ElizabethGutierrez

SkeletalSystemLabReport

ThesacrummeanssacredorholyinlatinwhichwasnamedbytheRomans.Howeverthe
directtranslationfromtheolderGreekishieronosteon.Themeaningsacredorholyinthepastgave
amisinterpretationoftheGreekmeaninghieronosteonbecausepeoplethoughtitwastheusein
sacrificialritesorthetheroleofthebonetoprotectthegenitalia,andtheneedoftheintactnessofthe
boneasaplacefortheresurrectionatthedayofjudgementwhereGodwillcome.Thesacrumgotthe
meaningthatthebodywouldreassembleonthedayofresurrectionbecauseitwasthelastofthebones
todecayafterdeath.Thebestexplanationwouldbethattheholinesswasanattributeborrowedfrom
AncientEgyptianswhoconsideredthebonesacredtothegodofresurrectionandagriculture,Osiris.In
1732,Monrosuggesteditsoriginalnamebecauseofthesizeinrelationtotheothervertebraeonthe
spine.Refertofigureoneforthesacrum.Thelatinterm
pelvis
meansbasinwhichstemsfromtheGreek
word
pella
thatmeansdishorbowl.ThewordpelviswasusedintheAncienttimesandwasintroduced
intoAnatomybyVesaliusin1539.Columbususeditin1559anditbecameverypopularduringthose
times.Refertofiguretwoforthepelvis.Scapulaisanotherboneofthehumanbody,inlatinitiscalled
scapulaewhichmeanstheshoulderblades.ThescapulainGreekmeansanybroad,flatinstrument
whichismadeofwoodlikethebladeofanoar.However,justlikethepelvis,thescapulaisalso
adoptedbyVesalius.In1640,thescapulaofficiallygotitsnamebyRiolan.AccordingtoRiolan,the
translationoftheGreekwasthemeaningtodigbecausetheboneresembledadiggingtool.Thescapula
isaflat,roughlytriangularshapedbonethatconnectsfromthehumerustoandclavicle.Thesacrum,
pelvis,andscapulaareimportantbonesinthehumanbodybecauseoftheirimportantfunctions,
howevertheirnameswerederivedfromdifferentpeopleorculturesbackintheAncienttimes.Referto
figurethreeforthescapula.

Figure1:SacrumFigure2:PelvisFigure3:Scapula
ImagebyAuthorImagebyAuthorImagebyAuthor


Figure4:Screenshotderivedfromaprepared
slideofcompactbonethatgaveavisual
representationofthehaversiancanal,osteons,
canaliculi,lacunaeandVolkmannsCanal.
ThisscreenshotwastakenbyAuthor

Figures5:Imagesontheleftandright
sidearebothpicturesoftheTrabecular
Bone.ImagescreatedbyAuthor

