UNIT-I: PHYSICAL WORLD Al Ans. a2 Ans. Qa Ans. (D MEASUREMENT PHYSICAL WORLD Syllabus © Physies—Scope and excitement : Nature of physical lave : Physics, technology and society. Quick Review ‘The word Science originates from the Latin word “Scientia” meaning “to know”. Science is a systematic attempt to. understand natural phenomenon in as muck deteil and depth as possibleand use the knowledge so gained to predict ‘modify and control phenomenon. Physics is the study of the basie laws of nature and their manifestation in different phenomenon, Classical Physics deals mainly with macroscopic phenomenon and includes subject like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, Optics and Thermodynamics. ‘Thescope of Physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physical quantities Very Short Answer Type Questions Q.4. What do you understand by scientific method ? Ans, The ice? Science is a systematic, organised and formulated knowledge sbout the various phenemenon around us by careful observations and experiments. I What is scientific attitude ? A. person with scientific attitude must have flexible and open-minded approach towards. the problems, 1 ‘What is the scientific approach ? ‘The scientific approach consists of observations in a proper way, hypothetical analysis and molification of the proposed theory without neglecting important points of views and reasons. © There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomenon of the macroscopic and the microscopic world, These one— (Gravitational force ii) Electromagnetic force (ii) Strong nuclear foree (iv) Weak nuclear Force ‘© The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved quantities. ‘© Scientific method corresponds systematic observation reasoning, model making and theoretical prediction all together. [1 mark each] systematic observations, controlled experiments, qualitative reasoning, mathematical proofs and prediction iscalled scientific method. 1 Q.5. What is scientific theory ? Ans. It is a set of limited number of laws in terms of which the behaviour of a physical system ean be explained, 1 Q.6. What is physies ? ‘Ans. It is the branch of science which deals with the Jaws of nature and natural phenomenon, It is the ‘most fundamental of all sciences. 1Units AND MEASUREMENT Syllabus © Need for measerement—Units of measurement; systems of units, SL units, fundamental and derived units. Length, mass and time measurements; Accuracy and precision of measuring instruments; errors in measurement; significant figures. Dimensions of physical quantities; dimensional analysis and its applications: Quick Review In S.L. unit of measurement system, seven physical quantities ie. length, mass, time, electric current, temperature luminous intensity and amount of substance are known ss fundamental quantities and their respective units ie., metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (K), candela (Ce) and mole (mol) are known as fundamental units, Radian (plane angle) and steradian (solid angle) are ‘ovo supplementary units in $.1. unit system. 1 metre = 16,50:76373 wavelengihs in. vacuum of radiation corresponding to orange-red light in vacuum of Kr-86. 1 second = 9,192,631,770 periods of a particular radiation of Cs-133 atom, ‘The advantage of S.L. is it is metric, rational and ‘coherent system of units Which is closely related 19 CGS system, In mechanics, dimensions are given in terms of power of mass (M), length (L) and time (T). In heat and thermodynamics, power of temperature (8) ‘comes in addition and in electricity and magnetism, another torm ampore (A) ads Only, like quantities can be added, subtracted from cach other, ie., Length can be added to length only. ‘The quantities of different dimensions cannot be added or subiracted. Gi) Ite ‘© The three main uses of dimensional analysis are: (® Conversion of one system of units into another, for which we take -n{/ MTL |’ ay ATT other system; where a, are the dimensions (ii) derivation of formula, © Difierence between measured value and true value of aquantity cepresents, eror of measurement. The operations as detailed below If + Aa, + Ab and + Av are absolute errors in a, b and x respectively, then (i) Ife (a+ D),then Av= [Aa-+ AD] (ah), then Av = [Aa+ Ab] cated in different mathematical(ill) Ifx=a «) Temperature, (©) Plane angle, (d) Electric current, (©) Amount of substance, (f) Solid angle, (a) Pressure. Copied to clipboard.UNIT-II : KINEMATICS @ ) MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE Syllabus Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line: Position-time graph, speed and velocity © Flementary concepts of differentiation and integration for describing motion. © Uniform and non-uniform motion, average speed and instantaneous velocn: © Uniformly accelerated motion, velocin-time, position-time graphs. Relations for wuiformty accelerated motion (graphical treatment) Quick Review An object or a particle is said 10 be in the state of rest when it does not change its position with time wort its surroundings, Depending upon the position of observer, the state of rest of a particle is of two types Absolute state of rest, Relative state of rest. An object or a particle is said to be in the state of ‘motion when it changes its position with time wrt its surroundings. The motion of an object can be linear or curvilinear, cular or ina plane or ina space. inear motion, It is that motion in which a panicle moves along a straight line with respect to a point of reference, ‘A body is said to be in linear motion if every ‘constituent particle ofthe body move along peralle! straight line and covers same distance in the given time, fa foros is acting on « body and body moves in the direction of force, applied then the motion of body is called linear motion Motion in one dimension. It is that motion in which a particle moves in fone particular direction with respect to a point of reference, (b) Itis that motion of particle body in which only one ut of the three co-ordinates specifying the position of the body changes with respect to ime, (©) Insuch amotion, the particle ora body movesalong. 1 straight line or a well defined path. Therefore, fone dimensional motion is sometimes known as rectilinear or linear motion, © Distance. (a) Length is defined as the actual path traversed by body during motion in a given interval of time. (b) Distance is a scalar quantity (c) TheS.L unit of distance is metre and egs unit is em, (d) The valve of distance travelled by # moving body ccan never be zero or negative, © Displacement. (a) Displacement ofa body ina given time is defined as the change in the position ofthe body in a particular direction during that time, (©) Displacement is a vector quantity as it possesses both magnitude and direction, (©) Displacement of a body in a given time is represented by @ vector drawn ffom the initial position to its final position, (4) The unit of displacement is that of length.32| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-X! ) wo ® @) ) © @ ©) o (2) @ ©) 0 ‘The value of displacement can be positive, zero or negative. The value of displacement can never be greater than the distance travelled. ‘When a moving body returns to its starting point, then its effective displacement is zero. Speed. ‘The speed of a particle ora bod Speed Speed is a scalar quantity. ‘The speed of a body can be zero or positive but never negative ‘The speed of a body can increase or decrease with time, The egs unit of speed is cm/s and S.1. unit is mi. Ifthe speed of a body is zero, the body is at rest ‘The disianee time graph of a body at rest, isa straight line parallel to time axis. Uniform speed. (Dimensions are [MLT"]) A body is said to he moving with a uniform speed, if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals may be. If a body moves with a constant speed, distance travelled by it in each second isthe same. ‘The distance travelledat the ené of Ist, 2nd, 3rd, second will be inthe ratio 2:3 Variable speed. A body is said to be moving with a variable speed ifit covers equal distance in unequal intervals of time or unequal distances in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals may be. Average or Mean speed. If a body is moving with variable speed, then the average speed of the body is defined asthe ratio of total distance travelled by the body to the total time taken, fe, total distance travelled total time taken Average speed = Instantaneous speed. When a body is moving with 4 variable speed, then the speed of the body at a given instant of time is known as its instantaneous speed. The body possesses different speed st different instant. Uniform velocity. A body is said to be moving with a uniform velocity, if it undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals may be. Variable velocity. ‘The body is said to be moving with a variable velocity if it covers equal displacements in unequal intervals of time or unequal displacements in equal «a ° @ «i . (a) ) . @ (ii) intervals of time or changes direction of motion while moving with a constant speed. The posttion-time graph of a body moving with variable velocity is a curve Average or Mean velocity. When a body is moving with a vatiable velocity, then the average velocity of the body for a given time is defined as the ratio of the total displacement of the body to the total time taken, i total displacement total time taken Average velocity When a body is moving with a uniform velocity, its average velocity is equal to its uniform velocity Instantaneous velocity. If a body is moving with 1 variable velocity, then the velocity of the body at a given instant of time is called its instantaneous velecity. Uniform acceleration, An object is stid 10 be ‘moving with a uniform acceleration if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time. Variable acceleration. An object is said to be moving with a variable acceleration when its velocity changes by unequal mounts in equal intervals of time. The velocity time graph of a body having variable acceleration is represented by a curve Average acedleration, When an object is moving with a variable acceleration, then the average acceleration of the body is defined as the ratio of the total change in velocity during motion to the total time taken, ie. total change in velocity Average aeceleratior Total time taken Instantaneous acceleration, If a body is moving with a variable acceleration, thon the asecleration ofa body at the given instant of time is called instantaneous acceleration. If at an instant, a body while moving with a variable acceleration shows a change in velocity AY ina small interval of time Ar, so that Ar» 0, then Av dv alhoar ae Instantaneous acceleration = where, 2” is the derivative of velocity (¥ ) wr. ete, DY isthe derivative of velocity (wit, Equations of motion. Suppose, u = initial velocity of body, Copied to clipboard.= uniform acceleration of the body = velocity of the body afer time 1, tance travelled by body in time ¢, s,~ distance travelled by body in nth second. (a) The equations of motion for accelerated body wvnwta (ii) sat se (iii) P =0? 420s 6) s,=u+ £On-1) (b) The equations of motion for retarded body. Here, ais negative. 0 «i sou Lat 2 «it div) 5, (©) The equations of motion for a body falling down under gravity. Here, a=. Very Short Answer Type Questions ovens (iy sous Lee 1. as thr esntonin no eneaons i sccerton in nly one dimension? Ans, Ya, poeite non 1 12 fet rat dy abaya et frame which hed tte bd Ha Ans. Ye 1 Discuss if a body moving with uniform velocity isineg Ans. Net force on the body is zero. I Q4. What does the speedometer records—the average speed or the instantaneous speed ? Ans. It records (or measures) the instantaneous speed st an instant of time. 1 Q.5. Can an object he accelerated without speeding up or slowing down ? Give example. Ans. Yes, circular motion. 1 Q.6. Is it possible to have the rate of change of velocity constant while the velocity itself changes both in magnitude and direction ? Give an example. Ans. Yes, in projectile motion. I Q.7. Which motion is exactly represented by As= ut. Ans. It represents motion with uniform velocity, 1 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE | 33 (iii) ww vaw+2es w+ £Qn— +£ Qn) (@) The equations of motion for a body going up under geavity. Here a ug ii) sur 2, i) s=u— Lege (ii) 1° =w 2g iv) s=u-£Qn-0 (iv) 5,54 £209) (©) The maximum height attained by 2 body thrown vertically upwards with initial velocity wi Sem” 3g (9) Time taken to reach the maximum height is eg (g) Total time taken by body in going up and coming. down, T=21= 2H g (h) The initial velocity of body in order to attain height h Pah [1 mark each] Q.8. In which frame of reference is at rest? Ans. The body is always atrestin the frame attached to it, fe, intortil frame of reference. 1 Q.9. What is common between two graphs shown in fig. (a) and (b) ? ie body always to @ = | ° @ © Ams. Both these graphs represent that the velocity is negative 1 Q.10, What is common between two graphs shown in figure (a) and (b) ? x arn @ © Copied to clipboard.