FOUNDATION DESIGN MANUAL PRACTISING ENGINEERS and CIVIL ENGINEERING STUDENTS NARAYAN V. NAYAK BE. (Civil), M. Tech. Ph.D. (Univ. of Wisconsin, U.S.A.) Chief Executive, Gammon Nirman Limited and Senior Vice President, Gammon India Limited Formerly, Executive Director, Asia Foundations and Constructions Ltd Principal Engineer (Civil-Geotechnical) Tata Consulting Engineers, Bombay and also Professor, University of Panama Panama, Central America FourrH Fully Revised and Enlarged Edition DHANPAT RAI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD. FIRST FLOOR, 67/4, MADRAS HOUSE, DARYAGANJ, NEW DELHI-110 002 Phone : 327 4073All rights reserved by the Author. This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced without the written permission of the Author and Publishers First Edition = 1979 Second Edition : 1982 ‘Third Edition: 1985 Fourth Edition : 1996 Reprint : 1997 Reprint : 2001 Published by + Ish Kapus, for Dhanpat Rai Publications (P) Ld., Daryaganj, New Dell Typeset by | EPTECH, Mayur Vihar Phase-1, Dethi-110091 Printed at Taj Press, A-35/4 Mayapuri Industrial Area, Phase-1, New Dethi 110002PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION The fourth edition of the book has been fully revised and enlarged, particularly the chapters on ‘SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS” and “PILE FOUNDATIONS ”’.PublishersM/s, DhanpatRai and Sons have also taken additional pains to improve the quality of publication. The author believes that this fourth edition will be equally well received by civil/geotechnical engineers. The author takes this opportunity to invite constructive criticism on this fourth edition. This will go a long way in making further improvement during the fifth edition. BOMBAY, 1996 N.V. NAYAK PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION ‘The response to the second edition of the book has also been encouraging and the third edition has to be brought out in three years The third edition of the book has been fully revised and enlarged. An Annexure on Geotechnical Instrumentation has been added. The author believes that this third edition will be equally well received by civil/geotechnical engineers. ‘The author takes this opportunity to invite constructive criticism on this third edition. This will go a long way in making further improvement during the fourth edition, BOMBAY, 1985 N.V. NAYAK PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The first edition of this book was completely sold out in just one year after its publication. The second edition of the book could not be brought out immediately thereafter. For this delay the author conveys his sincere regrets. ‘The second edition of the book has been fully revised and enlarged, An Annexure on Prestressed Anchors has been added. It is believed that this second edition will be equally well received by civil/geotechnical engineers, “The author takes this opportunity to invite constructive criticism, iff any, on this second edition, This will go a long way in making further improvement during the third edition. BOMBAY, 1982 N.V. NAYAKPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION This book has been written to serve primarily as.a foundation design manualto practising geotechnical and civil engineers and asa ‘ext book for postgraduate students in geotechnical engineering. It will also serve as a reference book on foundation engineering for undergraduate students in civil engineering. The subject-matter of this manual has been divided into six chapters and eleven Annexures, The manual covers wide range of topics of interest for practising civil engineersas would be evident from the contents, Some of the topics covered in Axxexures are difficult to find in books on foundation egineering but the knowledge of which is essential in overall geotechnical recommendations on foundation engineering. The material in the manual has been treated in Metric System of Units, the system widely used in India at present; and SI System of Units (Le System International de Units), the international system prescribed by the General Conference of Weights and Measures of 1960 The subject matter in the manual has been so presented as to fulfil the following objectives The manual brings out the various approaches as used in practice of foundation engineering. Both the rationalised and empirical approaches found valuable have been included in this manual. Geotechnical engineering, although great strides have been made in it in recent years, is still a less precise science than structural engineering. It remains, to an important extent, an art based on experience and judgement, The ‘material in thismanual is presented, therefore, as aseries of suggested rather than mandatory procedures which reflect soundand safe techniques. The limitationsand applicability of each of the approaches have been brought ut. This, itisbelieved, would guard against the danger of misjudgement and misapplication by engineers less experienced in the field of soil mechanics and foundation engineering, There can be certain shortcomings in the fulfilment of the above cited objectives. Some of these shortcomings can result from the limited literature, timeand space available, some other limitations result from. the fact that some part of the subject-matter may be over-stressed or under-stressed for some of the readers as presentation ofthe subject-matter clearly affected by personal views, judgement and experience of the author. ‘The author invites constructive criticism and suggestions as aids to future improvements. ‘The author wishes to acknowledge that information for this manual is gathered from many publications An attempt is made to acknowledge these publications at appropriate places in the text and under references. However, there are bound to be omissions, but such omissions are unintentional. Also, the author has used the material generously from his proposed text book on Soi! Mechanics and Foundation Engineeringandalso from. the Review Paper on Expansive Soils which are currently under preparation. The author expresses his sincere thanks to the management of