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Control Systemvsd
Control Systemvsd
Control Systemvsd
There are many new products and services being introduced every day that depend on
control systems yet they are not identified as control systems!. The user of the system
does not focus on the control system but on the results.
With regard to the first two items above we cite the example of the human being as
perhaps the most sophisticated and the most complex control system in existence. An
average human being is capable of performing a wide range of tasks, including decision
making. Some of these tasks, such as picking up objects, or walking from one point to
another, are normally carried out in a routine fashion. Under certain conditions some of
the tasks are to be performed on the best possible way. For instance an athlete running a
100 yard dash has the objective of running that distance in the shortest possible time. A
marathon runner on the other hand, not only must run the distance as quickly as possible,
but in doing so, he or she must control the consumption of energy, so that the best result
can be achieved. Therefore, we can state that in general that in life there are numerous
objectives that need to be accomplished and the means of achieving the objectives
usually involve the need for control systems.
In recent years control system have assumed an increasingly important role in the
development and advancement of modern civilization and technology. Particularly every
aspect of our day to day activities is affected by some type of control system. For
example in the domestic domain, automatic controls in heating and air-conditioning
systems regulate the temperature and humidity of homes and buildings for comfortable
living. To achieve maximum efficiency in energy consumption many modern heating and
air conditioning systems in large office and factory buildings are computer controlled.
The principles of control system can be illustrated in many fields.
In a simple transistor amplifier a low level signal applied to the base will control a
relatively large level signal on the collector.
By turning a key the driver of an automobile can start a large H.P engine.
A person can lower the temperature in the room simple by turning a knob on the
air conditioner.
The driver of several tonne automobile can control as motion by the simple use of
steering wheel, accelerator, and brake pedal.
Control systems are found in abundance in all sectors of industry such as quality control
of manufactured products, automatic assembly line, machine tool control, space
technology and weapon systems, computer control, transportation systems, computer
control, transportation systems, robotics and many others.
Definition of control system
A control system can be defined as an interconnection of several components all working
together to perform a certain function. In most cases this function is the control of
physical variable, such as temperature voltage, frequency, flowrate, current, position, hp
speed, illumination, altitude etc., These are called controlled variables.
Regardless of what type of control system we have, the basic ingredients of the system
can be described by
1. Objectives of the control
2. Control system components
3. Results
Objectives
Inputs
U
CONTROL SYSTEM
(a)
CONTROL SYSTEM
(b)
Results
Outputs
C
Valve VC
WATER
TANK
Water in
Fig 1-4 b) Open loop control
Valve VO
C
Water
out
Closed loop or feed back control operates according to a very simple principle.
1. Measure the variable to be controlled.
2.
Compare this measured valve with the desired value and determine the
difference.
Electronic thermostat
+
Desired temp. ro c -
Controlled output C
Forward path
element
Controller
Feed back
path element
Fig. 1-5 General block diagram of feedback system
EXAMPLE 1 THERMAL SYSTEM
To illustrate the concept of closed loop control system, consider the thermal system
shown in fig-6 Here human being acts as a controller. He wants to maintain the
temperature of the hot water at a given value ro C. the thermometer installed in the hot
water outlet measures the actual temperature C0 C. This temperature is the output of the
system. If the operator watches the thermometer and finds that the temperature is higher
than the desired value, then he reduce the amount of steam supply in order to lower the
temperature. It is quite possible that that if the temperature becomes lower than the
desired value it becomes necessary to increase the amount of steam supply. This control
action is based on closed loop operation which involves human being, hand muscle, eyes,
thermometer such a system may be called manual feed back system.
Human operator
Thermometer
Steam
Steam
Hot water
Desired hot
water. temp
+
ro c
Brain of
operator (r-c)
Muscles
and Valve
Thermometer
Cold water
Drain
Fig 1-6 a) Manual feedback thermal system
b) Block diagram
Actual
Water temp
Co C
C
Desired temp. r c
Relay
switch
Blower
House
Actual
Temp.