«iy MOTION IN A PLANE Syllabus © Scalar and vector quantities; Position and displacement vectors, general vectors and their notations; equality of vectors, muliplication of vectors by a real number; addiion and subtraction of vectors, relative velocity Unit vector; resolution of a vector in a plane-rectangular components, Scalar and Vector product of vectors. Motion in a plane. Cases of uniform velocity and uniform acceleration projectile motion. Uniform circular motion Quick Review Scalar. A physical quantity which has only ‘magnitude and no direction is called a sealar qua Vector. A physical quantity which constitute ‘magnitude as well as direction i called a vector quantity or vector It is essential to note that the division of a vector by another vecior is not defined because he division of a vector by a direction is not possible. ‘A vector in writing can be represented by a single letier with an arrow head on it or geometiically a vector can be represented by an arrowed line. Here, the length of arrow line drawn on a suitable scale represents the magnitude and the arrow head represents the direction of given vector. (i) Polar vectors. These are those veciors which have a linear directional effect. For example, force, linear momentum, linear velocity etc ‘Atial vectors or rotational vectors. These vectors represent rotational effect. They are always directed along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule, Angular velocity, torque, angular momentum ete, are few examples of axial vectors, © Unit vector. (0) Avnit vector of X is written as Zand is tiven by A= Ara, (i) Aunitvectris untess and dimensiones quanti. It is along z-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively and expresses ditection only. Gin cartesian co-ordinates 1,7, & are the nie xis, respectively. iv) IE, »: =) are the co-ordinates of a point, then the position vecior. vectors along x-axis, -axisand P axle yjrck with ra (ts yt eet unit vector of F is 5 LP _ aleyjeat54 | OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-X! © Vectors addition, Two vectors can be added either by triangle law of vector orby parallelogram law of vector. It R-A+B then P=(A?+ BP + 2AB cos 6) where, 6 is the angle between A and B. If R makes an angle & with A , then Being A+B eos 6 (i) The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors is maximum when the vectors act in the same dircetion and is minimum when they actin opposite direction. tana Ifthe two vectors A and B ate orthogonal, ie., > =90°, then R= VAP+BP (as cos 90° = 0) The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude ccan never be zer0, ‘The resultant of two vectors can never be more than their sum and can never be less than their difference. © Subtraction of two vectors. «i ii) & () Subtraction of a vector B from s vector Ais defined as the adsiton of vector ~B 10 vector A Hence, A-B=A +08) Vector subtraction does not follow commutative and associative laws. (i) @ fA —B, ten A|=|Bland A=B © When a boat tends to cross a river of widths along a shortest path, it must be rowed up seam making an angle O with AB, i, the pempendiculr direction of the river flow.” Henee, restart Yelocity Y of velocity of boat ¥ and velocity of flow of river ¥2 may act perpendicular 1o the diseton of iver How. In his ese, sin = “2 and v= ‘The time of crossing the river, (a) (o) © @ (a) Oy (a) ) © width of river (s) resultant speed (») Null vector : It is the vector which has zero magnitude and an arbitrary direction, It is shown by When A=B then A-B = 9 isa null vector. When A || B,then A * B =0, isa nul veetor. When n,X =i, whee he elation is ruc ifboth A and Bare null vectors. 1A +B =A ~ B then B isa null vectr Multiplication or Division of a vector by a scalar, When a vector A is multiplied by a scalar 8, it becomes vector SA whose magnitude is $ times the magnitude of A and itaets along the direction of A. The uit of SA is different fiom that of A When a vecor A is divided by a scalar S, i becomes a vector A /S, whose magnitude is (1/S) times the megnitude of A and it acts along the direction of X . The unit of X'S is different from thatof & Components of « vector [A vector can have any number of component vectors When e vestor is splitted into two or three component vectors at right angles to each other, the component vectors are called rectangular components ofa vector. 16K, and ae the rectangtarcomponent of ‘A along x-axis and y-axis in a plane, then ReRUAGwhere, An (ATER? Here, A= A.cos@ and A,= A sin @, when @ is the angle which the A makes with x-axis. @ if AL. A, and AL ar the rectangular components of A along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively in a given space, then ReRR RE wer, A- (APVA SAE (0) 1% makesanles andy nth, and ai, c0s.a= AF, cos B= AF and cos y= A%, whieh are called direction cosines of A. Here, cost a+ eos B + coy = 1 © ‘Scalar or dot product of wo vectors. AB =ABeos 6; where, @ isthe smaller angle between A and B. (2) Scalar product of two vectors is commutative. RBABR (b) Magnitude of scalar product of two parallel vectors AB =AB eos (6) Scalar product of wo perpendicular vectors is er0, RB ~AB cos 90° =0. (@) Whon 6 ~ 902, thon the scalar product of 0 vectors is negative. (©) Dot product is distributive, 2. and (2) ty wo «i ii) ww ™ wi) wii) MOTION IN A PLANE | 88 I =A,i+A,j+A.£ and B= BiB, }+ 2,8 If (A +B)=[A ~B], thenangle between A and B is 90° or x2. Vector or Cross product of two vectors. where, ¢ is the smaller angle between A and B and 1 is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B is directed as given by Right, Handed Screw Rule. ten Rd Bk Vesor prot of two veto i rt asc, jo, Rex) (RB) 2 Ad = Bx stor prod of wo pal to i 0, AxB =ABsin 0° n =0 Magnitude of vector product of two perpendi-cular Vectors is maximum, ie, |AxB| =AB sin 90°= AB Cross product of two vector is distributive, i Ax(Be 0) = AxB-RxE AXA AAsin O° =0 ixi = xj=kxk =0 and inj —h, dxk=7 ana Ext =356 | OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-X! But and (viii) The area of triangle with A and B as sides is Los 2 AxBy (ix) The area of a parallelogram with A and B as adjacent sides is |A xB | (%) A unit vector perpendicular to A as well as B (xi) When A=A,I+A,J+A.% and B=b,i+B, +B. 8, then (xii) @ sino Gi) cos Very Short Answer Type Questions |. Which Knowledge 1s required to describe the physical quantities like displacement and acceleration in two dimensional motion ? Knowledge of vector is required to describe the physical quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration in two dimensional motion. 1 A particle goes from A to B in time (0 following the path AA’BBA’. Markits displacement vector in figure. Ans. Ax) Gi) tan AB © Projectile. Projectile is defined as a body thrown with some initial velocity and then allowed to move under the action of gravity alone, without being propelled by an engine or fuel or any source. ‘The path followed by a projeciile is known as its trajectory. (a) Projectile in case of horizontal projection from a height h with velocity u, then (i Time of fight, (= JIn7g ii) Horizontal range, = wt (ii) Velocity of projectile v= Jitee%? and tan B = gti, where B is thcangle which * makes with # © Centripetal force, (i) It isthe force required to move the body in circular path with a constant angular velocity Gi) Magnitude of centripetal force i, on arriving ground, my? F me = mrt aye int = rine? = (iii) The centripetal force acts on the particle along the radius which is directed towards the centre of cireular path. ‘The centripetal force does not increase the kinetic energy and angular momentum of the particle ‘moving in a circular path, therefore the work done by the centripetal force is zero. (v) The ceniripetal force is provided in different ways, in different types of circular motions. ro) [1 mark each] Ams, The straight line dravn between A and B with an arrow-head pointing towards B is the displacement vector (AB), % Q.3. A vector is multiplied by a pure real number, ‘Will its unit change ? Ans. No, unit of vector does net change if the vector is ‘multiplied by a pure real number of dimensionless scalar, 1UNIT-III : LAWS OF MOTION LAws oF MoTION Syllabus © Intuitive concept of force: Inertia: Newton's first law of motion; momentunt and Newton's second law of motion, impulse; Newton’: third law of motion; Law of conservation of linear momentun and its ‘plications. Equilibrium of concurrent forces; Static and kinette friction, law of frttion, rolling sriction lubrication. Dynanies of uniform circular motion; Centripetal force, examples of circular motion (vehicle on level circular road, vehicle on banked road) Quick Review Force isa external effort in the form of push or pull which ean try to produce motion in a body at rest, (or stops or try to stop a moving body or can change or try tochange the direction of motion of the body. Inertia is the inherent property of a body, by virtus of which, the body doesn’t change its state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line, on its own, It depends upon the mass of the body. Inertia of a body is of three types as follows Inertia of rest, Inert Inertia of dircetion, Inertia of rest of a body is inability to change by itself, its state on its own, Inertia of motion of a body is the inability 10 change by itself its state of uniform motion a body circle, remain in uniform motion can neither accelerate nor retard on its own and come to rest. Inertia of direction ofa body is inability to change by itself its direction of motion, ie., it means. a body continues, to move along the same straight line unless compelled by some external force to change it. of mation, © Linear momentum. Linesr momentum of a body (D )is measured by the product ofthe mass (i) of the body and its velocity (*) te, pam Linear momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the direction of velocity of the body. The S.L unit of linear mometum is ke ms © ‘Newton's laws of motion. (W First law : Abody continues to be inits siate of res. oF of uniform motion slong a staight line, unless it acted upon by some external force to change the sate. This law defines forces & is also called law of inertia, (ii) Second law. The rate of change of linear momentum (p= m¥) ofa body is directly proportional to the external force applied on the body and this change takes place always in the direction of the applied foree, i78 | OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI iii a where GP = a, whichis called acceleration of the body. Force can be defined in such away that k then Newton's second law is written as Third law : “To every action, there is always fan equal and opposite resction.” The sction and reaction act on different bodies, so they never cancel each other. Principle of conservation of linear momentum. From this principle, in an isolated system, the vector sum of the linear momentum of all the bodies of the system is conserved and is unaffected ddue to their mutual action and reaction. The total linear momentum of all the bodies in the system 1a) Hm ttm, +My is given by P = constant where,M is that total mass of the systema and Vy is the velocity ofthe centre of mass of the system, Rocket propulsion, The propulsion of a rocket is hased on the principle of conservation of linesr ‘momentum of Newton's third law of motion, Suppose, M, = Intal mass of rocket, aM A M = mass of rocket at any instant, ate of ejection of fuel, V = relative velocity of ejected gases wert, rocket ‘Then, thrust on the rocket in the absence of gravity = 4M 3 Mw Acceleration ofthe rocket in the absence of gravity NS ar M ) © Thrust on the rocket in the presence of gravity, po aM ‘Ar Acceleration of the rocket in the presence of gravity. ToMg Gama aM ® Impulse. When a large force acts on a body fora shot time, then the measure ofthe total effect of Fore scaled impulse of fice. 1 canbe Fou ut Impulse = force time = F x ar Conditions of equilibrium of concurrent forces. 16, Bare theconcurent forces acngat the same pont, then he pont wll bein euiiium if Rt RHR H0 Frietion is an opposing force which comes into play when one body actually moves (slides or rolls) fr even tries to move over the surface of another body. Frictional forces arise due to interlocking of irregularities present on the two surfaces whieh are in contact. From modern view, the frictional force arises due to strong atomic or molecular force of attraction between the two surfaces at the points of actual contact. Statie friction is an opposing force which comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface of another body, but the actual motion has yet not sarted. Iisa self-adjusting force. Limiting friction is the maximum value of statie friction, Limiting friction isthe maximum opposing force that comes into play of one body is just at the verge of moving over the surface of another body. Dynamic or kinetic friction is the opposing force that acts between two surfaces in contact when one body is actually moving over the surface of another body. Rolling friction is an opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually rolling over the surface of another body. Laws of limiting friction. The magnitude of the force of limiting friction (F) between two bodies in contact is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R) betws them, £2, FR The direction of the force of limiting friction is always opposite to the direction in which one body is atthe averge of moving over the other. The force of limiting friction is independent of the apparent area of contact so long as normal reaction Copied to clipboard.