M/S Tata Consulting Engineers for their encouragement in writing such a manual. In this connection the author would particularly express his indebtedness to Mr. M.R. Ranga Rao and Mr. F.S.A. Pavamani, Engineering Managers; Mr. S.N. Manohar, Additional Chief Civil Engineer; Mr. S.P. Joshi, Deputy Chief Civil Engineer of Tata Consulting Engineers for their continuous encouragement, Their encouragement in using soil mechanics based approachesin solving ‘geotechnical problems of foundation engineering andalso their receptiveness toapplication of new rationalised ideas on jobs engineered by Tata Consulting Engineers helped greatly in the author's efforts to bring this manual, ‘The authoris especially indebted to Prof, Dinesh Mohan, Director, Central Building Research Institute and Vice President (Asia), International Society Soil of Mechanics and Foundation Engineering for his pains- taking scrutiny of the manuscript and his Foreword. Thanks are also due to Publishers M/s. Dhanpat Rai and Sons for bringing this manual. Finally, the author thanks his wife Suman. This manual has seen the light of the day only because of her silent sacrifices during his heavy involvement with writing of this manual BOMBAY. 1979 N.Y. NAYAKFOREWORD ‘The past thirty years have witnessed explosion of literature in the field of Geotechnical Engineering, A host of new ideas, concepts and theories have been born as a result of intensive geotechnical activities the world over. The hiatus between the scientific temper and the operating temper however continues. This is because the recent developments have failed to convince the practising foundation engineer who is often faced with the dilemma of selecting between the best solution according to the current state-of-the art and the engineering solution feasible within the ambit of his know-how, time and resource. What is more, conflicting answers to a given problem provided by application on different theories create confusion much the same as when discrepancies are seen between in situ and laboratory test results or between theoretical prediction and actual performance. Design Aids and Manuals play an important role in clearing the confusion created by new theories. They expose the engincer to the scientific methodology of tackling a problem. Dr. Nayak’s Foundation Design Manual possesses the above characteristics in a good measure. It should therefore serve as a source book of facts, formulas and design methods otherwise scattered in the maze of literature. It should also serve as a reference book and guide to the practising geotechnical engineers, Clarity of presentation and comprehensive, coverage of the subject have combined to produce this Manual which should fulfil the needs of the student community as well. The text of the Manual covers subsurface exploration; shallow and deep foundations; foundations subjected to dynamic loading; earth pressure; and stability of slopes which when coupled with attendent information furnished inannexures to the Manual produce a otal picture short of “engineering judgement’. And that should never have a substitute, for without it geotechnical engineering will be lifeless and the geotechnical engineer will lose his individuality or even identity Dinesh Mohan ROORKEE Director 15 March, 1979 Central Building Research Institute and : Vice President [Asia], ISSMFECONTEN: Chapter Title 1, Subsurface Investigation Shallow Foundations and Allowable Bearing Pressure Pie Foundations Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Loadings Lateral Earth Pressure and Earth Retaining Structures Stability of Slopes aus Annexures A-1 Stress in Soils from Elastic Theories A-2. Soil Compaction A-3 In-Place Treatment of Foundation Soils A-4 Modulus of Submerged Reaction A-5 Liquefaction of Foundation Soils Under Earthquakes, A-6 Degree of Various Consistency Limits of Soils A-7 Expansive Soils A-8 Effects of Chemicals in Subsoil and Groundwater on Concrete Substructures, A-9 Corrosion of Steel Piles A-10 Bored Cast-in-Situ Piles—Conventional Bored Piles Versus Piles Cast by Continuous Mud Circulation Technique AcLL_ Prestressed Anchors A-12. Geotechnical Instrumentation A-13- ST Units in Engineering References Symbols Subject Index 85-138 139-216 217-240 241-262 263-279 280-286 287-301 302-332 333-334 335-342 343 368-373 374-391 392-409 410-411 412-427 428-432 433-439DETAILED CONTENTS. Title Pages 1. SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 1-84 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Methods of Subsurface Investigation 4 1.3 Geophysical Exploration—Seismic Refraction Method 4 1.3.1 Introduction 4 13.2° Refraction Method 8 1.3.3. Limitations of Seismic Refraction Method 10 1.4 Depth of Investigation 4 1.4.1 Thumb Rules 4 1.5 Spacing and Number of Field Tests 4 1.6 Undisturbed Samples 16 1.7 In Situ Measurements of Soil Properties 20 1.8 Measurement of Soil Properties in the Laboratory 2 1.9 Standard Penetration Test, SPT 24 1.10 Corrections to Measured Values of SPT 26 1.11 N of SPT and Consistency of Soils 2 LILI Nof SPT Versus Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils—Skempton’s Approach 30 1.12 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test 34 1.12.1 Advantages of Dynamic Cone Peneration Test over Boring and SPT 35 1.12.2. Limitations of Dynamic Cone Penetration Test 36 1.13 Static Cone Penetration Test 36 1.13.1 Advantages of Static Cone Penetration Test over Boring and SPT 41 1.13.2. Limitations of Static Cone Penetration Test 4 1.14 Field Vane Shear Test al 1.18 Field Permeability Test 42 1.16 Pressuremeter Test 45 1.17. Vertical Plate Bearing Test 33 1.18 Rock Coring 34 1.19 Groundwater Investigation 60 1.20 Preservation, Shipment and Storage of Samples 02 1.21. Phase Relationships and Related Formulae 63 1.22 Engineering Classification of Soils 65 1.22.1 Textural Classification 65 1.22.2. The AASHO Soil Classification System. 66 1.22.3. Extention of AASHO Classification to Indian Black Cotton Soils 69 1.22.4 Indian Standard Classification 69 1.22.5. Soil Classification and Soil Characteristics 4 1.23 Importance of Careful Observations during Field Investigation "4 1.24 Presentation of Data 80 1.25. Report 80 1.26 Selection of Design Parameters 80 1.26.1 Selection of Testing Method 80CONTENTS, 2. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS AND ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Shallow Foundation 2.1.2 Allowable Bearing Pressure 2.2 Modes of Failure 2.3 Ultimate Bearing Capacity 2.3.1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Concentrically Loaded Foundations 2.3.2 Influence of Groundwater Table 2.3.3. Eccentrically Loaded Footings 2.3.3.1. Conventional Method 2.3.3.2 Meyethof's Approach 2.3.4 Footings with Inclined Loads 2.3.5. Footings on or Adjacent to Slopes 2.3.5.1 Footings Adjacent to a Slope 2.3.5.2 Footings on a Slope 2.3.6 Footings on Stratified Soils 2.3.6.1 Sower's Approach 2.3.6.2 Reddy and Srinivasan’s Approach 2.3.6.3. Brown and Meyerhof’s Approach 2.3.6.4 Vesic’s Approach 2.3.6.5 Tcheng’s Approach 2.3.6.6 Mandel and Salencon’s Approach 2.4 Total Versus Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity 2.5 —Factors of Safety and Allowable Bearing Pressure 2.6 Determination of Bearing Capacity Based on N Values of STP or other Penetration Test Data 2.6.1 Granular Soils 26.2 Cohesive Soils 2.6.3 General 2.7 Ultimate Bearing Capacity from Plate Load Tests 2.7.1 Determination of (4,7) pies 2.7.2 Extrapolation to Predict (Gy) ooring for no Surcharge 2.7.2.1 Cohesionless Soils (ie. for Soils with c= 0) 2.7.2.2 Purely Cohesive Soils (or where $ = 0 Condition is Valid) 2.7.2.3 0 Soils Determination of Bearing Capacity from Pressuremeter Tests, Bearing Capacity from Building Codes Bearing Pressure on Rock 2.10.1 Method based on Presumptive Bearing Values 2.10.2 Method based on Core Strength 2.10.3 Method based on Pressuremeter Tests 2.10.4 Method based on other Soil Mechanics Approaches 2.11 Settlement Considerations 2.12 Contact Pressure 2.13 Vertical Pressure below the Plane of Contact with the Foundation 2.14 Settlement Components ix 85-138 85 85 85 85 86 86 89 89 89 oL 1 92 92 93 93 4 94 94 97 98 98 98 98 99 99 lol lol 101 101 10L 101 101 101 102 102 102 102 102 103 103 104, 106 107 108215 2.16 247 218 219 2.20 221 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.28 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 CONTENTS Immediate Settlement Consolidation Settlement 2.16.1 Field Method for Estimating Preconsolidation Pressure 2.162 Graphical Methods for Estimating Preconsolidation Pressure 2.16.3 Method to Obtain Field Vergin Compression Curve 2.16.4 Normally Consolidated, Overconsolidatd and Subconsolidated Soils 2.16.4.1 Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Sub-soils 2.16.42 Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Subsoils 2.1643 Consolidation Settlement of Subconsolidated Soils 2.16.5 Skempton Bjerrum Correction for Three-Dimensional Effects Time Rate of Consolidation Settlement 2.17.1 Case of One-Dimensional Drainage 2.17.11 Instantaneous Loading 2.17.12 Gradual Rate of Loading 2.17.2. Case of Three-Dimensional Drainage Secondary Compression Allowable Bearing Pressure for Permissible Total Settlement 2.19.1 Approaches Based on N Values of Standard Penetration Test 2.19.11 The Terzaghi-Peck-Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.1.2 Meyerhof’s Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19,1.3 The Peck-Hansen-Thornburn-Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.14 D’Appolonia et-al-Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.1.5 Parry's Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.2 Approaches Based on Dynamic and Static Cone Penetration Tests 2.19.3 Effects of Cohesive Admixtures on Settlement of Footings Founded on Sands 2.19.4 — Hough's Approach 2.19.5 Approach Based on Vertical Plate Bearing Test 2.19.5,1 The Terzaghi-Peck-Method 2.19.5.1.1 Cohesionless Soils 2.19.5.1.2 Cohesive Soils 2,195.2 The Taylor Method 2.19.53 The Housel Method 2.19.6 Approach Based on Pressuremeter Tests 2.19.7 Davis-Poulos Method 2.19.8 Stress Path Method 2.19.9 Other Approaches ‘Methods for and Their Accuracy in Pre on Sands and Clay Settlement Prediction of Structures Founded on Mixed Soils Foundations on Fills Foundations on Soft Deposits Foundations on Expansive Soils Foundations on Organic Soil Deposits Subsoil Improvement Loads for Settlement Calculations Designing Footings for Equal Settlement Effect of Chemical Nature of Sub-soil and Groundwater on Foundation Materials ing Settlement of Structures Founded 109 1B 1s us 115 116 116 116 116 118 120 120 120 121 122 122 126 126 126 126 127 128 128 19 130 130 131 BL 131 31 132 132 132 133 133, 133 133 135 135 136 136 137 137 137 137 138CONTENTS xi PILE FOUNDATIONS 139-216 3.1 Introduction 139 3.1.1 Pile Classification Based on their Fun 139 3.1.1.1 Compression Piles 139 3.1.1.2 Tension Piles 140 3.1.1.3 Batter Piles 140 3.1.2 Pile Classification Based on Their Composition, 140 3.1.2.1 Timber Piles 140 3.1.2.2 Concrete Piles 140 3.1.2.3 Stee! Piles M1 3.1.2.4 Composite Piles ui 3.1.3 _ Pile Classification Based on Method of Installation 142 3.13.1 Driven Piles 142 3.1.3.2 Bored Piles 142 3.2. Capacity of an Individual Piles 142 3.2.1 Introduction 142 3.2.2. Structural Capacity of a Pile 142 3.2.3 Capacity of a Pile Based on Soil Support 143 3.3. Selection of Design Parameters 143 3.3.1 Introduction 143 3.3.2. Selection of Testing Method 143 3.3.3 Types of Strength Parameters 143 3.3.3.1 Drained or undrained 143 3.3.3.2 Effects of Installation 143 3.3.3.3 The Generalised Subsoil Profile 143 3.4 Pile Capacity based on Dynamic Formulae 144 3.4.1 Formulae 144 3.4.1.1 Engineering News Formula Ma 3.4.1.2 Hiley Formula 14d 3.4.1.3 Modified Engineering News Formula 146 3.4.1.4 Pacific Coast Uniform Building Code Formula 146 3.4.1.5 Gates Formula 47 3.4.1.6 Danish or S, Formula 147 3.4.1.7 Janbu Formula 147 3.4.2 Validity of Dynamic Formulae 147 3.4.3 Limitations of the Method 148 3.8 Capacity of Individual Piles Based on Static Metliods 149 3.5.1 Introduction 149 3.5.2. Effects of Installation of Piles 130 3.5.2.1 For Clayey Subsoils 150 3.5.2.2 For Sandy Subsoils 151 3.5.3 _ Piles in Cohesionless Soils 