Co C
Session 4 -28.03.2005
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CONTROL SYSTEM
4
Input command
Steady State
error
Transient response
Floor
Time
Fig. 1-8 Elevator input and output
Speed of response, accuracy and stability are the requirements demanded of every control
system. We shall understand the significance of the above taking the example of an
elevator.
As noted earlier, a control system provides an output or response for a given input or
stimulus. The input represents a desired response; the output is the actual response. Take
the case of elevator. For example when the fourth- floor button of an elevator is pushed
on the ground floor, the elevator rises to the fourth- floor with a speed and floor leveling
accuracy designed for passenger comfort. Fig 1 below shows input and output for the
elevator system. the push of the input and output for the elevator system. The push of the
input and output for the elevator system. The push of the fourth floor button forms the
input and is represented by a step command. Note that in the interest of the passenger
comfort, we would not want the elector to mimic the suddenness of the input. The input
represents what we would like the output to be after the elevator has stopped; the elevator
itself follows the displacement described by the curve marked elevator response.
Two factors make the output different from the input. First compare the instantaneous
change of the input against the gradual change of the output in fig. 1 physical entities
( position or velocity ) cannot change their states instantaneously. Thus, the elevator
undergoes a gradual change as it rises from ground floor to the fourth floor. We call this
part of the response 'transient response'.
Transient response is important. In the case of an elevator, a slow transient response
makes passengers impatient, where as an excessively or design components are adjusted
to yield a desired transient response.
After the transient response elevator approaches its steady state response, which is its
approximation to the commanded or desired response. The accuracy of the elevator's
leveling with the floor is a second factor that could make the output different from the
input. An elevator must be level enough with the fourth floor for the passenger to exit.
Example:
dx
2
dt
+ 3
dx
dt
+ X =F
On the other hand if the coefficients of the coefficients of the describing differential
equations are functions of time t ( the independent variable ) then the mathematical
model is linear time variant. An example is a missile. The mass of a missile changes
due to fuel consumption.
2
dx
2
dx
t
+ X =F
t
+
Transfer function2
dt
dt
The differential equation describing a linear time invariant system can be reshaped into
different forms for the convenience of analysis. For single- input- single output linear
system, the transfer function representation forms useful. On the other hand, when a
system has multiple inputs and outputs, the vector- matrix notation may be more
convenient.
The transfer function of a linear time- invariant system is defined as the ratio of the
laplace transform of the output (response) to the laplace transform of the input (driving
function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Consider the linear time invariant system defined by the following differential equation.
a0
dnc
dtn
a1
dn-1c
dtn-1
+ +
an-1
dc + an C = bo
dt
dm r + b1
dtm
+ bm-1
dr
dt
dm-1 r
dtm-1
+ bm r
for n > m
Taking Laplace transform on both sides and assuming zero initial conditions,
C(s)
R(s)
bosm + b1sm-1 + + bm
aosn + a1sn-1 + + bn
Session 5 30.03.2005
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
The term mechanical translation is used to describe motion with a single degree of
freedom or motion in a straight line. The basis for all translational motion analysis is
Newtons second law of motion which states that the Netforce F acting on a body is
related to its mass M and acceleration a by the equation F = Ma
Ma is called reactive force and it acts in a direction opposite to that of acceleration. The
summation of the forces must of course be algebraic and thus considerable care must be
taken in writing the equation so that proper signs prefix the forces.
The three basic elements used in linear mechanical translational systems are ( i ) Masses
(ii) springs iii) dashpot or viscous friction units. The graphical and symbolic notations
for all three are shown in fig 1-9
M
Fig 1-9 a) Mass
The spring provides a restoring a force when a force F is applied to deform a coiled
spring a reaction force is produced, which to bring it back to its freelength. As long as
deformation is small, the spring behaves as a linear element. The reaction force is equal
to the product of the stiffness k and the amount of deformation.
Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two elements, frictional forces
exist. The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of nonlinear
nature. The characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces often
depend on the composition of the surfaces. The pressure between surfaces, their relative
velocity and others. The friction encountered in physical systems may be of many types
( coulomb friction, static friction, viscous friction ) but in control problems viscous
friction, predominates. Viscous friction represents a retarding force i.e. it acts in a
direction opposite to the velocity and it is linear relationship between applied force and
velocity. The mathematical expression of viscous friction F=BV where B is viscous
frictional co-efficient. It should be realized that friction is not always undesirable in
physical systems. Sometimes it may be necessary to introduce friction intentionally to
improve dynamic response of the system. Friction may be introduced intentionally in a
system by use of dashpot as shown in fig 1-10. In automobiles shock absorber is nothing
but dashpot.
a
Applied force
F
b
Piston
The basic operation of a dashpot, in which the housing is filled with oil. If a force f is
applied to the shaft, the piston presses against oil increasing the pressure on side b and
decreasing pressure side a As a result the oil flows from side b to side a through the
wall clearance. The friction coefficient B depends on the dimensions and the type of oil
used.
Outline of the procedure
For writing differential equations
Lever
Lever is a device which consists of rigid bar which tends to rotate about a fixed
point called fulcrum the two arms are called effort arm and Load arm respectively.
The lever bears analogy with transformer
F2 Load
L2
L1
Fulcrum
effort F
1
It is also called mechanical transformer
Equating the moments of the force
F1 L1 = F2 L 2
F2 =
F1 L1
L2
There is viscous friction whenever a body rotates in viscous contact with another body.
This torque acts in opposite direction so that angular velocity is given by
T = f = f d2
dt
Driving wheel
N1
N2
Driven wheel
Analogous Systems
Consider the mechanical system shown in fig A and the electrical system shown in fig B
The differential equation for mechanical system is
d2x
M +
dt2
dx
+ B
dt
+ K X = f (t) ---------- 1
d2q
dt2
dt2
L +
+R
= e ---------- 2
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we see that for the two systems the differential
equations are of identical form such systems are called analogous systems and the terms
which occupy the corresponding positions in differential equations are analogous
quantities
The analogy is here is called force voltage analogy
Electrical System
Force (torque)
Voltage
Inductance
Resistance
Spring constant
Capacitance
Displacement
Charge
Velocity
Current.
d2x
M +
dt
dx
+B
dt
+ K X = f (t) ---------- 1
d2x
2
dt
dt
= I(t)
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we find that the two systems are analogous systems.
The analogy here is called force current analogy. The analogous quantities are listed.
Table of conversion for force current analogy
Mechanical System
Electrical System
Force( torque)
Current
Capacitance
Conductance
Spring constant
Inductance
Displacement
( angular)
Flux
Velocity (angular)
Voltage
Although it is equally easy to write the equations for either form of system and thus
equations for either form of system and thus there is no need to consider analogs, to
simplify the analysis, there are significant advantages to the use of electrical analogos
mechanical systems. For example it is not particularly convenient to setup a mechanical
spring mass dashpot system and test its response in the laboratory because such
components are not available in a wide variety of sizes, and are inconvenient to work
with in any event. Since electrical components, as are current and voltage signals in a
variety of forms for test inputs and since currents and voltages are accurately measured
with ease, it is often convenient to study the response equivalent to the mechanical
system of interest, adjusting component values as required to provide the desired results.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Resource person:
S. RAGHAVENDRA
Selection Grade Lecturer
E&EE Dept. SJCE, Mysore.
REVIEW QUESTIONS ( Sessions 1 to 5 from 21-3-2005 to 29-3-2005)
Chapter 1
Modeling of Physical Systems
1. Name three applications of control systems.
2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not
using them.
3. Give three examples of open- loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed loop systems differ from open loop systems.
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system would
not be the difference between the input and output.
6. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop.
7. Name the three major design criteria for control systems.
8. Name the two parts of a systems response.
9. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
10. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response.
11. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems?
12. To what classification of systems can the transfer function be best applied?
13. What transformation turns the solution of differential equations into algebraic
manipulations ?
14. Define the transfer function.
15. What assumption is made concerning initial conditions when dealing with transfer
functions?
16. What do we call the mechanical equations written in order to evaluate the transfer
function ?
17. Why do transfer functions for mechanical networks look identical to transfer
functions for electrical networks?