@ and Qn Ans. Q2. Ans. between the two bodies in contact remains the The force of limiting friction between any two bodies in contact depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact, Coefficient of limiting friction between two ‘surfaces in contact (j1) is defined as the ratio of the force of limiting friction (F) and normel reaction (R) between them, Le. H=PR ‘The value of u depenes upon the nature of material and state of polish of two surfaces in contact. i Rk where, F, is the force of kinetic friction and R is the normal reaction between the two surfaces in Angle of friction is the angle in which the direction of resuitant of the force of friction and ‘normal reaction makes with the direstion of normal reaction Itis represented by 8. tan Angle of repose is the maximum angle of inclination of a plane with the horizontal, at which the body placed on the plane is just in limiting equilibrium. Coefficient of kineti friction, As given figure shows the forces acting on a body placed on the inclined plane. When fis the angle of repose, the body is in limiting equilibrium, when, Very Short Answer Type Questions Is an external force required to keep a body in uniform motion ? If there is no friction, no external force would have been required to keep a body in uniform motion. 1 State Newton’s first law of motion. Everybody continues to be in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line until or unless somie external pull or push makes it to change its state Or Ifthe acceleration of a body is zero then it means that the net extemal force acting on the body is ze. 1 3. Ans. Qs. Ans. as LAWS OF MOTION | 79 F _msin8 or K omgcosp 0 te, stan tand or fi= 8, Ke. Angle of repose is equal to angle of friction, If a body is forced to move in a cricle, it has a constant tendency of regaining its natural straight Tine path, This tendency of the body gives rise to a force called ceurfugal force. For all practical Purposes, centrifugal force can be treated as the reaction of centripetal force. Magnitude of centrifugal force = mir. Its direction is along the radius but anay from the centre of the circle While rounding a curve ona level read, centripetal force required by the vehicle is provided by force of friction between the tyres and the road, =u R=pmg v= vine This is the maximum value of speed at which the vehicle can round a level curve without skidding, To avoid dependence of friction for the supply of necessary centripetal force, curved roads are usually banked by raising outer edge of the road above the inner edge. The angle of banking (0) as is given by, tno =5 = 3s where, his the height of outer edge above the inner edge and b is breadth of the road. When, a cyclist has to bend through an angle 6 {rom his vertical position while rounding a curve of radius r with velocity v, such that tno =» [1 mark each] In which direction the standing passengers of a moving bus fall if the driver suddenly applies Drakes to stop the bus ? ‘The passangers will be thrown forward because of inertia of motion. 1 Is human body a rigid body ? It is deformable, Different parts of the body show some relative displacement so human body is not strictly rigid body. 1 Anastronaut comes out aspaceship accelerating in space with an acceleration a ms, Neglecting the gravitational force of nearby stars, what Copied to clipboard.UNIT-IV WORK, ENERGY AND POWER Work, ENERGY AND Power Syllabus (© Work done by a constant force and a variable force, kinetic energy, work-energy theorem, power: © Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring, conservative forces, conservation of mechanical ‘energy (Kinetic and potential energies), non-conservative forces, motion in a vertical circle, elastic and Inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions. Quick Review ‘© Work is done when constant force F produces a displacement in a body where, @ is smaller angle between F and s However ithe fre is not constant, W = fF. = area under the force displacement graph, addod with proper sign. © Work done is a scalar quantitiy. However, work done is positive when 0 lizs between 0 (zero) and ‘12. Work done isnegative when 0 lies between 7/2 and m. For example, work done by force of friction is negative. Similarly, when a body is thrown up, ‘work done by the gravitational pull is negative. Again, when 0 = 2/2, cos w2=0. Therefore, W 8 cos 0 = 0, ie, work done is ze. © SL unitof work is joule and the cgs unit of work is erg, where I joule = 10” erg © Work done by @ body does not depend on the time taken to complete the work. © Internal work. The work in which mascles are strained, but work done is not useful, is called internal work. For example, when a person carrying load keeps on standing at the same place, work done is zero, but he gets tired on account of internal work © Power of a hody is defined as the time rate of doing work by the body. Thus, in power, time taken by the body to complete the work is significant. Thus, Here, 0 is smaller angle between force F and velocity ¥ of the body. Unit IWe Ist © Energy of a body is defined as the capacity of the body to do the work. Energy is a scalar quantity. It has the same units and dimensions as these of work. Some practical units of energy and their relation with SL unit of energy (joule) are () 1 calorie= 4.25 i) 1 kilowatt hour (kWh 6* 105 (iii) 1 electron volt (1 eV) = 1-6 10-7106 | OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI © Kinetic Enemy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of iis motion. A bullet fired from a gun has K.E, of translation and a rotating wheel on a machine has K.E. of rotation KE. oftranslation = 1m? 2 where, m is mass, vis velocity of the body. KE. of rotation = L1o? 2 where, | is moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation and o is angular velocity of the body. © Law of conservation of energy : From this law, energy can neither be ereated nor be destwyed, Le, sum total of all kinds of energy in this universe remains constant, However, energy can be converted from one form to another, such that amount of energy disappearing in one form is always equal to amount of energy appearing in the other form, Forexample, when a body falls freely, its potential energy goes on decreasing and its kinetic energy _g0¢s on inereasing. The total mechanical enesey of falling body remains constant at all points. If this body strikes the ground, the whole of its kinetic eneryy is lost, but this loss appears in the form of sound energy, light energy and heat energy. © Mass energy relation, From principle of Einstein, ‘mass can be converted into energy and energy ccan be converted into mass, One can be obtained at the cost of the other. The equivalence between ‘mass and energy is expressed in tems of Einstein relation, E=met where, m is the mass that disappears and E is the energy that appears, cis velocity of light in vaccum =3108mst © Conservative and non-conservative forces. A force is said to be conservative, when work done by or against the force in moving a body from one point to another is same for all paths between the ‘wopoints, Inaddition, work done by a conservative Very Short Answer Type Questions Q. 1. What is the dimensional formula of work ? Ans, Work has the dimensional formula as [MT], 1 Q.2. What is the sign of work done by a frictional forse? Ans. If the frictional force itself is not the cause of ‘motion, the work done, by a fictional force Is a negative work. 1 (a) ) (a) ) © «@ force along a closed path is always zero. A force, which does not obey the above two characteristics is suid to be a nor-conservative fores For example, gravitational and electrostatic forces are conservative forees. On the contrary, fore of friction is a non-conservative force. Collisions. When a body strikes against another body or one body influences the other from a distance, the two ae said to collide, Collisions are of two types, Periecly elastic collision is that in which there is no change in kinetic energy of the system, i. total KE before collision = total K.F. after calision eg, collisions between atomic and subatomic particles are perfectly elastic collisions. Perivetly inelastic collision is that in which K.E. is not conserved. Here, the bodies stick together after impact Note + that linear momentum is conserved in every collision elastic as well as inelastic, further total energy also conserved in all such collisions. Kinetic energy alone is not conserved in inclastie collisions The minimum velocity of projection atthe lowest point ofa vertical eile so that the string does not slacken even atthe hishest point is », = J5er In that event, velocity at that highest point is Difference intensions of the string atthe lowest and highest points ofthe vertical circle in this situation is T,—T,= 61mg, Note that, when ¥, = Ber, the body moves in a vertical semi circle about the lowest point. vy, < 78" , then the body oscillates in a cireular ,_< V2" , then the body oscil: r are smaller than the semi-circle. For a_motor cyclist _to loop a vertical loop, ¥,> JSgr and y,> Jer When a bucket full of water is rotated in a vertical circle, water will nt spill nly if velocity of bucket au the highest point is > gr {1 mark each Q.3. Force on a hody 1 exerted by body 2 is equal te that on body 2 by body 1. Is it necessary that work done on I by 2 is equal and opposite to work done on by 2 by 1? ‘Ans, No. A car exerts some force on the road and road exerts same force on the car but displacement of road is zero so wark done by car on road is zero. 1 Copied to clipboard.UNIT-V: MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODY ROTATIONAL ParTIcLes AND ROTATIONAL MOTION Syllabus Centre of mass of a two-particle system, momentum conservation and cenire of mass motion. Contre of mass ofa rigid bod centre of mass of uniform rod. . © Moment ofa force, torque, angular monentum, conservation of angular morentum and its applications. . Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body rotation and equations of rotational motion, comparison of near and rotational motions. Moment of inertia, radius of gyration © Falues of moments of inertia for simple geomerrical objects (no derivation). Statement of parallel and ‘perpendicular axes theorems and their applications. Quick Review © A rigid body is defined as a system of panicles, in which disance between any two particles does not change under the influence of external forces, where, size and shape of the body will remain unaffected under the effect of external forces, © ‘The centre of mass of a body is a point where the whole mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. If all the forces acting on the body ‘were applied on the centre of mass, the nature of ‘motion of the body shall remain unaffected, © The co-ordinates of the centre of mass may, therefore, be writen as Iya A gy et My +m, © Ifno external force acts on a body, itscentre of mass will remain either at rest or move with a constant vel. when =F = Marg, onan © For all symmetrical bodies with uniform distribution of mass, centre of mass coincides with the geometrical centre of the body. For a plane triangular lamina, centre of mass is the centroid of the lamina, 4e., point of intersection of the medians of the triangle. In ease of a cone er pyramid, the centre of mass lies fn the Line joining the axis o the centre of the base at a distance equal to % of the length of this line from the baseROTATIONAL PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION | 127 Position of centre of mass is independent of the reference frame. It depends only on masses of the particles and their relative positions, ‘Whon the body falling freely explodes into pieces, the centre of mass of the system lies sill om the same vertical Line When a shell moving along a parabolic path explodes into pieces, then the centre of the system shall lie along the same parabolic path. ‘Velocity of centre of mass of particles of masses m, and m, moving with speeds > and = is given by 4m, moving with speeds > and 5 is given by Tow = mat mem Acceleration of cente of mass of particles of rnases maid my moving with acsteation Zh sat Za fe preaby my Gt my a mm Fy ‘Torque due to 2 force is moment of force and measures the turning effect of the force about the axis of rotation, The general expression for torque is t Px ‘The direction of torque is given by right handed serew rule, When a body rotating in xy plane, we ‘may write expression for torque as oak, -3F, ‘When Os the angle between r and F, we may write, corFsing=F xd, d=rsing = perpendicular distance of where line of action of F from fixed point. Work done by a torque in tuming the body through a smal angle d0 is aw =1 (0) Power of the torque, Angular momentum of particle about agiven axis is the moment of linear momentum of the particle about the axis. It is equal to the product of linear ‘momentum of the particle and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of linear momentum from the axis of rotation. It is the product of linear ‘momentum and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the axis of rotation, T= 7D =opsing pxd where, d sin ¢= perpendicular distance of line of action of P from the axis. Angular momentum a vector quantity, whose direction is given by right handed serew rule, Titan lip Rate of charge of angular momentum is torque, be, t= dLidi Note that like torque, angular momentum of abody depends only on te transverse component of linear ‘momentum and not on the radial component. Moment of inertia of a body abouta given axis is the property by virtue of which, the body opposes any change in its state of rest or state of uniform rotation about that axis. For a single particle, ‘momento inertia I) is equal to product of mass (m) of the particle and square of perpendicular distance (©) ofthe particle from the axis of rotation, ie. 1 Moment of inertia isa scalar quantity, whose unit is ky mI plays the same role in rotational motion as is played by the mass in linear motion Radius of gyration of a body about a given axis is the distance (K) of a