151 3.5.3.1 Pile Capacity from Standard Penetration Test, 151 3.5.3.2 Pile Capacity from Static Cone Penetration Test 152 3.533 Pile Capacity based on Theory of Plasticity 153sii 3.6 3.7 38 39 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.5.3.4 Some Other Formulae for Estimating Pile Capacity 3.54 Piles in Cohesive Soils 3.5.4.1 Pile Capacity based on Theory of Plasticity 3.5.4.2 Coyle-Rease Method 3.5.5 Piles in Soils Intermediate between Sand and Clay 3.5.5.1 General Approach 3.5.5.2. Specified Formulae 3.5.6 Piles in Layered Deposits 3.5.6.1 General 3.5.7 Piles on Rocks and Socketing Socketed in Rocks 3.5.8 Capacities of Certain Special Types of Piles 3.5.8.1 Under Reamed Bored Cast in Situ Piles 3.5.8.2. Micto Piles 3.5.8.3 Element Piles 3.5.9 Uplift Resistance of Pile 3.5.10 Factor of Safety and Allowable Capacity of Pile 3.5.10.1 For Downward Loading 3.5.10.2 For Uplift Condition A Pile Load Test 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2. Ultimate Load Capacity from Initial Load Test 3.6.3 Allowable Load Based on Permissible Settlement 3.6.4 Cyclic Load Test 3.6.5 Method of Load Application A Pile Group: An Introduction Capacity of Pile Group 3.8.1 Pile Group in Clays 3.8.1.1 Free Standing Group 3.8.1.2. Piled Foundations 3.8.2. Pile Groups in Sands 3.8.2.1 Free Standing Group 3.8.2.2 Piled Foundations 383 Bearing Piles 3.8.4 Effect of Eccentric Loading on Group Capacity 3.8.5 Load Distribution ina Group 3.8.6 Uplift Resistance of a Pile Group Settlement of Pile Group 3.9.1 Introduction 3.9.2. Stresses on Surrounding and Underlying Subsoil Strata 3.9.3. Settlement of Pile Group in Sands 3.9.4 Settlement of Pile Group in Clays 3.9.5 Settlement of Group in Weak Rocks Spacing of Piles in a Group Driving and Redriving of Piles Negative Skin Friction 3.12.1 Development of Negative Skin Friction CONTENTS 161 163 163 166 170 170 170 170 170 71 174 174 176 181 182 183 183 184 184 184 184 185 186 187 189 189 189 189 196 196 196 196 196 196 197 199) 199 199 199 201 204 204 205 205 205 205CONTENTS 5 3.12.2 Estimate of Down Drag Force 3.12.3 Methods to Eliminate or Reduce Down Drag Force 3.12.4 Load Tests on Piles Designed for Negative Skin Friction 3.13. Vertical Piles Subjected to Lateral Forces 3.13.1 General 3.13.2 Methods of Solution 3.13.2.1 Horizontal Load 3.13.2.2 Moments and Deflections 3.13.3 Coefficient of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction 3.13.4 Methods to Increase Lateral Resistance of Piles 3.13.5 Lateral Load Test 3.13.6 Socketing of Piles to Resist Moments 3.14 Influence of Pile Driving on Adjacent Structures 3.14.1 Settlement 3.14.2 Heave FOUNDATIONS SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOADINGS. 4.1. Introduetion 4.2 Elements of Vibration 4.2.1 Harmonic Motion 4.2.2 Undamped Free Vibrations of Single-Degree of Freedom System 4.2.3 Damped Free Vibrations 4.2.4 Damped Forced Vibrations 4.2.4.1 Exciting Force with Constant Amplitude 4.2.4.2. Rotating Mass Type Excitation 4.2.5 Systems with Two or More Degree of Freedom, 4.3. Design Criteria for Dynamically Loaded Foundations 4.4 Design Procedure: Lumped Parameter Approach 4.4.1 Introduction 4.4.2. Equivalent Mass 44.3. Effective Damping 4.4.4 Effective Spring Constant 4.4.4.1 Method based on Elastic Half Space Theory 4.4.4.2. Method based on Test Results 4.4.4.3 Method based on an Empirical Formula 4.4.5 Exciting or Dynamic Force 4.5. Effect of Embedment and Soil Stratification on the Values of Lumped Parameters 4.6 Suggested Alternatives when Design Criteria are Unsatisfied 4.7 Use of Piles in Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Loadings 4.7.1 End Bearing Piles 4.7.2 Friction Piles LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AND EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES. 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest, K, and its Value 207 208 209 210 210 210 210 2 aun 214 214 21s 216 216 216 217-240 217 217 217 218 218 219 220 222 222 222 226 226 227 227 229 229 233 234 234 235 236 237 238 238 241-262 241 242CONTENTS. 3,3 The Rankine Theory for Lateral Earth Pressure under Active and Passive Cases. 242 33.1 Main Assumption 242 3.3.2 Case |: Homogeneous Backfill with Level Surface and Uniform Surcharge 242 53.3. Case 2: Stratified Backfill 244 5.34 Case 3: Partly or Fully Submerged Backfill 244 5.3.5 Case 4: Sloping Backfill 2d 3.6 Case 5: Sloping Wall: An Approximate Analysis, 24 5.4 Retaining Walls with Wall Friction: Coulomb Analysis 246 5.5 _ Effect of Seepage on Lateral Earth Pressure 250 3.6 Deformations Necessary for Plastic Conditions 254 5.7. Retaining Wall: Some Design Considerations 254 3.7.1 Lateral Thrust a 5.7.1.1 Yielding Rigid Walls 255 5.7.1.2. Restrained Rigid Walls 5.7.2 Design Criteria 5.8 Strutted Walls 381 Earth Pressure 5.82 _ Force on Struts 5.9 Basal Stability of Cuts 5.9.1 Soft to Firm Clays 9.2 Cohesionless Soils 5.10 Sheet Piled Walls 5.10.1 Cantilever Sheet Piled Walls 5.10.2 Anchored Sheet Piled Walls or Anchored Bulkheads 5.10.2.1 Anchored Bulkheads with Free Earth Support 5.10.2.2 Anchored Bulkheads with Fixed Earth Support 5.11 Anchorages STABILITY OF SLOPES 263-279 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Infinite and Finite Slopes 263 6.3 Infinite Slopes in Cohesionless Slopes 263 6.4 Infinite Slopes in Clays 263 6.5 Slopes of Finite Heights 264 6.6 Circular Failure Surface: Method of Slices 264 6.6.1 An Accurate Method 265 66.2 Fellinius Method 266 6.6.3. Simplified Bishop Method 268 6.7 Circular Failure Surface 269 6.7.1 Friction Circle Method 269 6.7.2 Hoek’s Method 270 6.8 Wedge Method of Stability Analysis 273 6.9 Some Special Cases 274 6.9.1 Embankment on Soft Compressible Subsoil 274 6.9.2 Stability of Natural Slopes 274 6.9.2.1 Natural Slopes in Intact Clays 274CONTENTS 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.9.2.2 Natural Slopes in Fissured Clays 6.93 Stability of Earth Dams 6.94 Earthquake Considerations in Stability Analysis, Analysis by total and Effective Stresses Slope Stabilization Safety Factors ANNEXURE A-1: STRESSES IN SOILS FROM ELASTIC THEORIES AL Al.2 ALS Ald Introduction Geostatic Stresses