Course Notes for Petroleum Engineering 306 Reservoir Rock Properties by W.D. Von Gonten W.D. McCain, Jr. Texas A&M University Fall 1991Petroleum Engineering 306 Reservoir Rock Properties Course Description and Objectives Fall 1991 use Descripti A study of the physical properties of reservoir rocks and the reservoir rock-fluid system as they relate to the production of oil and gas. Course Obiccti ‘The student should be able to: 1. Define porosity, discuss the factors which effect porosity, and describe the methods of determining values of porosity. 2. Define the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of reservoir rock and describe ‘methods for determining values of formation compressibility. 3. Reproduce the Darcy equation in differential form, explain its meaning, integrate the equation for typical reservoir system, discuss and calculate the effect of fractures and channels, and describe methods for determining values of absolute permeability. 4. Explain boundary tension and wettability and their effect on capillary pressure, describe methods of determining values of capillary pressure, and convert laboratory capillary pressure values to reservoir conditions. 5. Describe method of determining fluid saturations in reservoir rock and show relationship between fluid saturation and capillary pressure. 6. Define resistivity, electrical formation resistivity factor, resistivity index, saturation exponent, and cementation factor and show their relationship and uses; discuss laboratory measurement of electrical properties of reservoir rocks; and demonstrate the calculations necessary in analyzing laboratory measurements. 7. Define effective permeability, relative permeability, permeability ratio; reproduce typical relative permeability curves and show effect of saturation history on relative permeability; illustrate the measurement of relative permeability; and demonstrate some uses of relative permeability data. 8. Describe three-phase flow in reservoir rock and explain methods of displaying three-phase effective permeabilities. 9. Demonstrate the techniques of averaging porosity, permeability, and reservoir pressure data, 10, Demonstrate capability to perform calculations relating to all concepts above.4 4 15 7 78 18 83 88 ERRATA Firat Printing PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES James W. Amyx, Daniel M. Bass, Jr., and Robert L. Whiting McGraw Hill Book Company Reference Now Read Par. 2, line 3 Joan Fig. 1-9 etep oP pg dz Ea. (2-8) ae Hos #* 10 ‘| Eq. (2-16) £4 (tho sub letter om) two lines below ° Eq. (2-16) pg (rho eub letter "0" Sentence below Eq. (2-22) (difference in hydraulic head of inlet and outlet) Next to last line © 4P _ dp gh L Line 1 Eq. (2-27) Q, (Q oud letter "0" P, (P sub letter "ot) 7 04 (tho sub letter "0" Eq. (2-34) Omission Eq. (2-35) Omission Top of page i 5B asl Legend, Fig. 2-39, line 2 k Legend, Fig. 2-39, line 3 k pobowld!nes Juan steep ap “rors (rho sub zero) Pg (rho sub zero); twice Delete (dP AP _ pgh ds dz te Q, (OQ sub zero}; two 9 “corrections Po (P eub zero) Pg (rho sub zero} Insert 4 in denominator Insert 4 in denominator KhePage Reference Now Reads Should Read 90 Ex. 2-12, part 2, 4.450 millidarcye 4,450 millidarcys mid page ng Par. 3, line 2 “data that F = g°'3u "data that F = unconsolidated 135, 6 lines below "water-isooctane-plus and" Fig. 3-2 isoquinoline an 1az last line “futionen"! “function” aay Eq. (3-11) 6.57 6.857 149 Par. 1, line 3 6.57 6.857 159 Par. 1, line 3 Eb. 163, Eq. at mid page - 177 Legend, Fig. 3-36, let line (a) 1 177 Legend, Fig. 3-36, 2nd line (b) 2 204 Fig. 3-58 12.3.4 delete numbers 205 Par. 1, line 3 1 A 205 Par. 1, line 3 ee B 205 Par, 3, line 1 2 B 205 Par. 3, line 2 1 A 205 Par. 4; line 1 Land 2 Aand B 207 Second line from _ relative - permeability effective - permeability bottom 208 Legend, Fig. Fig. 3-27 Fig. 3-26 3-64, line 2 215 190° F 90° F aan (7) AN) 224 Fig. 4-9 Dot in envelope Delete Dot 232 Ex. 4-1, last 60° F 32°F line 235 Eq. (4-7) ee]Page Reference Now Reads Should Read 235 Eq. (4-8) R+ [r+ 243 Lower Eq. in V5 y% middle of pg. a 243 Ex. 4-3, heading of PLT col. 5 of table oo 246 Eq. in last line 1/3 248" Eq. in middle of oe page pre 252 Eleven lines from 20° F 20°C bottom of page 264 Table 4-8, heading 18, 20 16, 280 col. 2 Table 4-8, heading col. 3 7,907 7.907 273 Ex. 4-9, Eq., middle of page P-P P-P. rw vw 279 Fig. 4-39 “Ee Fe 281 Fig. 4-41 upper pressure line “"1000" "1500" 290 Fig. 4-47 (c) Omission Introduce partial diffe- a rential sign inside the parenthesis in both numerator and denomi- nator. 