K1
K2
(output)
U(t)
(input)
2. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure
X1
(output)
B2
M
F(t)
(input)
B1
3. Write the differential equations for the mechanical system shown in figure.
X1
K1
X2
f12
M1
M2
f(t)
f1
f2
4. Write the modeling equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.
Xi
M
force f(t)
Xo
5. For the systems shown in figure write the differential equations and obtain the transfer
functions indicated.
K
Xi
Xo
Xi
Xo
Yk
F
C
6. Write the differential equation describing the system. Assume the bar through which
force is applied is not flexible, has no mass or moment of inertia, and all
displacements are small.
f(t)
M
B
X2
K1
Force f
b
M2
M1
B1
K2
X1
8. Write the force equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.
B1
J1
T(t)
9. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.
T(t)
J1
1
J2
2
10. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.
1 K
1
J1
Torque T
2 K
2
J2
B2
B1
3 K
3
J3
B3
11. Torque T(t) is applied to a small cylinder with moment of inertia J1 which rotates with
in a larger cylinder with moment of inertia J2. The two cylinders are coupled by viscous
friction B1. The outer cylinder has viscous friction B2 between it and the reference frame
and is restrained by a torsion spring k. write the describing differential equations.
J2
J1
Torque T1, 1
B2
B1
12. The polarized relay shown exerts a force f(t) = Ki. i(t) upon the pivoted bar. Assume
the relay coil has constant inductance L. The left end of the pivot bar is connected to the
reference frame through a viscous damper B1 to retard rapid motion of the bar. Assume
the bar has negligible mass and moment of inertia and also that all displacements are
small. Write the describing differential equations. Note that the relay coil is not free to
move.
13. Figure shows a control scheme for controlling the azimuth angle of an armature
controlled dc. Motion with dc generator used as an amplifier. Determine transfer function
L (s)
u (s)
Motor torque constant
Motor back emf constant
Generator gain constant
Motor to load gear ratio
= KT in N.M /amp
= KB in V/ rad / Sec
= KG in v/ amp
= N2
N1
Resistance of the circuit = R in ohms.
Inductance of the circuit = L in Henry
Moment of inertia of motor = J
Viscous friction coefficient = B
Field resistance = Rf
Field inductance = Lf
14. The schematic diagram of a dc motor control system is shown in figure where Ks is
error detector gain in volt/rad, k is the amplifier gain, Kb back emf constant, Kt is torque
constant, n is the gear train ratio = 2
1
Tm
T2
15. Obtain a transfer function C(s) /R(s) for the positional servomechanism shown in
figure. Assume that the input to the system is the reference shaft position (R) and the
system output is the output shaft position ( C ). Assume the following constants.
Gain of the potentiometer (error detector ) K1 in V/rad
Amplifier gain Kp in V / V
Motor torque constant KT in V/ rad
Gear ratio N1 N2
Moment of inertia of load J
Viscous friction coefficient f
E0
C2
input
Output
K.Puttaswamy
Block Diagram
A control system may consist of a number of components. In order to show the
functions performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use a
diagram called the
Block Diagram.
of
the
function
performed
by
each
G(s
Y(s)
Fig 1.1
The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system lie in the fact that
it is easy to form the over all block diagram for the entire system by merely connecting
the blocks of the components according to the signal flow and thus it is possible to
evaluate the contribution of each component to the overall performance of the system. A
block diagram contains information concerning dynamic behavior but does not contain
any information concerning the physical construction of the system. Thus many
dissimilar and unrelated system can be represented by the same block diagram.
It should be noted that in a block diagram the main source of energy is not
explicitly shown and also that a block diagram of a given system is not unique. A number
of a different block diagram may be drawn for a system depending upon the view point of
analysis.
Error detector : The error detector produces a signal which is the difference
between the reference input and the feed back signal of the control system. Choice of the
error detector is quite important and must be carefully decided. This is because any
imperfections in the error detector will affect the performance of the entire system. The
block diagram representation of the error detector is shown in fig1.2
+
R(s)
C(s)
C(s)
Fig1.2
Note that a circle with a cross is the symbol which indicates a summing operation. The
plus or minus sign at each arrow head indicates whether the signal is to be added or
subtracted. Note that the quantities to be added or subtracted should have the same
dimensions and the same units.