Stresses Induced by Applied Loads A+1.3.1 A Point Load at the Surface A-L.3.2. Uniformly Loaded Circular Area A-1.3.3 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area A-L.3.4 Uniform Line Load of Infinite Length A-1,3.5 Uniform Strip Load of Infinite Length A-1.3.6. Slope Load of Infinite Length A-1.3.7. Triangular Load of Infinite Length A-L3.8 Terrace Load of Infinite Length A-1.3.9 Semi-Infinite Uniform Load A+1.3.10 Irregular Load A-1.3.11 Nonhomogeneous Soils: Layered System An Empricial Approach ANNEXURE A-2: SOLL COMPACTION A211 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27 A28 Compaction Equipment A-2.1.1 Comparison of Performance of Sheepsfoot and Rubber Tyred Rollers in Cohesive Soils Maximum Dry Density and Compactive Effort Consistency Limits versus Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content Comparison with Dry of Optimum with Wet of Optimum Compaction Moisture Relative Density and Compaction in Cohesionless Soils Influence of Soil Type on Compaction Compaction for Embankment A-2.7.1 Slopes of Compacted Embankments A-2.7.2. Embankment Settlement A-2.7.3 Embankment Piping A-2.7.4 Embankment Cracking Compaction Requirements and Control A-28.1 Compaction Requirements A-2.8.2.1 Analysis of Control Test Data ANNEXURE A-3: IN-PLACE TREATMENT OF FOUNDATION SOILS A3.1 A32 Introduction Vibrofloatation in Cohesionless Soils av 274 274 275 278 217 278 280-286 280 280 280 280 280 284 284 284 284 284 285 285 285 286 286 287-301 287. 289 289 291 291 291 294 294 294 294 294 297 298 298 301 302-332 302 303xviii A88 A89 ‘Action of Chemicals and Industrial Wastes on Concrete Quality of Water for Use in Concrete, Paper Industry and Drinking Purpose ANNEXURE A-9: CORROSION OF STEEL PILES ADL ADD A93 ADA Introduction Piles in Subsoil below Groundwater Level Piles in Subsoil above Groundwater Level Piles in Sea Water and Affluent ANNEXURE A-10: BORED CAST-IN-SITU PILES: A-10.1 A102 A103 CONVENTIONAL BORED PILES VERSUS CAST BY CONTINUOUS MUD CIRCULATION TECHNIQUE Introduction Construction Procedure ‘Merit and Demerits of Two Methods A-10.3.1 Boring ‘A-10.3.2 Concreting A-10.3.3. Skin Friction A-10.3.4. Sulphate Resistance ANNEXURE A-11: PRESTRESSED ANCHORS ALI AlL2 A3 All ALLS Introduction Design of Anchors A-1L.2.1 Bond between Cement Grout Rock ‘A-L1.2.2 Safety against Failure within the Rock/Soil Mass ‘Ac11.2.3. Bond between Cement Grout and Stec! Tendon or Steel Wire ‘A-l1.24. Allowable Stresses in Tendon/Rod/Wire and other Details ‘Anchor Construction A-IL3.1 Drilling A-113.2. Flushing A-1L.33. Water Testing and Water Proofing ‘A-11.34 Storage, Handing, Fabrication and Horning of Anchor Tendons A-IL3.5 Grouts and Grouting Corrosion and Corrosion Protection CONTENTS 364 364 366-367 366 366 366 366 368-373 368 368 370 370 372 32 373 374-391 374 374 375 375 379 383 383 386 387 387 387 388 389 ‘A-IL.4.1 Typical Corrosion Protection Generally Adopted for Free Length of Anchors 390 ‘A-LL4.2. Typical Corrosion Protection Generally Adopted for Fixed Length of Anchors 390 ‘A-1L4.3. Sprical Corrosion Protection Sometimes Adopted for Fixed Length of Anchors 390 ‘Anchor Stressing and Testing ANNEXURE A-12: GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATION Al A122 Introduction Definition of Terms Relating to Instrumentation Characteristics A-12.2.1 Accuracy ‘A-12.2.2. Precision or Repeatability A-12.2.3. Sensitivity 391 392-409 302 392 393 393 393CONTENTS Al224 A-12.2.5 A12.2.6 AG12.2.7 A228 As12.2.9 A-12.2.10 A12.2.11 Errors Reliability Linearity Hysteresis Noise Conformance Air Entry Value Response Time or Hydrostatic Time Lag A-12.3. Commonly Measured Properties A-12.4 Measurement of Pore Pressure A12.4.1 A124.2 A12.4.2.1 A12,4.2.2 A12.4.23 Al24.24 A124.2.5 Introduction Instrument Types Open Standpipe Piezometers ‘Twin Tube Hydraulic Piezometers Pneumatic Piezometers Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge Piezometers Semi Conductor Strain Gauge Piezometer A-12.5 Measurement of Deformation AI251 A-12.5.2 A12.5.2.1 A12.5.2.2 A+12.5.2.3 A125.24 A125.25 A12.5.26 A12.5.2.7 A125.28 A12.53 A254 A155 Introduction ‘Measurement of Vertical Deformation Platform Type of Settlement Gauge Borrors Anchor Combined Platform Type and Borros Anchor Settlement Gauge Magnetic Settlement Gauge USBR Cross Arm Gauge Hydraulic Settlement Gauge Mechanical Heave Gauge Water Level Gauge for Differential Vertical Movement Measurement of Horizontal Movements Measurement of Load and Strain Planning of Instrumentation Programme ANNEXURE A-13: SI UNITS IN ENGINEERING A-13.1 Introduction xix 393 393 393 393 393 393 394, 394 394 395 395 395 395 397 400 401 401 402 402 403 403 404 404 404 403 405 406 406 408 408 409 401-411 410CHAPTER 1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 1.1 INTRODUCTI The primary objective, in civil engincering, of a subsoil investigation is to determine stratigraphy and pertinent physical properties of soils underlying the site so that a safe and an economical foundation may be designed. Soil stratigraphy'is most commonly determined by making borings. test pits etc. and collecting soil samples, disturbed and undisturbed, and carrying out necessary tests on these samples. Though boring is most widely used method of subsoil- investigation, thereare many other methods of subsoil investigation, and more common of these methods are discussed briefly in Section 1.2 The characteristic of soils are generally variable and may change sharply within limited distances. Degree ofthoroughness and completeness required of an investigation is linked with job requirements and availability of ime and funds. In Sections 1 4and 1.5 certain guidelines on extent of investigation desired are given. Pertinent physical properties generally needed from an investigation are strength, compressibility: and permeability. Often the chemical nature of subsoil and ground water may be desired to evaluate hazard of corrosion on the foundation structure, Table 1.1.1 lists the various soil properties that may’ be used in analyses and designs involving applications of principles of soil engincering, Physical properties of soils