296 Fig. 4-49, label on uppermost portion of ordinate Methane Ethane 299 Ex. 4-12, heading col. 6 (4) ~ (5) (#05) 304 Ex, 4-13, heading col. 6 (4) + (5) (4) (5) 309 Ex. 4-14, line 3 729 0.729vs Ba. (4-87) denominator denominator 2 Lu my" | [ va swe} oe 9! sq. (5-29) FI P 396 Ba. (532) 8, 397 Ex. 5-5, fifth line ua Reg 401 Eq. (5-36) Delete 5.61 in numerator 409 Eq. (5-32) Ry), 0 Equation in middle five Sa 0 a. (5-40) line from bottom,Page Reference Now Reade Should Read 438 Second line, below Eq. (5-47) Delete "and Fig. 5-35" 486 Table 7-3 Omission Add "a" superscript to all boxes in table 494 Fig. 7-5 Delete units on ordinates and letters on abacienas 529 Par. 3 Place sentence 4 before sentence 3 538 Table 7-7, col. 4, third Jine from bottom 97.23 97.22 538” Table 7-7, col. 4, second line from bottom 100.00 99.97 538 Table 7-7, col. 3, bottom line 99.92 99.97 5403 Bottom line k a 547 Line 6 Delete “cumulative” 548 Ex. 7-10, third col., percent sam- ple, cumulative 13.0 ° 13,00 ° 16.4 3,92 16, 49 3.92 eins hr ai.a7 9.77 27.2 162 27. 6.27 322 21.6 31.75 21.60 36.1 27.6 36.96 27.60 41.3 383 46.26 38,30 57.9 51.5 $7.86 51.60 70.5 66.0 70.61 66.30 87.0 87.0 86.81 84.90 96.0 95.2 95.87 94.95 99-3 99.1 99.21 98.75 100 100.0 99.87 99.50 549 Ex. 7-11, col. 4 heading Delete "cumulative" 553 Line 1 FVF EVE 553 Line 2 . FVF EVE558 564 565 565 565 565 565 565 565 566 506 Reference 2nd, 3rd, and 4th lines from bottom of page Ex, 7-14, Table, col. 4, bottom line Second line of Bq. (8-4) First line of Eq. (8-6) First line of Bq. (8-6) Third line of Eq. (8-6) Eq. (8-9) Eq, (8-10) firet line Eq. (8-10) third line Eq. (8-10) fourth line ‘Second line below Eq. (8-11) Eq. (8-13) first line Now Reads 35,000 “volume change of connate water" “change in volume of initial connate water in the ofl gone" Should Read Lowermost "Reservoir Hydrocarbon Volume! calculation refers to Example 7-14 350,000 “volume of connate water"! Delete parenthesis pre- ceeding B 1 Add parenthesis pre- ceeding right hand side of equation Swio NB "Zone, S gi “change in initial volume of connate wate:Page Reference Now Reads Should Read 574 Third line of firat , Place plus (4) oign before equation on page bracket 574 Last equation on Bracketed expression page in numerator , [ae Pat |[ : GB | Ts, thetrssy| | oe terse : ‘wie (Sig) 596 Fx. 8-6 Une 6 2,778 2538 596 In table below line 6, Ex. 8-6 2,751 2538 596 Ex, 8-6, third line from bottom of page 663° R 663 psia 597 Equation above table in middle of page Denominator of equation AP/Z A(P/2)POROSITYPURUSITY A measure of the space available for the storage of fluids in rocks. in general form: v Porosity = Vy > > expressed as fraction where: Vy = Vp + Vm Vp = bulk volume of reservuir rock, (ft) Vp = pore volume, (ft?) Vq = matrix volume, (#t3) Classification Primary (original) Porosity Developed at time of deposition Secondary Porosity Developed as a result of geologic process occurring after deposition Total Porosity VI-1D. Effective Porosity = interconnected void space b 1, Clean sandstones 9, = 4 2. Carbonates, cemented sandstones be < oe II, Range of Values of Porosity A. maximum ¢ Value cubic packing of uniform spheres sand grain radius (ar)3 = ard 3 vos m = 8(1/8 sphere) = 1 sphere = 4/3 ar 9 = 1 - 0/6 = 0.476 max. value @ = 0.476 vi-zCt C. Intermediate § Values e Ce cubic > = 0.476 Minimum Value 9 = 0.0 Factors Affecting Porosity Factor 1. Particle shape 2. Particle arrangement 3. Particle size distribution 4. Cementation 5. Vugs and factures Particle Shape For uniform spheres, @ is function of packing rhombohedral o = 0.259 & 24 cols crore Legene WPore spore ote avert Ben, KE -Potarn fetaspo ELCoteae coment PL Poyociase fosdepor cm chertLl. Packing Arrangement i. Porosity decreases as compaction increases 50 40} Porosity, Shoes o : 010082000" 319004000 5000 6,000 Depth of burial, Efect of natural compaction on porosity. (From Krumicin and Sloss?) vi-4D. Particle Size Distribution 1. Porosity decreases as the range of particle size increases SAND n SILT | CLAY 100 FRAMEWORK | UJ CLEAN FRACTION SAND | siiny oa 7 SAND ve é | | | = INTERSTITIAL MATERIALS 2 K— And mun FRAGMENTS} 0 1 1,0 Ol od 0.001 GRAIN SIZE DIAMETER, MM t. Interstitial and cementing Material 1. Porosity decreases as the amount of interstitial material increases 2. Porosity decreases as the amount of cementing material increases VI-5ao Clean sand - little