Summing point
R(s)
Branch point
C(s)
G(s)
Fig. 1.3
Block diagram of a closed loop system.
The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with
reference input R(s). The closed loop nature is indicated in fig1.3. Any linear system may
be represented by a block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points and branch
points. A branch is the point from which the output signal from a block diagram goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input,
it is necessary to convert the form of output signal to that of he input signal. This
conversion is followed by the feed back element whose transfer function is H(s) as shown
in fig 1.4. Another important role of the feed back element is to modify the output before
it is compared with the input.
B(s)
R(s)
C(s)
G(s
C(s)
B(s)
H(s
Fig 1.4
The ratio of the feed back signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called
the open loop transfer function.
open loop transfer function = B(s)/E(s) = G(s)H(s)
The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feed
forward transfer function .
G(s)
=
R(s)
1 + G(s)H(s)
C(s)/R(s) is called the closed loop transfer function.
The output of the closed loop system clearly depends on both the closed loop
transfer function and the nature of the input. If the feed back signal is positive, then
C(s)
G(s)
=
R(s)
1 - G(s)H(s)
Disturbance
N(s)
R(s)
+
+
G1(s)
G2(s)
C(s)
H(s
Fig1.5
Fig1.5 closed loop system subjected to a disturbance.
Consider the system shown in fig 1.5. We assume that the system is at rest
initially with zero error. Calculate the response CN(s) to the disturbance only. Response is
CN(s)
G2(s)
R(s)
1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s)
On the other hand, in considering the response to the reference input R(s), we may
assume that the disturbance is zero. Then the response CR(s) to the reference input R(s)is
CR(s)
=
R(s)
G1(s)G2(s)
1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s).
The response C(s) due to the simultaneous application of the reference input R(s) and
the disturbance N(s) is given by
C(s) = CR(s) + CN(s)
G2(s)
C(s) =
1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s)
[G1(s)R(s) + N(s)]
ei
eo
C
Fig. 1.6a
ei = iR + 1/c idt
-----------(1)
And
eo = 1/c idt
---------(2)
=i
--------------(3)
-----------(4)
Ei(s) - Eo(s)
= I(s)
--------(5)
R
Equation(5) represents a summing operation and the corresponding diagram is shown in
fig1.6(b). Equation (4) represents the block as shown in fig1.6(c). Assembling these two
elements, the overall block diagram for the system shown in fig1.6(d) is obtained.
Fig1.6(b)
I(s)
Ei(s)
+
_
Eo(s)
1/R
I(s)
Fig1.6(c)
Eo(s) +
Fig1.6(b)
Eo(S)
1/C
1/R
I(s)
1/C
Fig1.6(d)
REFERENCE: 1. MODERN CONTROL ENGINEERING BY OGATA
3. AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS BY B.C. KHO
Eo(s)
The block diagram is useful for graphically representing control systems. For a
complicated system, however the block diagram reduction process becomes time
consuming . An alternate approach for finding the relationships among the system
variables of complicated control system is the signal flow graph approach due to
Mason.
Signal flow graph is a diagram which represents a set of simultaneous linear
algebraic equation .When applying the signal flow graph method to control system we
must first transform linear differential equation into algebraic equation in s
Signal flow graph consist of a network, in which nodes are connected by directed
branches. Each node represents a system variable and each branch connected between
two nodes acts as a signal multiplier. Note that signal flows only in one direction .The
direction of the signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch and the
multiplication factor is indicated along the branch. The signal flow graph depicts the
flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives the relationship among
the signals.
Signal flow graph contains essentially the same information as a block diagram.
The advantage of using signal flow graph is to represent a control system is that a gain
formula or Masons gain formula is available which gives the relationships among the
system variables without requiring a reduction of the graph
TERMINOLOGY
Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signals.
Transmittance : is a gain between the two nodes.
Branch : is a directed line segment joining two nodes. The gain of the branch is a
transmittance.
Input node or source : is a node which has only outgoing branches. This corresponds to
an independent variable .
Output node or Sink :
Non touching loops : Loops are non-touching if they do not posses any common nodes.