Figure6:Imagecreatedbyauthorofthe
Periosteum

Aftertheintramembranousandendochondralbonesform,osteoclastsandosteoblastsbeginto
remodelthem.Resorptionanddepositionthenoccurontheendosteumandperiosteumhowever,the
remodelingofthespongyboneisfasterthanthatofthecompactbone.Factorsthatinfluencebone
development,growth,andrepairinclude:nutrition,exposuretosunlight,hormonalsecretions,and
physicalsecretions.VitaminDisessentialforproperabsorptionofcalciuminthesmallintestine,so
withoutthisvitamin,calciumispoorlyabsorbedandinorganicsaltportionofthebonematrixlacks
calcium.Whentheinorganicsaltportionofthebonematrixlackscalcium,itsoftenswhichcausesthe
bonetodeform.AninactiveformofVitaminDformswhendehydrocholesterol,producedbyskincells
orobtainedfromthediet,iscarriedbythebloodtotheskinandthenitisexposedtoultravioletlight.
TheinactiveformofVitaminDisthenprocessedintheliverandkidneystobecomeanactiveformof
VitaminD.VitaminAandCarerequiredfornormalbonedevelopmentandgrowth.VitaminAis
essentialforosteoblastsandosteoclastsduringnormaldevelopment,sothatswhythedeficiencymay
retardbonedevelopment.VitaminCisrequiredforcollagensynthesis,soiftheosteoblastscannot
produceenoughcollagenintheextracellularmatrixofthebonetissue,bonesareabnormallyslenderand
fragile.Also,hormonessecretedbythepituitarygland,thyroidgland,parathyroidgland,andovariesor
testesaffectthebonedevelopment.Thepituitaryglandstimulatesdivisionofcartilagecellsinthe
epiphysealplates.Ifthehormoneisnotpresent,thelongbonesofthelimbsfailtodevelopnormally,so
achildhaspituitarydwarfism.Ifexcessgrowthhormoneisreleasedbeforetheepiphysealplatesossify,
heightmayexceed8feetcalledpituitarygigantism.Foradults,secretionofexcessgrowthhormone
causesacromegalywherethehands,feet,andjawenlarge.Thyroidhormonethyroxinestimulates
replacementofcartilageintheepiphysealplatesoflongboneswithbonetissue.Itincreasescellular
metabolismandosteoblastactivity.Physicalstressaffectsbonegrowthbecausewhentheskeletal
musclescontract,theypullattheirattachmentsonboneswhichcausethebonetissuetothickenand
strengthen.Ontheotherhand,lackofexercisecausesthesamebonetissuewastesanditbecomes
thinnerandweaker.Figure6:TableanddatagatheredbyAuthor

Normal

VinegarSoakedBone

CookedBone

CollagenMatrix

Present

Present

NotPresent

MineralSalts

Present

NotPresent

Present

DiseaseorDisorder

NotPresent

Characteristics

Dark,hardtobend,
flexibletobend,
sortofhardbutableto
hadmeanonit,calcium semitransparent,lacks bend,lackscalcium
present
anyprotection,

Figure7:ImagebyAuthorofthebonesrepresentedinFigure6

Part4:ProteinProteinInterfaces
The purpose of this lab is to understand the mechanism that nature uses to create hierarchal structures
and detailed functions in a spaced and temporary controlled mannerfromasimplenanofibrousbuilding
block through protein to protein assembly processes.Helixshapedmacromoleculeslikecollagen,chitin
and cellulose are critical to the morphogenesis and the function hierarchal structured materials. When
tissues form, chiral fibrous macromolecules secrete and receives selftemplating assembly.
Selftemplating assembly is aprocesswheremultiplekineticfactorshelptheincomingbuildingblocksto
produce nonequilibrium structures. Collagen type I forms transparent corneal tissues from nematic
fibers which are colored skin tissues from cholesteric phase fiber bundles, and mineralizedtissuesfrom
hierarchically organized fibers. Phasebased nanofibers areusedtodeterminethemechanismsbywhich
the hierarchal organization of selfassembled structures occur. M13 was used as a model system
because it has collagen structural features with genetic flexibility. By using the selftemplating material
assembly process, structures that were never observed in nature or produced by engineers were
created. Three examples of new phases created of supramolecular structures are: nematic orthogonal
twists, cholesteric helical ribbons and smectic helicoidal nanofilaments. Chiral liquid crystalline phase
transitions andcompetinginterfacialforcesarefoundtobecriticalfactorsindeterminingthemorphology
of the templated structures during assembly. The resulting materials show optical and photonic
properties that function as chiral filters and structural colormatrices.Also,M13phageswithgenetically
incorporated bioactive peptide ligands direct soft and hard tissue growth in hierarchically organized
manner. The new phagebased material approach provides an understanding for the helical
selfassembly of the hierarchical structures of biomaterials and it gives insight into hierarchical
structurefunction relationship in nature. This process is represented in figure eight as shown below.
Currently, selfassembly techniques are being applied to other biomacromolecules (collagen, chitin and
cellulose) and investigating their molecular assembly processes for the development of biomimetic
hierarchicalstructuresfortissueregulation.