interstitial material Shaly sand - has more interstitial materia F. Vugs, Fractures fie Contribute substantially to the volune of pore spaces Highly variable in size and distribution There could be two or more systems of pore opening - extremely complex IV. Measurement of Porosity ve Table of Matrix Densities Litnology mn g/en® Quartz 2.65 Limestone 2.71 dolomite 2.87 A. Laboratory Measurement ae Conventional core analysis heasure any two 1. bulk volume ,Vy 2. matrix volume, Yq 3. pore volume, Vp Vi-6b. bulk volume 1. calculate from dimensions 2. displacement method a. volumetric (measure volume 1. drop into liquid and observe volume charge of liquid 2. must prevent test liquid from entering pores space of sample a. coat with paraffin b. presaturate sample with test liquid ¢. use mercury as test liquid vI-7bd. gravimetric (measure mass) af change in weight immessed sample-prevent test liquid from entering pore space change in weight of container and test fluid fluid when sample is introduced volume assume grain density dry weight _ matrix density displacement method reduce sample to particle size, then 1. volumetric 2. gravimetric V1-8a Boyes Law py Vy = pz Vz p(t) va) Dt Valve Closed b. Put core in second chamber, evacuate c. Open valve P(2) [es p> Valve Open Core = Volume of first chamber & volume of second chamber-matrix volume or core + calculate Volume of first chamber + volume second chamber + known Va = Vy - Ye vi-9pore volume fl gravimetric saturation weight - dry weight aenstty of satursting trata Boyles Law p Vy = p2V2 a. PC) Valve Closed (—Hassler Sleeve Core Holder b.Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate c.Upen valve P(2) bY Valve Open Volume of first chamber + pore volume of core + calculate Va = Vy Vi-Lo) 2. Application to reservoir rocks i a. intergranular porosity (sandstone, some carbonates) 1. use representative plugs from whole core in | laboratory measurements | 2. don't use sidewall cores | b. secondary porosity (most carbonates) ; 1. use whole core in laboratory measurements } usually a. calculate bulk volume from measurements } b. determine matrix or pore volume from Boyle Law procedure ' VI-11Example Vi-1 A core sample coated with paraffin was immersed in a Russell tube. lhe dry sample weighed 20.0 gm. The dry sample coated with paraffin weighed 20.9 gm. The paratfin coated sample displaced 10.9 cc of liquid. Assume the density of solid paraffin is 0.9 gm/cc. what is the bulk volume of the sample? Vi-1eExample Vi-1 Solution Weight of paraffin coating = 20.9 gm - 20.0 gm = 0.9 gm Volume of paraffin coating = 0.9 gm / 0.9 gm/cc=i.0 ce Bulk volume of sample = 10.9 cc - 1.0 cc = 9-9 cc VI-13Example Vi-2 The core sample of problem Vi-1 was stripped of the paratfin coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a Russell tube. The volume of the grains was 7.7 cc. What was the porosity of the sample? 1s this effective or total porosity? Vi-iaExample V1-2 Solution Bulk Volume = 9.9 cc Matrix Volume Total porosity Vi-1sExample V1-3 calculate the porosity of a core sample when the following information is available: dry weight of sample = 427.3 g weight of sample when saturated with water = 448.6 g density of water = 1.0 g/cm? weight of water saturated sample immersed i water = 269.6 g VI-16Example-3 Solution = Sat. core wt. in aGensity of water _g - 427.3 9 i g/ew 3 = dry core wt. 448.6 = 21.3 cm = Sat. core wt. in air - sat. core wt. in water > density of water vy + $t8:8-9 = 269-6 9 1 g/cm Vy = 179.0 cm? Vq = 179.0 cm? - 21.3 em? = 157.7 cm? _ Wt. of dry sample _ = 2.71 gfen? matrix vol. The lithology is limestone. Is the porosity effective or total? why? Effective because fluid was forced into the pore space Vi-17Example V1-4 A carbonate whole core (3 inches by 6 inches, 695 cc) is placea in cell two of a Boyles Law device like that described in section 3a. above. Each of tne cells has a volume of 100U cc. Cell one is pressured to 50.0 psig. Cell two is evacuated. The cells are connected and the resulting pressure i 28.1 psig. Calculate the porosity of the core. VI-18Solution Example Vi-4 pave 1000 ce 50 psig + 14.7 = 64.7 psia 28.1 psig = 42.8 psia (64.7)(1000)/(42.8 psia) 1512 cc Vy = Vp 2000 - 1512 = 488 cc 695 - 488 695 Vi-19V. Subsurface Measurement of Porosity A. Types of logs from which porosity can be derived. 1. Density log Pm P 4 = d Pq ~ PF 2. Sonic log ty - Ati Ate - at, ¢. 