may be evaluated from in-situ test and also from laboratory tests on undisturbed, disturbed and/or remoulded soil samples. In Section 1.7, certain methods for in-situ measurements of soil properties are very briefly described whereas Section 1.8 deals with measure- ments of soil propertiesin the laboratory. Requirements for obtaining, undisturbed samples of soil are givenin Section 1.6, It is imperative that the data obtained from field and laboratory investigationis presented ina systematic manner. Table 1.24.1 provides a very convenient format in furnishing data collected from a borchole and/or trial pit. Such a presentation not only helps in finding out discrepancies, if any, between different results obtained but is also very useful in assigning appropriate values to different soil parameters needed in the design. Toachieve the objective tated atthe very beginning of this section, soil investigation may have to be carried out in stages. On initial broad determination of stratigraphy and physical properties, particular zone may be investigated in greater detail Furthermore, itis desirable that information predicted from soil investigation carried prior to construction work is compared with information revealed say by excavation etc. during construction work. If there is significant variation between reality and prediction, then furtherinvestigation may be necessary to recheck the design considerations, It may also be necessary to carry out certain post-construction observations to ensure that assumptions made in design are satisfied. Observations for pore water pressure, settlement etc, afler an embankment is constructed canbe included in thiscategory. Such post construction observations may notbe explicitin the objective stated earlier but should form part of the general soil investigation.2 FOUNDATION DESIGN MANUAL TABLE 1.1.1, Soll Properties for Analysis and Design Property How Usually Direct Application Obtained Volume Weight Characteristics? ‘Moisture Content ra D From test Classification and in volume weight relationships. Density Y FL Fromtest Classification and pressure computation. Porosity n D Computed from Parameters used to represent Void ratio e D volume weight relative volume of solids in i given volume of soil. Specific Gravity Gs Volume computations. Plasticity Characteristics Liquid limit * D From test Classification and property correlationships. Plastic limi Mp D From test 2 : Plasticity Index Ip D Ip =~ Wp ‘i : Shrinkage limit ms D From test Classification and computation of swell. Shrinkage index D Tp = my — 05 . . Liguidity index h D Study of field behaviour. Estimation of degree of pre- consolidation. ‘ foe ht Consistency index Ip D cn Study of field behaviour. : A tp : Activity A D Zay facion —_‘enlification of clay mineral and computation of swelling potential and swelling pressure. Gradation Characteristics Effective Diameter Dy L From grainsize curve, Classification, permeability, and/or filter design. Per cent grain size Ds L From grain size curve : 2 De L - ” : De L e ° > Do iL * e = Da L . » » Uniformity coefficient — Uc .D U, = DoD (yy Classification and filter design. Coefficient of curvature Ce D Gee Dix Doo, Clay size fraction D From grain size curve Classification and property correlation,SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION TABLE 1.1.1 (Contd) Property Usual or Recommended ‘Symbol Drainage Characteristics Coeflicient of permeability & Capillary head he Consolidation Characteristics Coeficient of a, compressibility Coetticiency of volume m, compressibility Compression index Ce Recompression index Cy ‘Swell or expansion index C, Coefficient of 6 consolidation Coefficient of secondary Cy compression Preconsolidation pressure Gp Strength Characteristics Angle of internal friction Cohesion intercept e Angle of internal friction ¢, Cohesion intercept ee Unconfined compression 4, strength In-situ shear strength s Blow count from SPT, ‘continuous dynamic ‘cone penetration tests Cone resistance from static Cyy cone test Bearing capacity factors Sensitivity S. Units! Lr? L DRY vr FL? FL? FL? FL FI? i How Usually Obtained From permeability or consolidation test. 3m test Frome vs curve T+e From e vs log & curve Time consolidation From semilog plot of time consolidation From ¢ vs log & curve From strength test Mohr envelope for total normal stress, From strength tests From Mobr envelope For effective normal stress From test In-situ vane shear tests, From tests From test From value (q,) undisturbed (q,) remoulded Direct Application Drainage, seepage and consolidation analysis. Drainage and drawdown analysis. Computation of settlement under loading. Computation of settlement under loading. Computation of heave on release of overburden pressure Computation of time rate of settlement. Computation of secondary compression. ‘Consolidation analysis; to analyse | consolidation stage of subsoil Analaysis of stability and load carrying capacity based on strength Analysis of stability and load carrying capacity based on strength. Empirical relationship of strength and compressibility characteristics. Bearing capacity Estimating effect of disturbance of structure on strength,4 FOUNDATION BESIGN MANUAL TABLE 1.1.1. (Contd.) Property Usual or — Units! How Usually Direct Application Recommended Obtained Symtol ‘Modulus of elasticity E FL? Fromtests, ‘Computation of settlement for dynamics analysis, Lateral earth pressure KK, =D From appropriate ‘Computation of lateral earth coefficients ic equations pressures, Characteristics of ‘Compacted Soils Maximum unit weight dna FL? Fromtest ‘Compaction control, computation of stresses, forces in stability analysis, Optimum moisture content Wie D From test ‘Compaction control, to estimate Relative density D, D From test, empirical strength parameters. relations, California bearing ratio CBR D From test Pavement design. 