point fiom te given axis, where if whole mass of the body is concentrated the body would have the same moment of inertia, as ithas with the actual distribution of mass. me, The angular momentum of a rigid body roiating abouta givenaxis may be writtenasL=lo Similarly, torque acting on a rigid body rotating about a given axis with uniform angular acceleration & may be written as As do 4 gy) =e faa = From the law of conservation of angular momentum, when sum of extemal torques acting on a system is zero, then the (otal angular momentum of the system remains constant, ie, kL. = constant Copied to clipboard.128| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI © From the theorem of parallel axis, moment of inertia of a body about any axis AB is equal to ‘moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis CD through centre of mass of the body plus the product of mass (M) of the body and square of perpendicular distance (x) between the two paralle] es be ys os Ty ln? Me © From the theorem of perpendicular axis, moment of inertia of @ plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to sum of its moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axis in its z y plane and intersecting at a point where the perpendicular axis passes through it, Hence, L=+], ‘Thus, Ls © Moment of inertia of the following bodies about an axis passing through their centre of gravity and perpendicular to their plane (@ Circularring (i) irculardise (ii), Angular dise where, R is outer radius and r is inner radius of aannalar dise © Moment of inertia of a thin rod about an axis passing through its middle point and perpendicular length, ME 12 © Moment of inertia ofa solid cylinder abcut its long axis of symmetry, MR? 2 © Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder abut its long axis of symmetry 1=MR: © Moment of inertia of a solid sphere about its diameter, 2p? 5 © Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder about its long axis of symmetry, 2 i? 3 @ ML. of a solid cylinder or radius R and lenath / about an axis passing through its centre of gravity and perpendicular to its own axis, PB B) 4 © MLL of ¢ hollow eylinder of radius R and length | about an axis passing through its centre of gravity and perpendicular to its own axis, w(bE) © M1 of uniform rectangular lamina of length /and breadth b, about an axis passing through its centre of gravity and perpendicular to its plr : WES) © St of an lip die abot an x passing through its centre of gravity of perpendicular to its M@ +5) 4 plane is, where, aand b are semi-major and semi-minor axes of the elliptical disc. © MLL of a uniform cone of radius R and height & about an axis joining the vertex to the centre of its MR? base is, io © M1 of a triangular lamina of base b and height p bout the base as axis, Mx 22: south heights ais Mbp? about the hypotenuse 8 xis I= Sp © Kinetic energy of rotation is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its rotational motion. It is given by Lyae le? 2 It isa scalar quantity and is measured in joule. When a body is executing only linear motion, its KE is given by Copied to clipboard.ROTATIONAL PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION |129 However, when a body is rolling without slipping, its centre of mass has linear motion too. Therefore, its otal kinetic energy is sum of translational KLE. and rotational K.E., ie. E Very Short Answer Type Questions What are the units and dimensions of moment of inertia ? Is ita vector ? ‘The unit of Mil are kg m? and its dimensional formula is [M'L°T']. No, itis nota vector. 1 Q. 2. What is the rotational analogue of force ? . Rotational analogue of force is torque. ' What is rotational analogue of mass of a body? Roiational analogue of mass is moment of inertia.1 What are the two theorems of moment of ‘Two theorems of moment of inertia are theorem of parallel axis and theorem of perpendicular axis. 1 ‘What is moment of inertia of a solid sphere about its diameter ? 2p? 5 Qn ‘Ans. Ans. Qa Ans. as where M is the mass and R is radius of the hollow sphere, 1 What are the factorson which moment of inertia, ‘of a body depend ? Moment of inertia of a body depends on position and orientation of the axis of rotation. It also 100% z R Rotation of earth. g=g' +Ro? cos? or g , — Ro? cos! where, c is the angular velocity of rotation ofearth bout its polar axis and 2 is the latitude of a place At the equator, Atthe poles, 0 gf =g— Ro? cos? 90 = 2 Hence, the value of acceleration due 10 gravity increases from equator to pole due to rotation of earth. Itmeans the value ofg increases with latitude Ifa body of mass m is moved fiom equator to pole its weight increases by an amount (g,—g) = mRo* Decrease in gin going from pole to equator is about 035%, When the earth stops rotating about its own axis, there will be no change in the value of g on the poles, but there will be inerease in the value of g by about 0°35% atthe equator When the earth starts rotating 17 times faster than its present rate, the value of on the equator will become zero, but it will remain unchanged at the poles. Inthis situation, the duration of day will be 1 hour 24 minutes. Shape of the earth. Farth is not a perfect sphere It is flattened at the poles and bulges out at the equator. The polar radius of earth is smaller than its equatorial radius by 21 km. As ¢ = GmiR2, so 2 o UR It means the value of acceleration due to gravity increases as we go from equator to pole. In fact, due to shape of the earth, at see level, the value of acceleration due to gravity at pole is greater than at equator by 1-80.em $7 Freely falling body. A body is said to be a fely falling body, when it falls under the effectof gravity of earth alone and the effect of all other forces is negligible. A freely falling body is ene which falls with the acceleration due to gravity When two bodies of different masses are dropped simultaneously from the same height in vacuum then they fall with the same acce-leration and reach the carth simultaneously. But the force of gravity oon them will be different.152| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI Gi) When two bodies of different masses are dropped simultaneously from the same height in ar, then the heavier body will reach first than the lighter body. ii) In case of a freely falling body, the apparent weight (iv) Incase ofa freely falling system, the time period of simple pendulum is infinity. (v) When abody of density p is falling under gravity in a medium of density p,, then the effective value of the acceleration due to gravity is given by Pp 1 al *) (@) 1fp=p, theng’=0. (b) If p> py, then g’ is negative, ie, the body will accelerate upwards. (©) If p < py then g' is positive, ie., the body will accelerave downwards. But g’ =. If solid bodies of different densities are thrown upwards with the same velocity in air, the lighter body attains greater height. If solid bodies of different densities are falling downwards through air, from the same height, due to the effect of upward thrust of ar, the solid body of higher density falls Faster and reaches the earth first. © Gravitational field is. the space around a ‘material body in which its gravitational pull can be experienced by other bodies. The strength Of gravitational feld at a point is the measure of gravitational intensity at that point ‘The intensity of gravitational field of a body at 1 point is defined as the force experienced by a body of unit mass placed at that point provided the presence of body of unit mass does not disturb the original gravitational feld. (The intensity of gravitational field at a point of distance r from the centre of the body of mass M is given by wi (wii) 1-E_GM me = acceleration due to gravity Very Short Answer Type Questions QL. What is the celestial sphere ? Ans. The huge hemispherical surface of sky in which starts and planets etc. appear to be struck is called celestial sphere. 1 Q.2. What is constellation ? Ans, The groups of stars resembling the shapes of animals, common daily use objects, figures ete, are called constellations, e.g. hunter, great bear, small dipper etc. 1 Gi) The unit of intensity of gravitational field is N kg and its dimersional formula is [M°L'T > (iii) The intensity of gravitational field is a vector quantity. It is always in a direction towards the centre of the mass producing the gravitational field. The value of intensity of gravitational field is zero at infinity (¥) The total intensity of gravitational field at a point is the vector sum of the intensities of gravitational fields due to individual mass bodies present that field, ie, Tate ie ww (vi) At a point inside a spherical shell, the value of gravitational intensity, = 0. Theweight ofa body ina spherical cavity concentric with the earth is zero © The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point without acceleration, Gravitational potential (V) at a point is, work done (W) test mass (7%) 7 wit) where, G is the mass of the body due to which there is a gravitational field and ris the distance of the point in the field from the centre of the mass of the body. (i) Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity. Its S.1. unit is J kg and its dimensional formula is [M22]. The value of gravitational potential (V) inside a spherical shell is equal to its value on the surface of the shell. Gravitational intensity (1) is related with gravitational potential (V) by a relation, 12. dr At every point, inside a spherical shell of radius R, the gravitational potential is same as that on the surface of the shell, i. V=—GM/R, (i) (iii) w [1 mark each] Q.3. What ia parallax ? Ans. The relative motion of bodies with reference to the far off bodies rest in the blackground is called parallax 1 Q.4. What was Nicolas planetary motion ? Ans, He stated that all the planets moved in perfect circles around the sun. His theory supported heliocentric model 1 Copernicus theary ofUNIT-VII : PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF Syllabus SOLIDS © Elastic behaviour, Stress-stvain relationship, Hooke’ law, Young's modulus, Bulk modulus, shear modulus of rigidity, Poission’s ratio, elastic energy: Quick Review © Interatomic forces are those forves which are acting between the atoms dic to electrostatic interaction between the charges of the atoms, ‘The potential energy U is related with the interatomic force F by the relation F ‘dr where ris the separation between two atoms. If the distance between the atoms is large, the potential energy U is negative and becomes more negative as ris decreased, In this situation, the interatomic force is attractive in nature © Intermolecular forces are the forees between the mokcules due to electrostatic interaction between the charges of the molecules. © Plasma state : It is a state of matter in whieh the medium is in the form of positive and negative © Crystalline solids are those solids which have a definite external geometrical form and whose constituent stoms/ionsimolecules are arranged in definite pattern in three dimensions within the solid. Examples : Quartz, calcite, rock salt, sugar mica, diamond etc. Crystalline solids have sharp melting point and they are an isotropic in behaviour. Amorphous solids are those solids which have no definite external geometrical form and whose constituent atomsionsmolecules are not arranged in a definite pattem in three dimensions within the solid. Examples : Rubber, glass, plastic, cement, paraffix ete. Amorphous solids do not have sharp melting point and they are isotropic in behaviour. Deforming foree is that force whick when applied changes the configuration of the body. Elasticity is the property of the body by virture of which the body regains its original configuration (length, volume or shape) when the deforming forces are removed, Perfectly elastic body is that body which perfectly regains its original fom on removing the external deforming force from it, quartz© Plastic body is that body which does not regain its original form at all oa the removal of deform force, howseever small the deforming force may be, e.g., putty and paraffin wax. © Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force ‘up to which i deforming force is removed, the body regains its criginal form completely and beyond which if the fore is increased, the body loses its property of elasticity and it geis permanently deformed. Elastic limit is the property of a body whereas elasticity is the property of material of a body. © Stress is defined as the intemal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body, i¢., ‘Stress = restoring foree/area ‘The SL. unit of sess is Nin? and its dimensional formulas [M'L-'T], Stress isa tensor quantity. Normal stress can be a longitudinal stress. or volume stress, Longitudinal stress : If a body changes its length under a deforming force and the stress is normal to the surface of the body then the stress is called longitudinal stress, The longitudinal stress can be a tensile stress or compression siress. ‘The longitudinal stress produced because of inerease in length of body under deforming force is known as tensile stress. The longitudinal stress produced due to decrease in length of body under a deforming force is known as compression stress ‘Volume stress: Ia body changes its volume under normal deforming force acting on every surface of the body, the siress set up in the body is volume stress. ‘Tangential stress : Its also called shearing stress ‘When a deforming force applied tangentially tothe surface of the body changes the shape of the body without changing its volume, the stress set up is known as tangential siress. The shape of the body changes or the body gets twisted due to tangential stress. © Strain is defined as the ratio of change in configuration of the deformed body because of a deforming force on it, to the original configuration of the body. It means, change in configuration original configuration Strain can be of three types, depending upan the direction of force (@) Longitudinal strain, (ii) Volumetric strain, (Gi) Shearing strain Strain = change in length yy Longitudinal stain ~ “al ength ~ (ii) MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS |171 Jhange in volime _ ay original volume Y Volumettie strain Shearing strain is produced when the deforming force is applied parallel to the surface of a body and body changes its shape without changing its volume. Shearing strain is defined as the angle through which a vertical line perpendicular to the Asal B F If a = AL L Shearing strain ‘Strain hes no unit and dimension, Ifabeam is bent, both compression strainas well as extension strain are produced, Hooke’s law states that within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain, i. Modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity (E) of a body is defined as the ratio of stress to the coresponding strain produced, within the dastic limit, i, E = stress/strain Modulus of elasticity is of three types Young’s modulus of elasticity (¥) is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain, within the elastic limit, Le normal stress Tongitudinal strain = Fla By ala MT Y is the property of solid material only. Y increases con mixing the impurity in the solid and decreases on increasing the temperature of the solid body. Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) is first defined by Maxwell. It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric stra within the elastic limi, i. normal stress Volumetric strain Copied to clipboard.172| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI o a (a) = Fla =av/¥ =p av K is the property for solid, liquid and gases For gases, bulk modulis is of two types Isothermal bulk modulus of elasticity (K,) which is equal to the pressure of gas P). Adiabatic bulk modulus of ekasticty (K,) which is equal to y P. where y= Gy. is maximum for solids, less for liquids and least for gases Compressibility is defined as the reciprocal of bulk modulus of claticity. The pressure necessary to stop volume expansion of a piece of metal is P=Ky AT, where K is bull modulus of elasticity of metal, is the coefficient of volume expansion (= 30). Modulus of Rigidity (1) is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain within the elasti limit, ie tangential stess Fa oF shearing strain 0) " @ 11s the characteristic of solid material only as the liquids and gases do not have fixed shape. n, for liquid is zero. Ductile materials are those materials which show large plastic range beyond the elastic limit, and which can be drawn into sheets and springs. Examples ate copper, silver, iron, aluminium ete Brittle materials are those materials which show vvery small range beyond the elastic limit, For such ‘materials the breaking point lies close tothe elastic limit. Examples are cast iron, glass ete Elastomers are those materials for which stress and strain variation is not straight line within the clastic limit and strain produced is much larger than the stress applied, Such materials have no plastic range. The breaking point lies very close to elastic limit. Example is rubber. ‘The material which can be greatly stretched are called elastomers Elastic after effect. The time delay in regaining the original configuration by the elastic body after the removal of a deforming force is called clastic after effect, Itis least for quartz.or phosphor bronze and maximum for glass. Elastic after effect is a temporary absence of elastic properties. Atemparary loss of elastic properties due to continuous use of a body for long time is called elastic fatigue. Poission’s ratio (6). It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain, ie, Interal strain (8) Tongitudina strain (@) _ -ADID __ -AD. AIT Al Numerical value of ¢ lies between -1 and + + but ractical value of 6 lies between 0 and + Practical value of ies bexween 0 and + 4 1 Porntir o~ Lie $2] wt Land Va thn eng and ole of te ner ie frpineb A che ns dhs int © Relations between various elastic constants, (i) Relation between 6, wand B, where and (ii) Relation between Y and a, when stress = I unit 1 (iii) Relation between n, ocand B= 375 py (iv) Relation between Y, Kand, Y= 3 K (1-2) (¥) Relation between Y, and o, Y= 2n (1+ 0) 3K=2n (i) Relation between K, mando. o= 3 aR Soly3 (vii) Relation between Y, Kandn, = R45 © Elastic potential energy in a stretched wire. Elastic potential energy in a stretched wire is U= t stretching force > extension in length of wire = Lee aLE .Al sa 2 2a 1 > stress» strain * volume Elastic potential energy per unit volume af the wire wed 2 v stress » strain al (Y & strain) « strain Y x (sirain)? Copied to clipboard© Interatomic force constant (k).. (tis given by ieratomic force Change in interatomic disiance Fo =r. ‘where V is the Young's modulus of elasticity and ry isthe intoratomie distance of the given body: The unit of fis Nav! ‘The number of atoms having interatomic distance ‘oy in length F of « work ‘The number of chains in area A of wire, having interatomic separation ry, ism = Air? ‘© Energy stored per unit volume of a strained body is given by N=Un (itty Very Short Answer Type Questions Avogadro’s hypothesis is “Equal volumes of all ‘gates under the same conditions of temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules.” Suppose we replaced molecules by hypothesis. Would the modified hypothesis be correct ? atoms in thi ‘Ans. No, because then it means that the fractions of atoms can take part in reactions whieh is against Dalton’s atomic theory. 1 Q. 2. What is Vander Wall force ? Ans. It is an attractive force between molecules. The origin ofthis force is electrical. 1 What is plasma ? IKVS 2014 ‘Ans. It is the fourth stats of matter having ionised structure, 1 Q.4. What type of forces are required for the formation of solids ? Ans. Interatomic forces of repulsive nature are required to forma soli Name two classes of solids. Solids are of two types Ans. (1) Crystalline solids 2) Glassy oF amorphous solids. (mark each) Why do crystals have reproducible external shapes? IKVS 2014] ‘The flat surfaces of the crystal have their relative areas in fixed ratios and the angles between the flat faces also have fixed ratios. 1 Q.7. How can the structure of a erystal be studied ? ‘Ans. With the help of X-rays. 1 Q.8. How are the amorphous materials formed ? Ans. If groups of atoms arenot givena chanceto average themselves in proper order say by checking their ‘mobility at low temperature, amorphous solids are formed, e.g., amorphous carbon, 1 Q6 Ans. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS | 173 w= 1 x stress * strain 2 — (stress) Ww = Y (strain) 2 © Workdone ina stretched wire, w = 1 x stress x strain x volume dx Ex AL vat 2A OL = Lr at= 1 toad x extention 2 2 [1 mark each] Q.9. What are elastomer’s ? Ans. The substance which can be stretched to large values of strain are called elasiomers, eg., elastic tissue of aorta, the largest artery carrying, blood from the heart. 1 0.10. What is ultimate or tensile strength ? Ans. The stress at which the specimen breaks or ruptures ultimately is called ultimate or tensile strength, 1 QL. Which is more elastic : Water or air ? Give reason, IKVS 2013] Ans. Volume of elasticity isreciprocal of compressibility Airis more compressive than water. Hence water is ‘more elastic than air, 1 Q.12, Define compressibili Ans. Compressibiity is the reciprocal of the bulk modules, (€,, compressibility = 1 " “OK Q.13. Name the modules which is applicable for solids ‘and fluids ? Ans. Bulk modulus. 1 Q14.Why do ilar chemical properties ? Ans. Isotopes of on clement have same atomic number and chemical properties ofan element depend upoa atomic number, s0 isotopes have similar chemical properties. 1 Q.15, Why is Brownian motion significant ? Ans. It gives an evidence for the existence of atoms. 1 Q.16.One kg of water is decomposed into its elements : hydrogen and oxygen. The mass of hydrogen released is 0-111 kg. Find mass of oxygen released. Ans. Mass of oxygen isotopes have si ot 889 kg 110 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Syllabus OF FLUIDS © Pressure due to a fluid column, Pascal's law and its applications (hydraulic liftand hydraulic breaks). Effect of gravity on fluid pressure. © Fiscosity, Stokes” law; terminal velocity theorem and its applications. wreamtine and turbulent flow, Critical velocity, Bernoulli's © Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of pressure across a curved surface, ‘application of surface tension ideas to drops, bubbles and capillary rise. Quick Review iscosity is the property of liquid duc to which a backward dragging force called viscous force act tangentially on the layer of the liquid in motion, © The backward dragging force acting on a small sphore of radius ‘+ falling with uniform velocity v through a medium of coefficient of viscosity ‘nis given by Stock’s law— F = 6nnry © Bemoull’s theorem state that the total energy (pressure energy, PE. and K.E. ofan incompressible nnon-viscous liquid in steady flow remain constant Shroghnt the Row ofthe igs Ppgh + EP: constant © Thrust. (@) The total normal force exerted by liquid at rest oa 2 given surface in contact with itis know as thrust of liquid on that surfice. It is due to collision of molecules of liquid while moving at random, with the walls of the container and rebounding from them, (42) When a liquid is in equilibrium or rest, the force acting on its surface is perpendicular everywhere. © Pressure of liquid or hydrostatic pressure (P). (i) Is defined as the thrust acting per unit area of the surface in contact with liquid, Le., ‘Theest (F) Area (A) ~ A = hog i) Liquid pressure is independent of shane of the liquid surface as well as area of the liquid surface, ‘but depends upon height of liquid column, (iii) Total pressure at « depth br below liquid surface is P=hpg +P. where P, is the atmospheric pressure, (iv) SL unit of pressure is Nov? or pascal (denoted by Pa) and its dimensional formula is IML 'T (v) Pressure is a scalar quantity because aliquid at rest cexerts equal pressure in all directions at all points in the same horizontal plane.186 | OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI (vi) Mean pressure on the walls of a beaker is ‘ipg/2; where h is height of liquid column in the beaker and p is the deasity of liquid. © Pascal’s Jaw. States that if gravity effect is neglected, the pressure at every point of liquid in equilibrium of rest is same, Pascal's law also states that the increase in pressure at one point of the enclosed liquid in equilibrium of res is transmitted equally (o all other points of liquid provided the aravity effect is neglected. © Atmospheric pressure. (i) Is defined as the pressure exerted by atmosphere. Gi) AtS.1.P.,the valuc of atmospheric pressure is 1-0 x 105 Nav? or 1-01 » 10° dyne‘em © Various units of atmospheric pressure are mm cr em of Hg cokuna, torr (I mm of Hg column), bor (= 10° Pay (i) Buoyant fore of Buoyancy is an upward force acting on the body immersed in a liquid Gi) Buoyant force of Buoyancy is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the immersed part of the ody. ii) The Buoyant force acts atthe entre of Buoyaney ‘which isthe centre of gravity ofthe liquid displaced by the body when immersed in the liquic. Gv) The line joining the centre of gravity and certre of Buoyancy is called central line. (v) Metacentre. It is a point where the vertical line passing through the centre of Buoyancy intersects the central line. © Archimede’s principle. States that when a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid at rest, it loses some of its weight, which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body. Observed weight of body = true weight ~ weight of liquid displaced. If wis the observed weight of body of density p when immersed in a liquid of density 6, then w=Mg~ me =ahpg — ahog ahg(p 9) True weight, w (019) © Laws of floatation. States that a body will float in a liquid if weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body is at least equal to or greater than the weight of the body. i) When true weight of the body W> w (weight of the liquid displaced), the body will sink to the bottom of the liquid. twill be so when the density of solid body (p) is greater than the density of liquid (), he.p>o. (ii) When W ara of liquid surfaee formed (iv) Surface tension is a molevular phenomenon and it arises due to electromagnetic forces, The explanation of surface tension was first given by Laplace (v) S.L units of surface tension is Nv! or Jm? and CGS unt is dynee (iv) Dimensional formula of surf = (MILT? (vii) Surface tension js a scalar quantity as it bas no specific direction for & given ligui. (viii) Surface tension does not depend upon the area of the free surface of liquid a rest © Surface energy. GIs defined a8 the amount of work done against the force of surface tension in forming the liquid surface of a given area at a constant temperature, Surface energy = work done = §.T. x surface area of liquid. (ii) The S.1. unit of surface energy is Joule and C.G.S. unit is erg. (iii) 1f small drops combine together (© form a big drop, the surface area decreases, so surface energy decreases. Therefore the energy is released. If this energy is taken by drop, the temperature of drop increase. (iv) Ifabig drop is splitted into number of smaller drops, the surfice area of drops increases, Hence surface energy increases. So energy is spent Very Short Answer Type Questions Q.1. Define buoyant force. ‘Ans. The upward force on a body, dipped in a liquid, is called buoyant force, 1 ‘What is the main difference between liquid and gases ? A liquidis incompressible and has a definite volume anda free surface of its own, A gas is compressible ‘and it expands to occupy all the spoce available to it 1 ‘Why are the bags and suitease provided with broad handles ? [As the force per unit area of pressure exerted on thenand willbe nal while caying the bag othe Railway tracks are laid on large sized weed sleepers. Why ‘This spreads force due to the weight of the train on a larger area and hence reduces the pressure considerably. This in tum, prevents yeing ofthe ground under the weight ofthe train. Q.2. Ans, as Ans. a4. Ans. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS | 187 © Work done in blowing a liquid drop or soap bubble (@) Work done in forming a liquid drop of radius R, surface tension Sis, W= 4n'S, (ii) Work done in forming a soap bubble of radius R, surface tension Sis, W=2 4nR?S = SuR%S, ii) Work done in inereasing the radius of aliquid drop from r, 107, is, w (iv) Work done in increasing the radius of a scap bubble from r, t0 7's, nS (72-72) W = 8x5 (r © Capillary action of capillarity. (@ Is the phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube. Gi) The root cause of eapillarty is the difference of pressure on the two sides of liquid meniscus in the ‘capillary tube. Gi) The height J through which a liquid will rise in a capillary tube of radius r which wets the sides of the tube will be given by 2Scos@_ 28 mpg” Rog where S is the surface tension of liquid, 0 is the angle of contet, p is the density of liquid and. the acceleration due to gravity. R is the radius of curvature of liquid meniscus. ?) [1 mark each] Q.5. What is uid ? ‘Ans. Fluid isthe name given to a substance which begins to flow when external force is applied onit, 1 What is the motion of molecules of a fluid in = container ? 6. ‘Ans. When the fluid is kept in a container the molecules of afluid are in random motion due to their thermal velocities are constantly colliding with the walls of the container and rebounding from them, 1 It is painful to walk barefooted on the ground covered with edged pebbles. Why ? Ans. While walking, when entire weight of our body gets supported on the sharp edge of any pebble, it will exert a large pressure on our feet due to reaction. This causes pain in our fect 1 Q.8. It is difficult fora man to walk on sand. Why? Ans, This is because sand yields under the weight of the ‘man, This difficulty can be overcome by placing ‘wooden plank on the sand. Then the weight of the ‘man will act on larger area and hence pressure a7. Copied to clipboard.11 THERMAL PROPERTIES Syllabus oF MATTER Heat, temperature, thermal expansion, thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases, anomalous expansion of water, specific heat capacity; Cp, Cv-calorinetry, change of state, latent heat capacit: (© Heat ransfer-conduction, convection and radiation, thermal conductiviyy. qualitative ideas of Blackbody ‘radiation, thermal conductivity, Wein s displacement law, Stefan slaw, Green house effect. Quick Review Heat is a form of energy, which produces the sensation of warmth. The thermal energy in matter i present in the form of translational, rotational and vibrational energy of its atomsmotecutes ‘Temperature of a body is a measure of degree of hotnessicoldaess of the body, This macroscopic property determines the direction of flow of heat, ‘when the given body is placed in contact with some other body. ‘Volume of water decreases with the increase in temperature from0°C to 4°C. Itis called anamolous expansion of water, Density of water is maximum at 4: maximum value is 1 gem or 10° kemr® ‘Water ((° to 4°C) and silver iodide (80°C to 141°C) coniracton beating. Quartz, pyres glass, fased siliea and invar neither expand nor contract on heating, On freezing, the volume of ice becomes more than thatof water in cold countries when the temperature -g0es below 0°C and thus the pipe expands and may burs. Principle of calorimetry is, Heat gained = Heat lost > and its ‘© A sensitive thermometer is one whieh shows lage change in the position of mercury meniscus for small change in temperature Al= 1,200 or = (1 + a0). 4S ~S,a0 oF S, ~S,(1 + B40). AV =VyyA0 or V,=V,(0 +490) Critical temperature is that temperature upto which sg can be liguified by applying pressure alone Vapour sa gas above critical temperature and gat «vapour below critical temperature. © Measurement of temperature is made using a thermometer The property of materials used for measurement of unknown temperature is called thermometrc property: For example (j) Thermal expansion of liquids is used in designing mercury thermometers and alechol thermometers In liquid thermometers, unknown temperature in °C is given by where V,, Vig, and Y, are volumes of the given liquid at OC, 100°C and PC respectively In °K, the unknown temperature, is given by210| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI Ve yy T= yh *273-16K, wher V, volume occupied by the gas at triple point of water ii) Thermal expansion of gases forms the basis of constant volume gas thermometer. In a constant volume gaseous thermometer, the corresponding formulae are GaP) * Plog =Py * 100°C r= 2 x ipt6K. where P,, P,.» P,and P, ae the pressures exerted by the gas ai 0°C, 100°C, PC and triple point of water respectively, © Four seales of temperature in common use are (iii) Variation of resistance with temperature is the w basis of platinum resistance thermometer. In a platinum resistance thermometer, the corresponding formula is : = Ry =Ry) 1006, iw Ro T = & vanst6k where R, R,,..R,and R, are the values ofresistance of thermometer at 0°C, 100°C, °C and triple point of water respectively, Thermoelectric thermometers are based on Seebeck cffect S.No. Seale Teepoint | Steam | No.of | Smallest point | divisions | division 1. [Centrignde swale we | 108c 100 eC 2, | Fahrenheit scale zr | 20°F 180 Ve 3. | Reaumer scale oR 80°R 80 1eR 4, | Thermodynamical scale or Absolute Kelvin seale Kk | 3BK 100 LK (@ Relation between "CF and "Ris epend on the nature of material oF the body and CLE-32_R the state ofthe body. soe ‘When two substances at different temperatures are (ii) TR= (€C +273) or ©C=(TK-273) (iii) Tep. ditt of 1°C = Temp. dif. of LK. (iv) Nommal temp. of a perio is 98 6°F or 37°C (¥) The temp. of —40°is same in °C and °F. © Zero of the seale of temperature is taken as (melting point of ice, when temperatures are measured in °C. (ii) triple point of water, when temperatures are measured in Kelvin scale (K). Triple point of ‘water i the temperature at which three phases of ‘water (ice, water and vapours) coexist in thermal equilibrium. Its value is 273-16 K. © The amount of heat (Q) required to raise the tomperature of abody of mass () through asmall range (AT) is given by AQ= em (AT) where cis called specific heat of the body, whose value depends only on nature of material of the bosy. © The amount of heat (AQ) required to change the state of a body of mass (m) ffom solid to liquid at melting point of solid or from liquid to gas at boiling point of the liquid is given by AQ= ml. Where L is latent heat of the substance. Note that the value of specific heat (c) and latent heat (L) mixed together, heat flows from the one at higher temperature io the other at lower temperature. till their temperatures become equal. According to the law of mixtures or principle of calorimetry, Heat gained (by colder body) = Heat lost (by hotter body) ‘.e.mass * specific heat * rise in temperature — mass * specific heat» fallin temperature During sublimation process. both the solid and the vapour states of a substance co-exist in thermal equilibrium. Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to change the state of unit mess of the substance without changing its temperature (Q = ML). Iis units are cag or joule/kg and its dimensions are [PR] Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 calle, Latent heat of vaporisation of water= 540 calig ‘Thermal capacity of a body is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of the entire body by 1°C. From AQ =Cm (AT), when AT=1°C, Thermal capacity = AQ = Cm * 1 eal!°C Water equivalent of a substance is the mass of water, which would absorb or evolve the same Copied to clipboard.amount of heat asis done by the substance in ising or falling through the same range of temperature Wis denoted by 1, and is given by the product of specific heat (C) and mass (m) ofthe substance, Le, w=Cxm Itis measured in gram, Note that water equivalent Gin gram) is numerically equal to thermal eapacity (incal°C). Specific heat of any substance is the amount of heat required to tase the temperature of one gran of the substance through 1°C, It is measured in cally". ‘The specific heat of an idsal/perfect gat does not depend upon temperature. But specific heat of an actual gasivander Waal’s gas depends upon temperature. By definition, specific heat of water is I ealig"C or 4-2 joule//°C or 4200 JikyC. If slabs of different materials are connected in serios, as shown ia Figure

Us ‘ pl Us =v ' ‘ P v =F =T (©) The P-T and V-T graphs are straight lines perpendicular to temperature ais, They are shown in Figures (f) Bulk modulus of elasticity under isothermal conditions is given by x= aR aviv © Characteristics of adiabatic process: (2) Q=constant or aQ (6) TFS represents entropy, then from (©) Fquation of @ © o @ (i) Gai) Ww o wi r ) Isotverrral Aaa =v ie tho is 9 change ofentapy in an abate change, Thats wy a adabeae proces called isrentope proces site ¢ v= eunstat herey = CE changes is The variation of P with V at constant heat content is represented by an Adiabatic curve, shown in given figure, which is also a rectangular hyperbola, Since, itis clear from figure an adiabatic curve is steeper than an isothermal curve. In fact, slope of adiabatic curve = y-times the slope of isothermal Bulk modulus of clastcity, under adiabatic conditions is given as k = AP. avW Equation of state is the equation connecting pressure, volume and tempemture of the gas. Equation of state for an ideal gas is py =RT an actual gas is (P+ av) (V—6)=RT an isothermal process is PV = constant an isobaric process is, X =constant. T an isochoric process is = constant an adiahs process is PV’ = constant; Tvs! constnand 7 = const Work done during expansion of gas = or In an isothermal process W=2-3026 RT log, | amar 2) w230| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI Tay PY PY) Other expressions for work done by a gas in adiabatic expansion may by expressed as (ii) In aisobarie process w=PC (iv) Inaisochorie process. AsV=constant, dV =0, . W=0 (¥) Inanoneyetie process, W=area of P-V curve = area enclosed between the PVeurve and volume axis, The value of W would depend upon the path followed by the system in going from initial state to final state (vi) Ima eyaie process, |W = area enclosed by the closed loop representing the cyelic process. W is positive when loop is traced in clockwise direction and W is negative, when loop is traced in anticlockwise direction. ‘When a gas expands, work is done by the gas. It is taken as Positive, ( av=0) When a gas is compressed, work is done on the sas. tis taken as Negative. (~" dV <0) © If heat is converted inio work or work is converted intoheat, then W JQ, where J=joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat = 4'2 joule/calori. The value of W could be mh: Lm © Zeroth law of thermodynamics corresponds the concept of temperature, thermal equilibrium of a system, According to this law, if two systems A and B ave separately in thermal equilibrium with a thind system C, then And B will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. © First law of thermodynamics is basically the aw of conservation of energy. According to this Jaw, when a certain amount of heat enerny (dQ) disappears, an equivalent amoust of energy appears in some other form. When (dU) is small increase in internal energy and (dW) is small amount of external work done by the system in expansion, then dq= aU +aW Second taw of termodynamies represents the direstion of flow of heat, According to Clausius Statement, its impossible fra self-cting machine unaided by any extemal egoney, to transfer heat from a body at lower temperature to 2 body at higher temperature So, hea can he transferred from lower temperature to higher temperture only waen some external work is done or energy is supplied 10 the system For example, a reigerator cools things only when electric energy is supplied it Further, we deduce from second aw, that efficiency of any hen engine can never be 100%. In a eyelic process, the sysyem retums 10 is initial sate after passing through various stages of pressure, volume and temperature, P-V curve representing @ cyclic process is a closed curve Work done on‘by the system is given by area enclosed by the closed curve. In sich 1 process, a=0,d0=0 Therefore dQ=dW In ease of non-eyoic process, the system does not retum to ts intial tate aT =0,d020,dQ2 dW. Entropy of a system isa measure ofits molecular disorder. The arcater the disorder, wrester S the entropy. The change in entopy is given by ‘AQ _ heat sbsorbed AS = <> = absolute temp. A process which can be reversed is called a reversible process, and the process which cannot be traced back in opposite direction is called an irreversible process. For example, fasion of ice vaporization of water art reversible. procestes ‘Work done against friction, joule heating effect ete. are irreversible processes. ‘A beat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Efficiency of heat enigne is the fraction of total heat supped to the engine, which is converted into work te n-W.28 . ag a where W = useful wor donefeyce by the engine Q,= amount ofheat energy absorbed/eyse fom the source Q amount of heat rejected/cycle to the sink and W=,-9, When T, is temperatrue of source: is temperature of sink, thenth =1 T © A Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine, which comists of a source of infinite thormal capacity Which is maintained ata constant high temperature T, and a sink of heat of infinite thermal capacity maintained at a constant low temperature T, and ideal gas acts asthe working substance. It comistsa cylinder ited with an insuiating frietionkess piston ‘The eylinder has a conducting base and insulating walls Itcan be placed on an insulating pad ‘© Carnot engine is works on the principle of Camot cycle made up of four tages : Isothermal expansion; ‘Adiabatic expansion MN; Isothermal compression; Adiabatic compression OL as represented in given Figure. If Q, is the amount of heat absorbed per cycle from the source at temperature T, ; Q, is the amount of heat rejected per eycle to the sink at Very Short Answer Type Questions Q. 1, What is an ideal gas? . An ideal gas is one in which the inter molecular forces are absent, Moreover, in ideal gas strictly ‘obeys the gas laws. The molecules of an ideal ‘gas considered as point masses, ie, size of the molecules ofan ideal gas are nogligible. 