3. Neutron log ot? 2 cu, Table of Matrix Properties (Schlumberger, Log Interpretation Principles, Volume I) Litholo: At,(u sec/ft) Pm (ance) sandstone 55.6 2.65 Vimestone 47.5 2.71 dolomite 43.5 2.87 anhydrite 50.0 2.96 salt - 67.0 * 2.17 water 189.0 1.00 vi-20vensity log a. measures bulk density of formation Muo cane ‘SOURCE ‘SHORT SPACE = erection {ONG space ‘DETECTOR b. Gamma rays are stopped by electrons - the aenser the rock the fewer gamma rays reach | the detector c. Equation VI-21FORMATION DENSITY LOG GR API CRLIPER x CALIPER _Y _'6 VI-22Example Vi-5 Use the density log to calculate the porosity for the following intervals assuming Ppatpiy 7 2-68 gm/ce and pyyyjg = 1-0 gm/ce. Interval » "log density 4143-4157 4170-4178 4178-4185 4185-4190 4197-4205 4210-4217 Vi-23Solution Interval 4143-4157 Pm = PL Cae ot oa = Interval 4143-4157 4170-4178 4178-4185 4185-4190 4197-4205 4210-4217 Example V1-5 + OL 2.375 2.35 2.43 2.4 2.68 2.45 18 20 1s 7 14 vi-24 2.375 gm/ce3. Sonic Log a. measures time required for compressiona sound waves to travel through one toot of formation depth b. Sound travels more slowly in fluids than i solids. Pore space is filled with fluias, thus travel time increases as porosity increases. c. Equation At, = At, (1 - o) + tee VI-25o - A Ste ate - Ot, SONIC LOG 6 CALIPER x 16 oO GRAP 2oo ¥1-26Example V1-6 Use the Sonic Log to calculate the porosity for the following intervals, assuming sandstone. lnterval At, O58 4144-4150 4150-4157 4171-4177 4477-4187 4199-4204 4208-4213 vi-27Solution Example Vi-6 Interval 4144-4150, Interval 4144-4150 4150-4157 4171-4177 4177-4187 4199-4204 4208-4213 at, = 26.5 psia = 86.5 - 51.6 | Tay.0 = 51.6 at, 498 86.5 25 84.0 24 84.5 24 81.0 Pa 53.5 1 75.0 7 vi-284. Neutron Log measures the amount of hydrogen in the formation (hydrogen index). RON ENERGY LOSSt Maximum Average Energy Number Losi Atomic Atomic Element Collisions Collision __ Weight Number Calcium 371 8% 40a 20 Chiorine 316 10% 355 v Silicon 261 12% 28 “4 Oxygen 150 21% 160 8 | Carbon 115, 28% 120 6 Hydrogen 16 100% 10 1 Hydrogen - Average loss due to angular collision is 63%. Gon ee eet te § , otem sano, poresry «15% cs 33 fvoneaed . é ' eno 24 [leon oe eB oat Sy 1 ag | Oe oc 38 ame Sn 8 °°L__s1uc0N eu “2 r : | @ 110 10 10 10 10 10 10 Gs a b. in clean, liquid filled formation, hydrogen index is directly proportional to porosity. Log gives porosity directly. | c. Not very reliable tor determining porosity. kun with density log to evaluate | porosity, lithology, gas content.NEUTRON/DENSITY LOG 5 CALIPER y 04100 DENSITY NEUTRON 3 = 40, 11700. Vi-30example Vi-7 Use the meutron log to determine porosity for the following intervals Interval on ' 4143-4149 ' 4149-4160 } 4170-4184 4198-4204 4208-4214 Vi-31Example V1-7 Solution interval on 4143-4149 4149-4160 4170-4184 4198-4204 4206-4214 VI-32 23 20 ai 19EXAMPLE VI-8 Lalculate the porosity and lithology of the Polar No. 1 drilled in Lake Maracaibo. The depth o interest is 13,743 feet. A density log and a sonic log were run in the well in addition to the standard I€S survey. The readings at 13,743 feet are bulk density = 2.522 g/cm? travel time = 62.73 y-sec/ft V1-33Example VI-8 dtion Assume tresh water in pores. Assume sandstone: p= 2.65 g/em at, = 95.5 u-sec/ft = Pm 7 PL ¢a* og oe } %a> bq = 7-768 = 5.428 = 2.71 g/cm? 47.5 u-sec/ft Assume limestone: co 62 47.5 S 189.0 - 47.5 10.76 V1-34= 2.87 g/cm = 43.5 p-sec/ft ) Assume 18.61% = 11% limestone Are the tools measuring total or eftective porosity? wny? Total. VI-35V. Lompressidility of Porous Rocks Compressibility, cz: fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure nos (aN 1 (av) Vy v \ap) ap oo A. wormally Pressured Reservoirs 1. vownward force by the overburden must be balanced by upward force of the matrix and the fluid Fo : 2. Thus, Fo = F_ t Fy it follows (not rigorously) that Bo ae ee This equation is not strictly correct but is adequate for our purposes Set ipo 1.U (depth in feet) pp = 0.465 (depth in feet) As fluid is produced in a reservoir the fluid pressure, p- will usually decrease vi-36a. the force on the matrix increases b. causing a decrease in bulk volume ) c. and a decrease in pore volume B. Types of Compressibility 1. Matrix Compressibility cm 2. Bulk Compressibility cy used in subsidence studies a Formation Compressibility , cg - also called pore volume compressibility important to reservoir engineers depletion of fluid from pore spaces internal rock stress changes 3. change in stress results in change in Voy Vs Vp 4. by definition cpt mt ) f Vp \aPm b. since overburden