1. Units, roe or weight = MLT*, T =time; mass, D = dimensionless, 2. For complete lst of volume-weight relationships refer Section 1.2. Thus subsoil investigation in general may consist of the following four stages. (a) Initial studies and explorations to determine soil stratification and characteristics required for design. (b) Amplification, if necessary, of specific por- tions of the initial investigation to obtain more com- plete information, as desirable during the design phase. (0 Verificationof anticipated foundation conditions during construction so that changes may be made, if necessary, to ensure proper performance and control for assurance of compliance with design. (d) Observation of structure and soil performance following construction. tem (2) and (c) are to be considered essential. Items (4) and (d) may be limited or even eliminated, depending on the nature of the project. 1.2, METHODS OF SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION Table 1.2.1 summarizes the varioussubsoil exploration methods presently available. 1.3. GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION: SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 1.3.1 Introduction Different methods of geophysical explorations as noted in Table 1.2.1, areseismic, electrical resistivity, magnetic, gravitational and sonic methods. Their applicability has also been briefly stated in Table 12.4. Of the various geophysical methods, seismic and resistivity methods are more widely used. Seismic methods of subsurface investigation are based on the principle that velocity of propagation of a wave or energy impulse introduced in to the ground depends on the properties of material through which impulse passes. Velocities vary greatly in different materials ranging from loose sedimentary deposits to solid rock. This enables prediction orstrata type from the determination of velocity of propagation. ‘Two types of seismic waves viz shear or S waves and longitudinal or compression or P waves are transmitted through subsoil and rock. The velocities of these waves are related to properties of transmitting medium by the following equations:SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION TABLE 1.2.1. Subsoil Exploration Methods ‘Method Descriptions ‘Applicability — ~ (1) Actial For intensive investigation in accessible area Photography aetal photography isnot essential fr soil exploration, For in accessible and unfamiliar areas ar photography may be adopted as an aid in planning for detailed exploration work 2) Geophysical They are grouped as (4 seismic (8 electrical Methods (c) magnetic (d) gravitational and (e) sone. (@ Seismic Shock or seismic waves are created by method detonating sina charges or by striking a rod () Refraction method! (i) Reflection method (iit) Velocity sounding ‘methods (6 Electrical resistivity ‘method (© Magnetic method (@) Gravitational method or a plate near the surface. The radiating waves are picked up and time of travel from source recorded by detectors known as ‘geophones or seismometers. In seismic ‘method, either refracted or reflected waves are detected, In this method, time of arrival of waves refracted at interfaces between different strata are recorded, Here seismometers record the travel time of seismic waves reflected from interface between adjoining strata In this method, seismic waves are generated. Their travel times and hence travel velocities in travelling through soil along the hole in down or up direction or across the holes are determined, In this method four metallic spikes to serve as electrodes are driven into the ground at equal intervals along a line. A known potential is then applied between the outermost electrodes and potential drop is measured between the innermost electrodes. Flow of electric current is also measured, ‘This enables to estimate resistivity of stratum. From known resistivity of different strata, prediction can be made about the nature of the stratum, Used to determine depth to rock or depths of cantly differing sol strata. Can be used ‘only when velocity of travel in lower layers is significantly greater than the upper ones. ‘This method is usually limited to depths up to 30 m ina single stratum. ‘This method is usually adopted to determine depth of deep bed rocks. Generally applied for depths exceeding 600 m. At present this method is mainly used in offshore investigation. ‘These methods are used for determining dynamic, elastic and shear modulus which enable to estimate coefficient of elastic ‘uniform compression ete Used to determine vertical as well as horizontal extent of soil strata at foundation site for large structures, such as dams. Depth of exploration is generally limited to about 30 m. Also used to obtain data for designing electrical grounding system. Rarely used in civil engineering works. Rarely used in civil engineering works.6 TABLE 1.2.1. (Contd). MANUAL, ‘Method (2 Sonic method (3) Test Pits, Trenches ‘and Open Cuts: (4) Borings (a) Auger boring (®) Wash boring (©) Percussion drilling Descriptions In this method time of travel of sound waves reflected from certain boundaries between ifferent strata are measured. From the knowledge of velocity of sound wave in different strata, depth to strata can be obtained. Test pits, trencites or any other type of open ‘excavation can be carried ont manually or by ‘machines. The sides of open cuts need be provided with lateral support with the help of bracings whenever there is a danger of cave-ins. Principal boring types are: auger boring, wash boring, percussion drilling and rotary drilling. Bore hole is advanced by hand or power ‘operated auger with periodic removal of ‘material. In some cases continuous auger ‘may be used requiring only one removal. Casing is generally not used with auger boring. Bore hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light chopping bit and jetting action ofa drilling uid, usually Water, under pressure. Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, ‘examination of outcoming slurry and cuttings in the slurry. Casings are used ‘whenever necessary to prevent cave-ins. Bore hole is advanced by chopping action of heavy bit driven by power. Water is added at the bottom of borehole during chopping action, if the ground water is not already struck. Slurry formed at bottom of bore hole is removed by bailer or sand pump, Casing is generally required. Changes in strata are predicted from the rate of progress of boring and examination of slurry bailed out "Applicability Used to determine position of mud line and depth to hard stratum underlying mud. Use is currently limited to shallow depths, Applicable in all soils; provide for visual examination of soil strata in their natural conditions, disturbed or undisturbed samples can be conveniently obtained at required depths. Use is usually limited to shallow depths of 3 to 5 m, For greater depths cost ‘of open excavation and necessary side bracings becomes uneconomical Refer respective type of boring Hand augers are used in soft to stiff cohesive soils, in sandy silty soils above water table With hand auger, depth is usually limited to 6m, Power driven augers can be used to great depths, even to 30 m, and used in almost all types of soils above water table. This method provides almost continuous disturbed samples. Undisturbed samples can be obtained at required depths by using proper samplers Can be used in all types of soils except those containing boulders; can be used to great depths, adopted easily at inaccessible locations. Samples obtained are in highly disturbed and slurry form:; undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers. Can be used in all soil types including soils containing boulders. Can be used for great depths. Us¢ is limited because of difficulty in determining strata changes as chopping action can cause considerable disturbance and because of high cost. May be used in combination with auger or wash borings when boulders are encountered. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.‘SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION TABLE 1.2.1. (Contd). Method Descriptions Applicability (d) Rotary Bore hole is advanced by power rotation of Can be used in all types of soils and rocks, arilting drilling bit and removal of cuttings by can be used to great depths, being circulating fluids which may be water, increasingly used because of fast rate of bentonite slurry or mud slurry. Whenever progress in all soil types, but difficult to use rock or boulders are encountered suitable bits at increasible locations because of heavy viz. diamond studed bits or tun gesten carbide machinery. Undisturbed samples can be bits or steel bits with shots are to be used for _obiained at desired depths by using suitable drilling. Casing may or my not be needed samplers during drilling, Changes in strata are indicated by change in rate of advancing of bore hole, action of drilling tools, examination of cuttings in drilling fluid, (8) Sounding In this method some sounding device like split Can be used in any type of soil and to any and Probing spoon sampler, a cone, or a rod is forced, depth. Depth by static cone penetration is statically ot dynamically, into the soil. The limited by the capacity of equipment. ‘energy consumed in penetration in to soil is__Presently 3 tonne and 10 tonne machines are an indication of consistency of soil. Standard __in use. Standard penetration test is in a penetration test", dynamic cone penetration test! borehole. and static cone penetration test’ are commonly adopted standard tests. (6) Load Tests Vertical plate bearing testis very common, Applicable in sandy soils, murum, weathered (@) Vertical In this method a plate of 30 to 75 cm. square _rock. To be used with caution in clayey soil plate bearing or circular shape is loaded in increments to Depth of influence is limited by virtue of test? obtain load settlement curve, limited plate size. In absence of probing to ‘greater depth by other methods this test can be misleading. Used in estimating allowable bearing presure, coefficient of elastic uniform ‘compression (when the testis cyclic) and modulus of sub-grade reaction. (®) Pressure Generally done in a bore hole. Cylindrical Useful in all soils particularly in bouldery meter test! probe is inserted in a bore and subject to strata, weathered rock etc. where it is difficult cylindrical pressure increments and deformations noted 1, These tess are discussed later inthis chapter. 6 noe p % 1. 4G Ue Ke where, 'v, = velocity of shear wave 1, = velocity of compression wave ° ° to obtain undisturbed samples for laboratory tests of difficult to rely on in-situ tests, like penetration tests G = shear modulus of material K = bulk modulus of material bulk mass density of material = bulk (and not effective) density of material .cceleration due to gravityFrom Eqs 13.1 and 1.3.2 it is clear that vp is greater than vs The seismic method of subsurface investigation consists essentially of introducing seismicenergy into the ground tobe investigated and measuring the time taken for the energy to travel along a defined path through the ground to a seismic detector located at a known distance from the energy source. The energy travel time between source and detector is measured tan accuracy of 1 millisecond or better, by a seismic recorder The principal seismic techniques in common use are reflection method and refraction method, The seismic reflection method, which uses measurements of travel time of the reflected wave, is often used to explore deep geological structure, but is little used for shallow site investigation work on land. At present this method is mainly uséd in offshore investigation. A form of reflection method that is widely used for the exploration of sites under water is known as the sparkermethod Herethe energy sourceisthe discharge ofan electric spark under water, and a hydrophone is used to pick-up, the reflected waves from the sea or river bed and from the boundaries between the layers of the under-lying sediments, The resulting continuous seismic record is known as an echogram. Care must be taken to distinguish between primary and multiple reflections on the echogram; for instance the second reflection from the sea or river bed must not be mistaken for the bed rock profile. Detector geophones) sat POAT stratum ieey"toce ond iy sil) 1 Vin Steou 2 (say compact Stratum IIT Shooting distance 23 tol2times | desred penetration (a) ! ot | sell orWeatherea (say soune w