1 . How is the mean kinetic energy of a gas related to its temperature ? . Moan kinetic energy is proportional (o its absolute ‘temperature, It At what temperature, gas loses all its energy ? At zero kelvin, Le, at -273°C, called absolute zen. It |. How much volume does one mole ofa gas occupy at NEP? 224 lite ' What is heat Heat is a form of energy which is inherent in any body. It flows from a body at s higher temperature to 2 body ata lower temperature, I }. When two bodies are said to be in thermal ‘equilibrium ? Wien the two bodies are at the same temperature.1 ‘A piece of metal is hammered. Does ‘energy increase ? ‘The work done during hammering gets converted into heat energy. Due to this, its internal energy increases. t ‘What is the change in internal energy of'a system ‘over one complete cycle of a eyelie process ? Q3. Ans. Ans. Qr Ans. THERMODYNAMICS | 231 temperature T,; W = useful work done/eycle by the engine, then we can show that Efficiency, [1 mark each] Ans. Zero. Itis because when a system is moved over a ‘complete cycle, it returns fo its original state. 1 Q.9. What is the amount of work done in a cyelie process? Ans. It is numerically equal to the area of the cyclic process, 1 Q.10. Which thermodynamic variable is defined by the first law of thermodynamics ? Ans. Internal energy. 1 Q.11. What is the relation between heat energy, work done and change in internal energy ? Ans. The relation is aQ-dvidw 1 Q.12, What is triple point ? Ans. The combination of pressure and temperature at which all the thive states of substance, Ze, solid, liguid and gas coexist is known as triple point For water tiple point is 273-16 K or 001°C at a pressure of torr 1 Q.13. Can a gas be liquified at any temperature by the increase of pressure alone ? Ams. A gas can be liquidified by pressure alone, only when its temperature is below its critical temperature. 1 0.14, What is the critical temperature of wate Ans. 374-1°C. 1 Q.15. How does the melting point of water change with inerease in pressure ? Ans. The B.P, of water increases with increase in pressure. 1UNIT-IX : BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GAS AND KINETIC THEORY 13 BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GAS AND KINETIC THEORY Syllabus Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done in compressing a gas. © Kinetic theory of gasesassumpitons, concept of pressure. Kinetic interpretation of temperatures, rms. speed of gas molecules: degrees of freedom, law of equi-parttion of energy (statement onty) and ‘application to specific heat capacities of gases; concept of mean free path, Avogadro’ number Quick Review © (i) Ideal gas or perfect gas is that gas which strictly obeys gas laws, like Boyle's law, Charle’s law ete, For ideal gas, the size of the gas molecules is zero and the volume of the gas molecule i also zero. ‘There is no free of attraction & repulsion arvongst the molecules of an ideal gas ‘There isno intermolecular potential energy for the molecules of an ideal gas. ‘The molecules of an ideal gas consists only kinetic enerey. ‘The ideal gas cannot be liguified oF soliify, which supports the absence of intermolecular forces of ideal gas, ‘The intemal energy ofan ideal gas does not depend on volume. (viii) The internal energy of an ideal gas depends upon the temperature alone (ix) The specific heat of an ideal gas is independent of temperature (%) No gas availabe in the universe is strictiy an ideal gas ci) Gi) i) w wi. wii) (xi) The gas inert gases behave very similar to ideal gases, (sii) Thereal gases at low pressure and high temperature behave as ideal gases, (xiii) Real gases obey gas equation, ie., PV =nRT. © (i) _ Real gases w are known as real Gi) The size of the moeleules af a real gas is finite and hence the volume of the molecules of a real gas is finite, (iii) There is a force of attraction oF repulsion between the molecules of a real gas. The intermolecular force between molecules is attractive for large intermolecular separation and repulsive for small intermolecular separation, (iv) The molecules of a real gas have potential energy as well os kinotic energy. (¥) The internal energy of a real gas depends on pressure, volume and temperature ofthe gas,wid (ii) BEHAVIOUR OF PERI ers ns canbe lian slid The re do ot obey gas eunton but obey Xn aspen + thw, (r+ S)w-o=nr where a and b are Vander Waal’s ges constants for ‘one mole of a real gas. (ili) The real gases like CO., NII,, SO, ete. obey ty) (wi) (xii) @ «a ii) 0 (i) ‘Vander Waal's equation at high pressure and low temperature In Vander Waal's equation, the value ofa depends upon the intermolecular force andthe nature of the gas ‘The value of b depends upon the size of the gas molecules and represents the volume occupied by the molecules of a gas In Vander Waal's equation (V ~ 6) shows volume available to the molecales of the real gas, which is the effective volume of the gas Real gases do not obey the gas laws at all tempersres Gram mole and kilogram mole : The molecular weight expressed in gram is known as gram mole (g mob. The molecular weight expressed in kilograns is known as kilogram mole (kg. mo). ‘The mass of | mole ofa gas equal 10 its molecular weight in gram. And [kg mol = 1,000 g. mole. For example, one gram mole of hydrogen gas is 2 gram and one kilogram mole of hydrogen is 2 keg. Hence in 2 kg hydrogen gas, the amount of hydrogen is 1000 moles Boyle's law: It states that the volume V of the given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure P, when temperature is kept constant, i. Ve UP orV=KIP wv (Charle’s lar: It states that the pressure remaining constant, the volume of the given mass ofa gas is directly proportional tits kelvin temperature, Le, VT, ifPis constant Standard gas equation: PV = nT Where 1 is the number of moles contained in the given ideal gas of volume V, pressure P and temperature TK, Gas constant : R isa universal gas constant and risa gas constant for | gram ofa gas The universal gas constant is defined as the work done by (or on) agas per mole per kelvin ie constant, ai) ww) o wi wii) . (a) ) © @ C) o @ (hy e o (ii) T GAS AND KINETICTHEORY | 247 pressure « volume ino. of mole » temperature work done ino, of mole * temperature Bald The value of R for every gas at S.TP. mok'! K = 1-98 cal, mole! K! Dimensional formula for R= [M'L°T?K"], The value of gas constant for 1 gram of a gas, TUM, where M is the molecular weight of the gas. The dimensional formula for r= [M'L°T?K The value of gas constant y for different gases is different Assumptions of kinetic theory of gases: A.gas consists ofa very lange number of molecules which are perfectly elastic spheres and are identical in all espeets for a given gas and are different for different gases. The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous, rapid and random motion. ‘The volume occupied by the molecules is negligible in comparison to the volume of the gas. The mokcules do not exert any forve oF attraction or repulsion on each other, except during collision, The collisions of the molecules with themselves and with the walls ofthe vessel are perfecily elastic. Molecular density is uniform throughout the gas. A molecule moves along a straight line between ‘evo successive collisions, The collisions are almost instantaneous. Pressure exerted by a gas: It is due to continuous bombardment of gas molecules against the walls of the container and is given by the relation where cis the rm. velocity of gas molecules. Average K.E. per molecule of a gas = Jn? = ur. Ih is independent ofthe mass ofthe gas but depends upon the temperature of the gas, Mean speed (c,), root mean square speed (c) and most probable speed (c,): Consider a gas having molecules, Let ¢1, ¢ €y 1, be the speeds of molecules ofthe given gas Then ‘mean speed, ¢, root mean square speed, “| Copied to clipboard.248| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI Gi) . Ans. Ans. 0.3. Ans. Most probable speed (c,)-It isthe speed possessed by large no. of molecules ofthe given gas. Brownian motion is a striking confirmation of the kinetic molecular picture of matter ‘Any layer of gas inside the volume ofa container is {in equilibrium because the pressure isthe same on both the sides ofthe layer Law of gaseous volumes :It sates that when gases react together, they do 30 in volumes which will be 2 simple ratio to one another and also t0 the volumes of product Law of equipartition of energy : It states that the energy for each degree of freedom in thermal librium is 4. equilibrium is 3K, ‘Monoatomie gases : The molecule of monoatomie gas has three translational degrees of freedom and no other modes of motion. ‘Thus the average energy of a molecule at temperature Tis 3 temperature Tis 2K,T. ‘The total internal energy ofa mole of such a gas is u=3k,rxN,= 3 Rr 2 3 iatomic gases : The molecule of a diatomic gas has five translational and rotational degrees of freedom. Using the law of equi-panttion of energy total intemal energy of a mole of such a diatomic gasis Ser 2 K,TEN, 2 Very Short Answer Type Questions | Wht is an ideal gas ? or What is a perfect gas ? ‘An ideal gas is one which obeys the gas laws at all values of temperature and pressure. Molecules of such a gas should be free from intermolecular attraction 1 . Show the graph between pressure (P) and volume (V) at constant temperature T, and T, (when T,>T))- v— 1 Real gases obey Boyle’s law at low. 1 0.4 Ans. 5. Ans. 0.6. Ans. Q7 Ans. Polyatomic gases : In general a polyatomic mokeule has three translational and threerotational degrees of freedom and a cenain number (9) of vibrational and modes of absorption. According to the law of equipartition of energy, one mole of such a gas has U- (Bag > Sur 8yt)N Mean fice path: Man fe ah te average diansccrst stn to noraveetioe by tgs moles moving slong the ag ine Molar ms =N,* mao one mae Themen ie path gen by a V2amd? nl m V2nd?mn ~ Vind" where p =mn=mass/volumeof the gas ~ donsity of gas. = diameter of molecule. RT _NR p=RT-NR vo vNT okt nk iT AT Binilp Also a [1 mark each] Plot a curve to show Charle’s law. Theoret! v— 1 Give numerical values of universal gas constant R R=8:31S mob! K or R=1-98cal mol! °C 1 State Avogadro's law. It states that equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and. pressure hhave equal number of molecules. 1 Write Vander Waal’s equation. [P+ Gooner %UNIT-X: OSCILLATIONS @ ©) 0 a @ ) AND WAVES Syllabus Periodic motion © Perio fanctions. 