Forward path : A forward path is a path from an input node to an output node which
does not cross any nodes more then once.
Forward path gain : is the product of the branch transmittances of a forward path.
Mixed mode
Input node
x1
x2
x4 input node
x3
x3 Output node
C
Properties of signal flow graph
1. A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal upon another. A
signal passes through only in the direction specified by the arrow of the branch .
2. A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all
outgoing branches.
3. A mixed node which has both incoming and outgoing branches may be treated as
an output node by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance.
4. For a given system, signal flow graph is not unique. Many different signal flow
graphs can be drawn for a given sytem by writing the system equations
differently.
Signal flow graph Algebra
The independent and dependent variables of the equations become the input nodes
and output nodes respectively. The branch transmittance can be obtained from the
coefficients of the equations. To determine the input output relationship we may use
Masons formula or we may reduce the signal flow graph to a graph containing only
input and output nodes we use the following rules
1. The value of a node with one incoming branch as shown in fig. 1 x2 = ax1
2. The total transmittance of cascaded branches is equal to the product of all the
branch transmittances. Cascaded branches can be combined into single branch
the multiplying the transmittance as shown in fig. 2
ab
=
x1
x2
x2 = ax1
fig.(1)
x1
x2
x3
x1
x3 = abx1
Fig. (2)
x3
a
x1
x2
a+b
=
x1
Fig. (3)
x1
x1
a
c
b
(ac)x1
x4
x3
x2
ac
bc
x4
x2
(bc)x2
x1
x2 = (a + b) s1
x2
x4
x4
Fig. (4)
a
x2
x3
x1
ab
x3
ab
=
bc
Fig. (5)
x3 = bx 2
x2 = ax1 + cx3
x3 = abx1 + bcx3
x3 = abx1 + b2cx2
= abx1 + b2c (ax1 + cx3)
=
abx1 (1 + bc)
1 b2c2
x1
1 - bc
x3
ab (1 + bc )
=
( 1 + bc) (1 - bc)
X1
ab
x3 =
x1
1 - bc
(1)
x2
(2)
x3
(3)
a11
a22
x2
x3
b1
u1
x1
x2
x3
x1
a21
a12
a23
b2
a13
u2
a31
a33
x1
x2
a32
x3
a31
b1
u1
x3
a11
a22
a21
a33
a32
x2
x1
a12
b2
x3
a23
u2
a13
k pk
Pk
= determinant of the graph = 1 (Sum of all different loop gains) + (sum of gain
products of all
possible combinations of two nontouching loops) (Sum of the gain products
of all possible
combinations of three nontouching loops)
=1
La +
a
LbL c -
b,c
LdLeLf +
d,e,f
= Cofactor of kth forward path, determinant of the graph with the loops touching the
for all loops except for those which touch the forward path K
Value of above
R(s)
R(s)
G(s)
C(s)
G(s)
R(s)
G(s)
C(s)
C(s)
R(s)
E(s)
C(s)
H(s)
REFERENCE: 1.
2.
3.
-H(s)
G(s)
PROBLEM 1 :
H2
+
-
G1
G2
G3
R(s)
C(s)
H1
(2)
1GG32 1
R(s)
C(s)
(1)
H1
-1
(3)
In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and output C(s).
The forward path gain is
P 1 = G1 G2 G3
In this figure there are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are
L1 = G1 G2 H1
L2 = - G2 G3 H2
L3 = - G1 G2 G3
Since all the three loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops.
Hence determinant
is given by
= 1 - [L1+L2+L3]
= 1 - [G1G2H1 G2G3H2 G1G2G3]
The cofactor of the determinant along the forward path connecting the input node & output node by removing the loops
that touches this path. Since the path p1 touches all the three loops.
We get
Overall given
=1
c(s)
R(s)
c(s)
R(s)
p1
G1G2G3
=
1 - G1G2H1 + G2G3H2 + G1G2G3
2.
Use the signal flow graph method determine the gain c/R for the block diagram shown.