pressure, pg, is constant dpm = - Ope VI-37Thus, \ e SPE Where the subscript of f on cy means “formation” and the subscript of f on pg means “fluid” procedure a. measure volume of liquid expelled as a function of “external"pressure b. "external" pressure may be taken to represent overburden pressure, Po c. fluid pressure, pp, is essentially constant, thus, Po = am d. expelled volume increases as pore volume, V), decreases, thus, Woon wy Wexpelled e. from definition V1-38thus plot Cumulative volume expelled pore voTume slope cf Vi-39 Overburden pressure:C, Measurement of Compressibility 1. Laboratory Lore Sample a. apply variable internal and external pressures b. internal rock volume changes Equipment Internal pressure, gouge Hydraulic pump Reservoir Mercury slugs Verguson sight gouge Overburden pressure gouge Hydraulic pump Copper-jocketed core Reservoir PIELLLELLLILLT ULES CLZZIIZP ATLL GZ A 4 A A 4 Y A Zz Fic. 2-18. Experimental equipment for measuring pore volume compaction and compressibility. (From Fatt.) vI-40EXAMPLE VI-9 Valculate the pore volume compressibility for a andstone sample at 4000 and 6000 psi, given the following lab data. eta pore volume = 50.u cm? Be pressure, psi. Mol. fluid expelled 100 0.244 2000 0.324 3000 0.392 4u00 0.448 5000 0.500 6000 0.546 7000 0.596 8000 0.630 14 Vi-41ytion trom graph @ 4000 psi @ 60U0 psi ce Example V1-9 0.0143 - 0.0047 slope = 9000 - 0 1.067 x 107° i/psi 0.0138 - 0.0052 slope = goou - 9.55 x 1077 1/psi vi-42z0006 aUNSsaud NOILI¥dWOD ooog 000s 0009 0005-00 coos 0002 oot 0 Ty EEE ms VOLUME EXPELLED PORE VOLUME V1-43vetermination of formation compressibility by correlation 34 ‘Limestone S77 © Sanestome ot © Sandstone , oN] $e nes cos _| § j cn 2 zg x ge] s é y (8 ‘| rat Pt EEE siy : 1st) 33 2 [8 3 537 Li TE ee Peer ey S i i nt 5 2 4 6 86 10 i2 14 6 16 20 22 24 2% 30-32 ae Formation compaction component of total rock compressibility. Hell") Vi-aa (Fromsens veut comecannsty 44 70"! #8 HORTA aM Porevolume compressibility at 75 percent itnostatie pressur ‘consolidated sandstones. -——T } o «(8s E oo fe initioh sample porosity for Se | Pore-volume compressibility at 75 percent Ithostatie pressure va inti ee, jal_sample porosity for ‘able’ sandstones. 5 pore volume compressibility i Sample poromty.E, Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs “abnormal pressure": fluid pressures greater than (surnormal) or less than (subnormal) fluid pressures expected from an assumed linear pressure gradient pressure ——> normal linear subnormal (lower) depth _ surnormal (greater) VI -46PURUSITY PRUBLEW 1 A limestone sample weighs 241.0 g. The limestone sample coated with paraffin was found to weigh 249.5 g. The coated sample when immersed in a partially filled graduated cylinder displaced 125.0 ca® of, water. The density of the paraffin is 0.90 g/em?. What is the porosity of the rock? Does the process measure total or effective porosity? vi-47Porosity Problem 1 | Solution _ Wt. dry , 241.0 9. gg.9 cm? 2 Ps 2.71 g/cm 7 _ wt. coated sample - wt. uncoated sample paraffin SS = 249.5 g - 241.0 g 0.90 g/cm = 9.4 cu? Vy = 125 cw? - 9.4 cm? = 115.6 cw gs Vp = 415.6 cm? - 88.9 cm? = 26.7 cm? v oe 2 Yb 3 o = 26:7 cm oi 115.6 cm = 23.1% total porosity VI-48PURUSITY PRUBLEN 2 You are furnished with the results of a seive analysis of a core from the Pete well #1. Previous laboratory work indicates there is a correlation between grain size and porosity displayed by those particular particles. The correlation is seen below: gravel - 25% porosity coarse sand - 38% porosity fine sand - 41% porosity What woula be the minimum porosity of the mixture? What basic assumption must be made in order to work the problem? vi-49Porosity Problem 2 Solution Begin calculations with a volume of 1 cu.ft remaining remaining pore matrix component volume porosity volume (eco yee (s) crt) void space 1.000 100 0.000 ) gravel 0.250 25 0.750 | coarse sand 0.095 9.5 0.905 fine sand 0.039 3.9 0.981 final porosity - 3.9% 1 complete mixing of the grains VI-50PUROSITY PRUBLEM 3 A sandstone reservoir has an average thickness of 85 feet and a total volume of 7650 acre-feet. vensity a r———r———“_EUrtéC'“CC_-E_ of the reservoir indicate a density of 2.40 gm/ca’. The Highgrade #1 Well was drilled and cored through the reservoir. A rock sample was sent to th laboratory and the following tests were run. pressure cum, pore vol. change (psig) (-cm3) 1000 0.122 2000 0.162 3000 0.196 4000 0.224 5000 0.250 6000 0.273 7000 0.298 