstone Application: Confluence of an Oblique Shock and an Expansion Fan 245 7.9 Summary 248 7.10 References 249 7.1 Problems 249 Chapter 8 Applications Involving Shocks and Expansion Fans 284 8.1 Introduction 2 254 82 Supersonic Oblique-Shock Diffuser 254 83 Exit Flow for Underexpanded and Overexpanded Supersonic Nozzles 260 8.4 Plug Nozzle 262 85 Supersonic Airfoils 270 8.6 Chapter Capstone Application: Surface Pressure Distribution on a Body in a High-Mach-Number Flow 27 87 Summary 279 88 Reference: 279 89 Problems 280 Chapter 9 Flow with Frietion 283 9.2 Fanno Line Fh 284 9.3 Working Relations for Fano Flow 289 9.4 Flow Through a Nozzle and Constant-Area Duct in Series 298 9.5 A Noniterative Method to Locate a Normal Shock in a Constant-Area Duct with Friction that is Connected to Reservoir by a C-D Nozzle 304 9.6 Adiabatic Flow with Friction and Area Change 310 9,7 Chapter Capstone Application: Numerical Solution of the Ordinary Differential Equation for Adiabatic Flow with Friction and Area Change 314 9.8 Summary 330 9.9 References 330 9.10 Problems. 331 Chapter 10_Flow with Heat Addition or Heat Loss 337 101 Introduction 102 Rayleigh Line Flow 338 10.3 Normal Shock on Rayleigh and Fanno Line T-s Diagrams 355x — Contents 10.4 Flows with Heat Addition and Area Change 355 10.5. Flows with Friction and Heat Addition 360 10.6 Chapter Capstone Application: Isothermal Flow 365 10.7 Summary 370 10.8 References 370 10.9 Problems 371 Chapter 11 Equations of Motion for Multidimensional Flow 315 11.1 Introduction 378 11.2 Continuity Equation 376 113 Momentum Equation 379 11.4 Energy Equation 382 11.5 Conservation Form of the Governing Equations 387 11,6 Irrotational Flow 388 11.7 Crocco’s Equation 392 11.8 Velocity Potential 304 11.9 Equations of Motion in Terms of Velocity Potential 395 11.10 Summary 403 11.11 References 403 11.12 Problems 404 Chapter 12 Exact Solutions 406 12.1 Introduction 406 12.2 Simple Homentropic Flows 407 123 The Hodograph Transformation a 12.4 Flows Around Corners 431 12.5 Conical Flow : 439 126 Summary 449 12.7 References 449 128 Problems 450 Chapter 13 Linearized Flows 453 13.1 Introduction. 453 13.2 Linearization of the Potential Equation 453 13.3 Subsonic Flow Over a Wavy Wall 459 134 Similarity Laws for Subsonic Flow 464 13.5 Supersonic Flow Over a Wavy Wall 474 136 Thin Airfoils in Supersonic Flow 481 13,7 Summary 489 138 References 489 13.9 Problems 490 Chapter 14 Characteristics 494 14.1 Introduction 494 142 Properties of Characteristics 495Contents xi 143 Theory of Characteristics 498 144 Calculation Procedures 522 14.5. Supersonic-Nozzle Design 540 146 Summary 545 147 References 546. 148 Problems SaT Chapter 15 Measurements in Compressible Flow 553 15.1 Introduction 583 15.2 Pressure Measurement 583 15.3 Temperature Measurement 561 154 Velocity Measurement 570 15,5 Density and Optical Methods of Measurement 580, 15,6 Flow Rate Measurement 596. 15.7 Summary 602 158 References 602 159 Problems 604 Appendix A One-Dimensional Equations of Gas Dynamics for Use in Spreadsheet Programs 606 A.1 Isentropic Flow 607 A2 Normal Shockwaves 609 AB Oblique Shockwaves 612 A4 Prandtl-Meyer Flow 616 A.S Fanno Flow 618 A6 Rayleigh Flow 620 A Isothermal Flow 623 Appendix B Isentropic Flow Tables 628 Appendix Normal Shock-Tubles 632 Appendix D Oblique-Shock Charts 638 Appendix Prandtl-Meyer Functions 645 Appendix F Fano Line Flow 648 AppendixG Rayleigh Line Flow 652 Appendix H Physical Properties of Gases 656«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Section 1.3 Viscosity and the Boundary Layer 3 molecules must be analyzed. This field of study is called rarefied gas dynamics, which is beyond the scope of this book; thus, continuum flow will be assumed throughout this text. 1.3 VISCOSITY AND THE BOUNDARY LAYER The coefficient of viscosity of a fluid relates the shearing stress applied to a fluid to the resultant rate of shearing strain, In a continuum, when a viscous fluid flows over a fixed surface, layers of fluid next to the surface are held back by the viscous forces and stick to the surface; in other words, the velocity of the fluid at the fixed wall is zero. As we move away from the wall, the velocity increases to its free stream value and a velocity distribution is built up, as shown in Figure 1.1. The effects of viscosity are dominant in the region near the surface. For most fluids, and certainly for gases, this viscosity is quite small, so viscous effects are confined to a very thin layer in the vicinity of the sur- face, called the boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer, the fluid can be analyzed with inviscid theory. Ina boundary layer, the velocity components of a continuum flow at a fixed sur- face are zero, both normal and tangential to the wall surface. On the other hand, in an inviscid flow (zero viscosity), the normal component at the wall is zero, yet the tangen- tial component need not be zero, The boundary-layer equations, unlike the inviscid- flow equations, have terms containing the viscous forces, which makes them far more difficult to handle. Fortunately, the boundary layer is usually thin enough that it can be assumed that there is no pressure gradient in the direction normal to the