Figure8:Thisisaschematic
diagramofphagebased
selftemplatingprocessasdescribed
intheparagraphabove.
ImagebyChungetal,Nature2011

TherewasacaseinEnglandwhereawomanhaddeceased,butnogravemarkers,name
plates,orchurchrecordsexistedtobeabletoidentifyherbody.Thecoffinofthiswomanlaybetweena
largerheadcoffinwhichheldtheremainsofamanandasmallcoffinthatheldtheremainsofaninfant.
Therewasmanyquestionsleftunknowntodiscoveraboutherbody.Despiteherprestige,thewoman
hadnotbeenwelllongbeforeherdeath.Howeverthewomanwasatleastsixtyyearsofagewhohad
livedlongerthanmajorityofthecolonists.Thecarbonisotopetestingofherbonecoulddetermineifshe
hadeatenawheatorcornbaseddiethowever,theresultsreadthatshewasborninEngland,butlived
inMarylandforalongtime.Atthesceneitwasevidentthatwhoeverburiedhertookgreatcare.There
wassilkribbonaroundherwristbonesthatwrappedherhandstogetheroverthepelvisandsecuredher
feet.Also,therewasevidenceoflinenshroudfibersandcopperstaining.Bonescanbeevidenceto
disguiseamaleorfemale,andthestagesofahuman,meaningiftheyareaninfant,child,adolescentor
adult.Forinstance,thelongboneisdividedintofourregionswhichare:thediaphysis,metaphysis,
physis,andepiphysis.Intheadultstage,onlymetaphysisanddiaphysisarepresent.Forinfantsthe
epiphysisregioninthelongboneispresent.Ontheotherhand,achildslongbonehasdiaphysis,
metaphysis,epiphysis,andphysispresent.Physisispresentforchildrenbecauseitisresponsiblefor
longitudinalgrowthofthelongbones.Awaytodisguisethebonesofamaleandfemaleisbylookingat
thepelvis.Thepelvisofafemaleislarger,wider,andhasarounderpelvicinlet.Thepelvisofamaleis
higherthanthepelvisofafemale,whichcausestheirpelvistolooktallerandnarrower.Animportant
factortodisguisethesexisalsobytakingalookatthepubicarchofthepelvis.Thepubicarchofa
femaleisgreaterthanninetydegreeswhichwouldbeanobtuseangle.Thesubpubicarchofamaleis
lessthanninetydegreeswhichisanacuteangle.Oneofthemostimportantandidentifiablefactorsisby
payingcloseattentiontotheskull.Malestendtohaveasquaredchinwhilewomenhavearoundchin.
Menalsotendtohaveathicker,heavierskullthanthatofafemaleskull.Ontheskull,thetemporal
muscleiswherethemuscleattachesanditismorepronouncedridgeinmalesthanfemales.Intheeye
socketareaonthelowersectionoftheorbitiswherewomenhaveasharperridgeandmaleshavea
slightlybluntersurface.Inconclusion,thelongbone,pelvis,andskullcantellapartsexandagegroup
however,theskullisoneofthemostimportantandcommonthatisusedtotellapartamalefroma
female.

Figure9:
Smithsonian
Forensic
anthropologists
examinetheburial.
Imagecreatedby
Smithsonian
Institution.

Figure10:Imageof

healedfractureof

therightfemur.

Imagecreatedby

Smithsonian

Institution


APACitations:

Sugar,O.(1987).Howthesacrumgotitsname.
JAMA
,
257
(15),20612063.
Shier,David.Holeshumananatomy&physiology/DavidShier,JackieButler,RickiLewis,
Thirteenthed.p.cm.
THEORIGINOFBONENAMES.(n.d).RetrievedOctober23,2015,from
http://teachhealthk12.uthscsa.edu/sites/teachhealthk12/files/activity/downloads/Bones%20Teacher%2
0Name%20Cards%202C.pdf
BIONANOMATERIALSLABOctober22,2015.From
http://leelab.berkeley.edu/index.php
SmithsonianNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory.October22,2015.From
http://anthropology.si.edu/writteninbone/forensic_files.html