8000 0.315 The dry weight of the core sample was found to be 140 gms while the sample dimensions were 1.75 inches jong and 1.960 inches in diameter. Assuming the compressibility at 4500 psi is the average compressibility in the reservoir, how much subsidence occurs when the reservoir pressure declines from 5500 psi to 3500 psi? Vi-5Lcalculate: A. keservoir Porosity B. Sample Pore Volume _ UL. Compressivility at 4500 psi _ v. Amount of Ground Subsidence vi-52PURUSITY PROBLEM 3 Solution A. Reservoir Porosity 2 18.2% B. Sample Pore Volume (1.575 in)(2.54 em/in) = 4.0 cm (1.960 in)(2.54 cm/in) = 5.0 cm e no@h , (3.14)(5.0)2(4.0), bulk volume = 77 4 (4.0) Vy = 78-5 cm? matrix volume = (140 gms)(cm3/2.65 gms) = 52.8 cm = Vq = 78.5 cm? - 52.8 cm? Vi-53COMPRESSIBILITY PROBLEM A reservoir lov acres and 100 feet thick has a porosity of 11%. The pore compressibility is 5.U x 107& L/psi. If the pressure decreases 3000 psi what is the subsidence? vi-54Compressibility Problem Solution 6,969,600 Ft? > 160 (43,560) 100 (6,969,600) = 696,960,000 ft” Vy # = (696,960,000) (.11) = 76,665,600 —=) aoe 76,665,600 ft” 3000 psi 1 969.600 Fte an = 1.15 x 108 Ft? x — 6,969,600 ft’ 165 ft V1-55Lompressivility (see graph v= 25.7 cm Subsidence oH H(co)(@) (OP) = (85)(9.96 x 1077) (0.152)(2000) AH = 0.026 ft OH = 0.32 inches VI-57SINGLE PHASE FLOW IN PUKOUS ROCK1. varcy's Equation (1856) A. water flow through sand filters Schematic drawing of Henry Darcy experiment oa fow of water through aand. (Pom Hubber!) 1. constant of proportionality, K, characteristic of particular sand pack, not sample size 2. Darcy's work confined to sand packs that were 100% saturated with water 3. equation extended to include other liquids using viscosity ka(ny-hy) a* 40 VII-1B. Generalized Form of Darcy's Equation 1. Equation | 4(2- sou ds 1.0133 x 10° go" 180" 270-380" VII-2Nomenclature vg = volume flux along path s - cm/sec vg/b = velocity > = density of flowing fluid - gm/cn? g = acceleration of gravity - 980 cn/secé 42 = pressure gradient along s - atw/cm b= viscosity - centipoise k = permeability - darcies Lonversion factors dyne = gmcm/sec® = a unit of force atm = 1.0133 x 10° dyne/cn® pgh = dyne/cm? = a unit of pressure poise = gm/cm sec dyne sec/cme ViI-3The units of Permeability Lo = length m= mass t = time ve = b/t woe mit p= w/i3 p= mite Gait vor je [coe #| a BLES ~ yor3s x 108 boll k [mst 7 tot ate Lo k = L@ = cross-sectional area ViI-4Definition of Darcy Units a. rational units would be: 1. feet squared in the English system 2. centemeter squared in the cys system b. both are too large for use in porous medi c. definition of darcy A porous medium has a permeability of one darcy when a single-phase fluid of one centipoise that completely fills the voids of the medium will flow through it under conditions of viscous flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second per square centimeter cross-sectional area under a pressure or equivalent hydraulic gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter. ViI-5Il. Keservoir Systems A. Flow of incompressible liquid 1, Horizontal, linear system -—.—— a. conditions 5 dz. 1. horizontal system, $2 0 2. linear system, A = constant 3. incompressible liquid, q = constant 4. laminar flow, can use Darcy's equation 5. mMmon-reactive fluid, k = constant 6 100% saturated with one fluid 7. constant temperature, vq = constant VI1-6b. derivation of flow equation aa [3 29 dz ee . : i e 1.0133 x 108% =- kK ad veto ga ca u P. qf ds =- KA? dp > 1 eee q(t = 0) KA (pg - Py) Note: p, acts atl = 0 ppg actsatlL=Ll q is + if flow is fromL =O toL=L VII-7Example II-1 What is the flow rate of a-horizontal rectangular system when the cén- ditions are as follows: permeability = k = 1 darcy 2 area = A = 6 ft viscosity = « = 1.0 cp length = L = 6 ft inlet pressure = P; = 5.0 atm outlet pressure = py = 2.0 atm Solution He must insure all the variables are in the correct units. k = 1 darcy A= 6 tt? (144 in2/1 £t2)(6.45 cm2/1 in’) = 5572.8 cn® l= 6 ft (12 in/l ft)(2.54 cm/1 in) = 182.88 cm 5.0 atm Po = 2.0 atm kA ph (Py ~ Py) (1) (5872:8) 4 = Gyce2.aay (5-0 - 2.0) 3 cat q = 91.42 vII-82. Non-horizontal, linear system ae Conditions ie ee ae 4. 5. 