wall surface. Thus, the pressure distribution on a body, even in the presence of a boundary layer, can often be calculated using the simpler inviscid-flow equations, Furthermore, in considering the flow of a gas through an internal passage or nozzle, usually the bound- ary layer thickness can be taken as small enough so as not to appreciably affect the area available to the inviscid flow outside the boundary layer and thus not to require the tedious calculation of boundary-layer thickness along the walls, as illustrated in Figure 1.2, + Figure 1.1 Boundary-Layer Flow«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Section 1.6 Equation of State 7 Enthalpy is defined as haute (16) or and, fora perfect gas, dh = de + RaT (17) ‘Therefore, the enthalpy of a perfect gas is also a function of temperature only. The definition of specific heat at constant pressure is ‘ah (), os so that, for a perfect gas, dh = cydT (9) ‘Thus, combining Eqs. (1.7), (1.5), and (1.9), we see that where ep and c, are not necessarily constants, but can vary with temperature, If a perfect gas undergoes a thermodynamic process between two equi states, then w- = fed? «uy and (1.2) If a constant specific heat (or else a mean specific heat over the temperature range of interest) is assumed, then uy = uy = eo(Ts = Ti) 13) and fy ~ hy = (Tr - (4)«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Section 1.8 Conservation of Mass 11 ‘The second integral in Eq. (1.21) is positive at outflow boundaries and negative at inflow boundaries; that is, [fov-as- ff pV, dA ~ ff maa (1.23) cs coxitiow inhiow ‘This follows from the fact that if V isin the same direction as dA = n dA (isc. = 0), Eq. (1.23) is +p¥y, whereas, on the other hand, if V and n are in apposite directions (.e.,.@ = x), Eq, (1.23) yields —pV,A. If V does not vary in either magnitude or direc- tion across a cross-sectional area A of the flaw and if p is uniform across A, then Eq. (1.23) can be written as ffoveas = D VA) - PR) (1.24) slow where the summations account for flows across all inlets and exits to the control vol- ume and where V,(= V cos a) is the normal velocity component to the flow area, as shown in Figure 1.4. The produet pV,,A is the mass-flow rate ra. Thus, Eq. (1.24) may also be expressed as [ove = es, - Dan (1.25) Thus, for uniform conditions within and on the boundaries of the control vol- ume, we may use the following instead of the integral version of the continuity equa- tion, Eq. (1.21): a : — a eMex + Dm- Dm=0 (1.26) sll inkfow Clearly, for steady flow, the properties within the control volume do not change with time; hence, 0 (1.27) a da [fete = Geom. Therefore, ffove - th=0 (1.28) és«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.«a You have either reached a page thatis unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Section 1.9 Conservation of Momentum 15, But, as indicated in Eq, (1.29), the time rate of change of the linear momentum is equal to the sum of all external forces acting on the system. So, Se 3 ffovev ff vov-ay a3 Itshould be noted that because the Reynolds transport equation connects system equations to control-volume equations when the system and the control volume are coincident, the sum of the external forces acting on the system is identical to the sum of those forces acting on the control volume. No restrictions have been placed on the na- ture of the forces, so YF may involve pressure forces, viscaus forces, gravity, magnetic forces, electric forces, surface tension, and so on. It is important to recognize that, unlike the continuity equation, Eq, (1.21), the momentum equation is a vector equation. Thus, when performing a momentum balance, we must define a coordinate system, However, we will generally work with an individual component of the equation. Whereas the left-hand side of Eq, (1.31) represents the summation of all forces acting on the control volume, the right-hand side represents the rate of increase of linear momentum within the control volume added to the net rate of effitec (outflow ~ inflow) of linear momentum from the control volume. A restriction is imposed on Eq, (1.31) by the use of Eq. (1.29) in the former's de- rivation. The acceleration in Eq. (1.29) must be measured relative to an inertial refer- ence. Since fluid velocities in Eq, (1.30) are taken relative to the control volume, this equation is valid only for fixed control volumes or control volumes translating at a con- stant velocity relative to an inertial reference. It is important to observe that two separate signs are contained within the mo- mentum equation: 1. The forces and velocities are positive when pointing in the direction of the coor- dinate axis 2. The scalar product V+dA = V+ndA = V cos(a) dA is positive if a = 90. (See Figure 1.4.) It should be stressed that, because of sign (1),a coordinate system must be drawn for every problem involving the momentum equation. And, because of sign (2), a con- trol surface must be drawn around the object that is being analyzed. For steady flow, the time rate of change of linear momentum stored in the control volume vanishes; that is, a aUfre) - Hence, the momentum equation for steady-flow problems simplifies to Zr- [vores (1.32)