14 OSCILLATIONS Time period: frequency, displacement as a function of time. © Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) and its equation, phase, oscillations of a spring : Restoring force ‘and force constant, energy in S.H.M., Kinetic and poteniial energies, simple pendulum : Derivation of expression for its time period. (© Free, forced and damped oscillations (qualitative ideas only). resonance. Quick Review Periodic moti The motion which is identically repeated after fixed interval of time. The time interval after which the motion is repeated is known as period of ‘motion. For example, ‘The revolution ofearth around the sun, its period of revolution is one year, ‘The rotation of earth sbout its polar axis, its period of rotation is 24 hours, Oscillatory motion or vibratory motion : The motion in which a body moves to and fo or back and forth repeatedly abouta fixed point (called ‘mean position), in a definite interval of time, In such a motion, the body is confined within well defined limits (called extreme positions} on either side of mean position. For example, ‘The motion of the pendulum of a wall clock is oscillatory motion. ‘The motion of a loaded spring, when the load attached to the spring is pulled oncea litle from its ‘mean position and left to itself. (iii) w © The oscillatory motions are periodic motions but the periodic motions may not be oscillatory ‘motions. © Angular frequency (@) of 2 body executing periodicmotion is equal to the product of frequency v of the body with 2n, fe, «9 = v x 2m. Its unit is hertz ors". © Phase : (i) Phase of vibrating particle at any instant isa physical quantity which completely expresses the position and direction of motion of particle at that instant with respect to its mean position. Gi) It is measured cither in terms of fraction of time period of of fraction of 2x angle, which has elapsed since the vibrating particle has eressed its mean position in the positive direction. In oscillatory motion, the phase of a vibrating particle is the argument of sine or cosine function involved to represent the generalised equation of ‘motion of the vibrating paniele. ‘When the displacement of the particle executing @ vibratory motion is represented by =a sin (1+ 6) then the angle (of + ) is called phase of the266| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI w o wi Gi) iv) w wo displacement for the given vibratory motion of the particle and is called the initial phase of the vibrating panicle. Phase can also be expressed in terms of time period of frequency. Phase (or>) 2m 4 9) <@nv+ (FE +0) - exo Simple harmonie motion : tis special type of periodic motion, in which a particle moves to and fro repestedly about a mean (ice, equilibrium) positon under a restoring fore, Which is always directed toward the mean position and whose magnitude at any instant is directly proportional to the cisplecement of the particle from the mean (ce, equilibrium) position at that instant, ie, F=-ky where k is known as force constant, Here negative sign represent that the restoring force (F) is always directed towards the mean position. TThe displacement of the particle executing SH.M, at an instant ean be expressed in terms ofone single harmonic function (i., sine or cosine function). Hence itis known as S.H.M. Geometrical interpretation of SM. : S.HLM. is defined as the projection of a uniform circular motion on any diameter of a circle of reference, S.HLM. may be linear and angular S.H.M. ‘The linear S.H.M. is always along a straingt line about a fixed point on a line, whereas the angular S.HLM. is always along an are of a circle about a fixed point on the are. ‘The linear SH.M. is controlled by force law, where ‘ky, where kis the restoring force constant, ie, force per unit displacement ‘The angular S.H.M. is conuolled by torque law, where =~ C8, where C is the restoring torque constant, i.e, restoring torque per unit twist (vil) The differential equation of linear S.HLM. i ay, ‘The differential equation of angular S.H.M. is O where w* (vii) The general equation of linear S.H.M. is, yey, sin (or 6). ‘The general equation of angular S.H.M. is, 8=8, sin (or +) © Displacement in S.H.M. : (i) The displacement of a particle executing linear S.HM. atan instant is defined as the distance of the particle from the mean position at that instant. (ii) It is represented by the relation 2 or y Asin ot cos ot ‘The firstrelation is valid when the time is measured from the mean position and the relation second is valid when the time is measured from the exireme position of the particle executing S.H.M. along @ straight path, Gi) position is called amplitude of motien. The direction of displacement is always away from the mean position when the particle is moving away from or coming towards the mean position. © Velocity in SLM. : i) Is defined as the time rate of change of the displacement of the particle at the given instant. (i), Velocity in S1H.M. is given by ye @ed a a Asin oi) Aw J0=7 7) (iii) At mean position, velocity of a particle executing SHM. is maximum (= @A) and at exireme position, the velocity of particle executing SH.M. 1s zero). (iv) The maximum value of velocity (= Ac) is called velecity amplitud: in S.H.M. (¥) The direction of velocity of a particle in S.HM. is either towards or away from the meen position. (vi) In SLM. the velocity varies simple harmonically with the same frequency as that of the displacement. © Acceleration in S.H.M. (W It is defined as the time rate of change of the velocity of the particle atthe given instant, ie, a a-Wwad B= 4 (Ao cos 01) =-@'Asin ar=— ofp Gi) The acceleration of the particle executing S.H.M. is, ‘minimum at the mean position and is maximum at the extreme position, Gil) The maximum value of acceleration (= 0 A) is called acceleration amplitude in S.HM.0 cid) Gi) “ a Gi) ww o (a) o Syllabus 15 WAVES © Wave motion. Transverse and longitudinal waves, speed of wave motion. © Displacement relation fra progressive wave. Principle of superposition of waves. reflection of waves, standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect. Quick Review Wave motion is a kind of disturbance which travels through a medium on account of repeated periodic vibrations of the particles of the medium about their mean position, ‘The medium for wave propagation should have three properties elasticity inertia minimum frictional resistance. Essential characteristics of wave motio Particles ofthe medium vibrate simple harmonically about their mean position, Pariicles do not leave their mean position and the ‘medium is not transported along with the wave. With the wave, energy and momentum are transferred to the neighbouring particles of the ‘medium. In 2 homogeneous medium, velocity of waves in all directions and at all times is same. However, as particles are in SHM, their velocities at different positions/times are different. There is continuous phase differenc successive particles of the medium, Kinds of waves : ‘On the basis of necessity of material medium Mechanical waves or elastic waves like sound waves, waves on the surfaces of water, waves 07 amongst (ii) ) @ «i © o (i) strings. All these waves require a material medium for propagation. Electromagnetic waves like light waves, radio ‘waves do not require any medium for propagation, On the basis of vibrations of particles : Longitudinal waves—in which particles vibrate in the ditection of propagation of waves, ‘Transverse waves—in which particles. vibrate in « direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves. ‘On the basis of energy propagation : Progressive waves—along which energy is propagated, Stationary waves—in which energy is confined in 1 particular region, Longitudinal waves travel through amediumin the form of compressions and rarefactions involving changes in pressure and volume can travel in all modes and cannot be polarised. The medium required must possess elasticity of volume. Sound waves in air are longitudinal Transverse waves travel through a medium in the from of crests and troughs involving changes in shape can travel in solid and liquid and can be polarised. The medium required must possess elasticity of shape.286| OSWAAL CBSE Question Bank Chapterwise Solutions, Physics-XI ‘Sound waves through air cannot be transverseas air does not have elasticity of shape. © The type of wave generated in a medium would depend upon nature of the medium and also on the mode of excitation of the wave. © A longitudinal wave can be represented by x= asin (or kx) ‘A transverse wave can be represented by y= assin (of ke} ;y =a sin (wt £ x) sin (ot kx) :2=a sin (or * ky) x =a sin (ort hy) v= a sin (or +e) © Some parameters related to wave motion (i) Displacement of a particle is the distance covered by the particle from the mean position. Gi) Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the panicle. ii) One wavelength is the distance travelled by the ‘wave, during the time the particle completes one vibration about its mean position. We may also define, on wavelength = smallest distance between ‘wo particles vibrating in the same phase = distance between the centres of Iwo consecutive «rests! trough/compressions/rarefactions. (iv) Wave number v= number of waves in unit length Itis measured in mr x (v) Particle velocity Sti = 4 ts value changes with ime velocity of particle executi (vi) Wave velocity is the velocity with which disturbance travels in the medium. v=mi= % = constant fora wave mation (vil) Propagation constant of wave motion ~ phase difference between two vibrating particles situated 2 unit distance apart It is represented by K. “angular frequency = “wave velosity = 2m _ 2 as nav Unit of Kis a (vii) Group velocity (v,) isthe velocity with which the group of waves travels, y,- do dK © Phase or phase angle is the physical quantity which tells us by what amount the two waves or the two particles lg or lead in terms of angleor time or distance © Relation between phase difference, path difference and time difference. A phase difference of 2 radian is equivalent to a path difference of } and a time difference of time period T, ie,2x=2=T So, phasedifference @ = 2 x path difference z_tlé Also, RT ln where Tis time period and it is time for a path x or phase § (© Energy density is defined as the energy associated with unit volume ofthe medium, energy density (u) = energyivolume. Itis measured in joule’ (© Beats is the phenomenon of regular variation in the intensity of sound when two sources of nearly equal frequencies are sounded together. One minimum of sound followed by one maximum seid to constitute one Des. “The essential conditions for production of beats are: (i) The amplitudes of two waves should be nearly equal (i) The difference in frequencies of two sources must be less than 10 per second. © Period of beats = time interval between two successive beats = time interval between two consecutive maxima = time interval berween two © Beat frequency ~number of beats/sec. = difference in fiequencies of wvo sources, © Stationary Waves. IF two waves of same type having same amplitude, same frequency and same wavelength, travelling with same speed in opposite directions along a straight line superimpose each other, they give rise to a new kind of waves is known as stationary wave. The stationary waves are of two types: Longitudinal stationary waves as in resonance apparatus and Transverse stationary waves as in cease of sonometer. When waves propagating slong ++-xdirection and — x direetion are represented as yy = Asin (@t— ke} and yp = Asin (r+ x) then equation of stationary waves is ity 2Acoskr sinor =Asin ot where A= 2A cos kx = amplitude of stationary wave, which depends on the position (x) of the particle. Copied to clipboard.© Apparent frequency of sound when : (@) Source moves towards i loner at rest (ii) When source moves away from listener at rest is (ii), When listener moves towards source at rest is vty Very Short Answer Type Questions QL. Is it poss string ? No, because string is not stretchable. It can neither bbe compressed nor rarefied. 1 le to have longitudinal waves on a Ans. Q.2. Is it possible to have transverse wave in a sted! rod? Ans, Yes, transverse waves are possible in a steel rod, because stee! has elasticity of shape ' Q.3. Why is it difficult sometimes to recognise your friend’s voice on phone ? Ans. This occurs due to poor quality of sound. 1 Q.4. Light waves can be polarised but sound waves ‘cannot be. Why ? ‘Ans. Polarisation is the propery shown by tansverse waves. Sound waves are longitudinal and light waves are transverse, 1 woofer or bass in What do you mean by the ter sound ? Woofer or bass refers to low frequency part of ‘musical sound. 1 Velocity of sound in air at NTP. is 332 ‘m/s. What will be the velocity when pressure is doubled and temperature is kept constant ? vy = 332 mi, as there is no effect of change in pressure when temperature remains constant. 1 ‘What type of mechanical waves do you expect to ‘exist in (a) vacuum, (b) air, (€) inside the water, (@) rock (¢) on the surface of water ? Ams. (a) No wave, (b) longitudinal waves, (@) Tongitudinal waves, (d) transverse or longitudinal ‘or both (separately), (e) combined longitudinal and transverse (nipples). 1 What is the phase =a 608 («i+ hx) and Phase difference = % = 90° 1 Ans. 6. Ans. a7. ference between the waves = asin (wt + kx)? Qs. Ans. Qe. In a longitudinal wave, there is a state of maximum compression at a point at an instant. WAVES | 287 (iv) When listener moves away from source at rest is (¥) When both source and listener move towards each other vty vy, (vi) If both move away from each other, then U1 mark each] ‘The frequency of the wave is 50 Hz. After what time will the same point be in the state of ‘maximum rarefuetion ? ‘Ans. Time interval betweena compression andadjoining Tat. 1 1 2 Bn TSO T00 Q.10, What isthe distance between a compression and its nearest rarefaction in a longitudinal wave ? Ans, Distance between a compression and adjoining rarefactio rarefaction is 1/2, 1 Q.11. Why are longitudinal waves called pressure waves ? ‘Ans. This is because propagation of longitudinal waves, througha medium involves changes in pressure and volume of air, when compressions and rarefactions are formed. 1 Q.12. Is superpesition principle electromagnetic waves ? Ans. Yes, itis applicable to electromagnetic waves. 1 Q.13 Sound waves from a point source are propo all directions. What will be the rratio of amplitudes at distances of 9 m to 25 m from the souree? applicable te Ans, Intensity Amplitude? = ance 1 amplitude 2 m stance 28 1 Hence, 9 14, Why is sound heard in CO; more intense in comparison to sound heard in air? Ans, This is because intensity of sound increases with increase in density of the medium, 1 Q.15, We can recognise our friends from their voices. Why? ‘Ans. This is because quality of sound produced by them is different 1 Copied to clipboard.