6. i non-horizontal system, $2 = sin 8 = constant linear system, A = constant incompressible liquid, q = constant laminar flow, use Darcy equation non-reactive fluid, k = constant 100% saturated with one fluid constant temperature u,q = constant Vil-9b. derivation of equation keeps og az ee : u ls 1.0133 x 108 = 9 -- kB k pg sins vet e + oo s x u as y 1.0133 x 10° L P. A A 8 _ === ds -= $ ° u Py u 1.0133 x 10 a = - A (py -p,) + Moatsing, LQ uw 1.0133 x 10 ka pg t sino a= or le 7 Pe t ae ut {Pa > Pe 1.0133 x 10° VII-10 dsVertical, upward flow, linear system Flow under head + i l conditions dz. 1 = 1. vertical system, Gp = sing constant upward flow, 0 = 270° , sino = - 1 linear system, A constant incompressible liquid, q = constant laminar flow, use Darcy equation non-reactive fluid, k = constant 100% saturated with one fluid constant temperature, y = constant Vil-1ibd. derviation of flow equation : k |dp _ pg az roe s - Pa. ‘ u [2 1.0133 x 10° : 2k fe =a ve 2 ge- & + sd u \s if pois ea = kA \n ale) og qa = fA [oe - 4 a 1.0133 x 10° eg (nh + x +L) p, = eo thtate 1.0133 x 10 - 29x Py x 2 1.0133 x 105 = =ogehe oT a a =—S—rt— Pe) psia (reeus-psTe) 0.06805 (p, - py) psia Vil-29 a 24h J U 3600 sec”meter 100 cm (0.001 k)(929.0 A) .06805(p, - Pid) u (30.48 L) 0.01127 k A (py - Py r in oilfield units " VII-300. Table of Equations 1. Darcy Units system horizontal, incompressible qg = SE op = PQ) linear Viquid Y dipping, incompressible q = KB [rr - pg) pt sing linear liquid a 1.0133 x 10 horizontal, incompressible q = = radial liquid brizontal real Qe 7 linear gas . kA a = Gr (Py > Pg) horizontal 1 ue 2 r al, e orizon rea ae eG (Pe radial gas sc 2ukh [e Tiny, (Pe ~ Pw Vil-3124 vilfield Units stem horizontal, linear dipping Vinear horizontal radial horizontal linear horizontal, radial fluid incompressible liquid incompressible liquid incompressible liquid real gas Sse real gas 4 V11-32 0.001127 ‘t (py > P2) q = res dbi/d kA 0.001127 Tr [on - Pal L sin 8 + 9 in | 6 1.0133 x 10 : kh - q = -007082 winrr, (Pe Py 7 kA 2 Qo = ENS eT IPL” P Yc = Stl - kA q = 001127 GE (Py - Pz) q = res bbi/d 32 #-h 2 = 7032 Calngreieea (Pe - Pw = kh Go = .007082 Tier, Pe Py) }Example VII-1 What is the flow rate of a horizontal rectangular system when the conditions are as follows: permeability = k = area = A= 6 ft! 1 darcy viscosity = w= 1.0 cp length = L = 6 ft inlet pressure outlet pressure = calculations We must insure all the variables are in the correct i units. K = 1 darcy = 1000 md A = 6 ft? Lo o=6 ft Py = (5.0 atm)(14.7 psi/atm) = 73.5 ps Pp = (2.0 atm)(14.7 psi/atm) = 29.4 psi = -3 KA q = 1.1271 x 1079 * (Pp, - Py) 4 uot? gq = Lete7i x 1073 {2000N(6) (73,5 - 29.4) (1) (6) q = 49.7 bbl /day VI1-32AExample VII-2 Calculate the upward and downward flow rates in the following circular, vertical sand pack. diameter d kK ¥ ° z .5 feet 10 feet 500 md 1.0 cp 433 psi/ft 1 ft VI1-328Example VI1-3 } flow rate in a radial system problem: what is the of] flow rate in a radial system with the following set of conditions? given: K = 300 md re 330 ft = 20 ft ca 0.5 ft Pe = 2500 psia re/Ty = 660 py = 1740 psia In rg/ry = 6.492 I u“ = 1.3 ep ) VI1-320ltion: Example VW-3 flow rate in a radial system 3 7.082 x 10°~KH(P, - Py) 1.3(6.492) y = 3826 res bbI/d VI1-320EB. Layered Systems 1. Horizontal “average” linear, flow to parallel to bedding permeability, ViL-33then } k wh (py = Pp) and ky wh kg whe ke wh FAH (py = bp) + Bae (my > Pe) + “Se fy > Pe) then VI1-342. Horizontal, radiai,flow parallel to bedding again Se = Wat GBF 4 hos + hp t he eageked - a, + Strgrr, (Pe ~ Pw? VI1-35Bim ky by 21 ky np WTA TF, (Pe ~ Pa) t ETAT, Pe ~ Pw a 2 awk, he + ptr, (Pe ~ Pw) then Lhe kg hy + ky tg t Ke he and again : nek koe oe el VII-36Horizontal, linear, flow perpendicular to bedding VII-37thus Vi1-38horizontal, radial, flow perpendicular to bedding h . =a, * at 9a = AB * 4 tw a "ap ro AP, * MPy * APE 2nkh (pe - aS arr, ag ulm res qqu In rg/r, In ry/r, BAe UA dulW eevee B/Tay Me Be Tey Takk HET then V11-39Example VII-4 Damaged zone near wellbore: = 10 md ry 2 ft = 200 md r 300 ft 0.25 ft ke k= _—— In (2/0.25) In (300/2) ete Uae k = 30.4 md Permeability near wellbore is the controlling factor. Vil-40Flow Through Channels and Factures 1. Flow through constant diameter chane Poiseuille's Equation for Viscous Flow Through Capillary Tubes aré Bul (py ~ Pp) . A= ars therefore . Art Byl (py > Pa) varcy's Law for Linear Flow of Liquids a = EA (py - pg) we assuming these flow equations have consistent units, ee iy = LP) 8 32 when d= inches, k = 20 x 10° d? md VII-41Example VII-5 Determine the permeability of a rock composed of closely packed capillaries 0.0001 inch in diameter 1f only 25 percent of the rock is pore channels (90.25), what will the permeability be? VIL-42txaw ple a |Solution: A. k + 20 x 109 a2 k k = 20 x 109 (0.0001 in)* k 200 md 0.25 (200 md) 5U md Vi1-42a2. Flow Through Fractures setting thi 28 (py-P2) _ gw (Py > Pa? 12yb KL solve for permeability of a fracture Md k= om davey units, OR 12 k = 54 x 109 b? where b = inches k = md VIL-43 s flow equation equal to darcy's flow equationExample VII-6 plem: Consider a rock of very low matrix permeability, 0.01 md, which contains on the average a fracture 0.005 inches wide and one foot in lateral extent per square foot of rock. Assuming the fracture is in the direction of flow, determine the average permeability using the equation for parallel Flow. VII- 44Solution: V1I-¢ Ji, similar to horizontal, linear, flow parallel to fracture _ (matrix k)(matrix area) + (fracture k)(fracture area ee area x y= (OL (2 in)? - (42 in)(0.005 in) , 144 in x 0.005) )(12 in x (0.005 144 in’ in)) 39 + 81,000 144 VII-44Aill. Laboratory weasurement of Permeability A. Procedure 1. Perm plug method a. Cut small, individual samples (perm plugs) from larger core b. Extract hydrocarbons in extractor c. vry core in oven d. Flow fluid through core at several rates 2p? -e au horizontal, linear, real gas with T= Tse and Z = 1.0 k = (slopedyExample VIL-7 ) You are a core analyst and wish to determine the true permeability for a Woodbine core sample taken from a Brazos County well at 8800 feet. The following data are available: core length = 2.7813 cm core diameter = 2.5324 cm atmospheric pressure = 14.60 psia The test fluid was nitrogen with a viscosity of 0.017 cp. upstream downstream flow pressure pressure rate (psig) (psig) (cc/sec) 40.0 10.0 97.2 35.0 15.0 80.0 30.0 20.0 59.7 27.5 22.5 29.9 ) Vil-46Solution ) A = 5.037 cmé slope = 19.5 k = (slope) | = 19.5(.017) = .331 D = 331 md Vil-47a Whole core method a. be prepare whole core in same manner as perm plugs mount core in special holders and flow fluid through core as in perm plug method Low oie pressure (ow) Core. Rubber tubing. High oir pressure (sealing) Vocwum” / Pipe! Vertical flow To flowmeter the horizontal fluw data must be adjusted due to complex flow path whole core method give better results for limestones vil-48B. Factors which affect permeability measurement 1. Fractures - rocks which contain fractures in situ frequently separate along the planes of natural weakness when cored. Thus laboratory measurements give “matrix permeability which is lower than in situ permeability. 2. Gas slippage gas molecules "slip" along the grain surfaces b. occurs when diameter of the capillary openings approaches the mean free path of the gas molecules c. Darcy's equation assumes laminar flow d. gas flow path with slippage ES VIl-49e. called Klinkenberg effect f. mean free path is function of size of molecule thus permeability measurements are a function of type of gas used in laboratory measurement. KcaLCULATED Ie vi1-50mean free path is a function of pressure, thus Klinkenberg effect is greater for measurements at low pressures - negligible at high pressures. permeability is a function of size of capillary opening, thus Klinkenberg effect is greater for low permeability rocks. VII-51eftect of gas slippage can be eliminated by making measurements at several different mean pressures and extra polating to high pressure (1/p = 0) K easureo ° moe VII-52Example VI1-8 Another core taken at 8815 feet from the Brazos County well was found to be very shaly. There was some question about what the true | Liquid permeability was, since nitrogen was used in the permeameter. Calculate the equivalent permeability from the following data- Mean Measured Pressure Permeability (atm) (md) 1.192 3.76 2.517 3.04 4.571 2.76 9.484 2.54 VII-53ution Plot kmeasured VS: 1/pressure Intercept is equivalent to liquid permeability from graph krig = 2-38 ma e : & + @ | Migas = 2.98276 +1.64692/Poar g / vq T ~ : i Equivalent Liquid Permeability = 2.38 md | 0 T T T T 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0 Reciprocal mean pressure. atm’ VI1-543 Reactive Fluids a. Formation Water Reacts With Clays 1. lowers permeability to liquid 2. actual permeability to formation water is Tower than lab permeability to gas € & 2 | 1 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 1,280 2560 Air permeability, millidarcys Fio, 2-45. Relationship of permeabilities measured with air to those measured with water having a concentration of 20,000 to 25,000 ppm chloride ion b. Injection water reduces permeability due to clay swelling VI1-55