1
R
2
3
5
C
G1
+
G21
+ 3
+
-
H2
H1
G4
R
G1
G2
G3
loop (3)
1
loop (1)
H2
loop (2)
- H1
Masons formula
P=
p1 = G1G2G3
P2 = G1G2G4
is obtained from
1=1
2= 1
p1
1 + p2
G1G2G3 + G1G2G4
G1G2G3 + G1G2G4
1 - G1G2H2 + G1G2G3H1 + G1G2G4H1
3.
The following equation describes a control system. Construct the signal flow
graph for it and obtain transfer function .
and
Y2
U1
for u2 = 0
Y2
U2
for u1 = 0
b1
a11
Y1
y2
a12
a22
Similarly considering the equation 2
Signal flow graph is
Y1
a21
Y2
b2
u2
Combining these two signal the graphs, the total signal graph is
u1
aa2211
b1a21
1
YY2 1
output
Y2
ba212
U1
U2 = o
U2 = 0
u2
Q11
b1
Transfer function
Y2
u1
Assuming
u2 = 0
U1 Y1
u2 = 0
Q22
Q22
1
Y2
a11
b1
a22
a21
U1
Y1
Y2
a12
T.F =
k Pk k
k=1
k = No of forward paths = 1
P1 = b1 a21
L1 = a12 a21
L2 = a11
L3 = a22
L2 & L3 are non touching loops
touching loops]
= 1 [ L1 + L2 + L3 ] + L2 L3
1
= cofactor of the determinant eliminating all loop gains which are touching the
=1
Y2
U1
P1
b1a21
Assuming u1 = o
Then the graph is
a11
a22
a21
Y1
Y2
a12
b2
u2
T.F =
Y2
U2
U1 =0
K = No of forward path = 1
P1 = b2
Individual loops are
L1 = a21 a12
L2 = a11
L3 = a22
nontouching loops are L2 & L3
= 1 [ L1 + L2 + L3 ] + L2 L3
= 1 a21 a12 a11 a22 + a11 a22
1=
Y2
U2
4.
1 a11
p1
=
b2 (1-a11)
1-a21a12 a11 a22 + a11 a22
Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of system equations
Y2 = G1Y1 + G3Y3
Y4 = G6Y2 + G7Y3
Y4
Y1
Solution
Consider the equation 1
Signal flow graph is
Y1
G1
Y2
Y3
G3
G4
G5
Y1
Y2
Y3
G2
G6
Y4
Y3
G7
G4
G5
G1
Y2
G2
Y1
No of forward path = K = 4
Transfer function = 4
K =1
G7
Y3
G3
pk Ak
G6
Y4
p1
1 +
p2
+ p3
+ p4
=1
= 1
= 1 G5
=1
Y4
Y1
5.
From the given block diagram, draw the signal flow the graph and find C(s)
R(s)
R(s)
G4
6
5+
7
+GG3 21
34
H2
H1
C(s)
R(s)
G1
G2
G4
-H2
-H1
-1
No of forward paths = K = 2
Forward path gains are P1 = G1 G2 G3
P2 = G4
L4 = - G4
G3
C(s)
L2 = - G2G3H2
L5 = G2G4H1H2
L3 = - G1G2G3
There are no non touching loops
= 1 [ L1 + L2 + L3 + L 4 + L5 ]
= 1 + G1G2H1 + G2G3H2 + G1G2G3 + G4 G2G4 H1H2
considering the forward path G1G2G3
all loops touching
1=1
Considering the forward path G4 , all the loops are touching the path G4 ,
C(S)
=
p1
1+
p2
=1
R (s)
=
H1 H2
6.
G1G2G3 + G4
S domain
2. Work down the equations for different branch current and node voltages.
Vi
R2
Vo
I1(s)
Vi(s)
R2
V1(s)
I2(s)
SC
Equations are
I1(s)
= Vi (s) V1 (s)
V1(s)
LS
Vo (s)
(1)
(2)
R1
[ I1(s) I2 (s)]
CS
V1(s) - V0 (s)
I2 (s)
(3)
R2
V0(s) = I2(s) LS
Signal flow graph for the equation (1)
Vi
1
R1
I1
V1
1
R1
I1
1
Sc
V1
I2
-1
Sc
Signal flow graph for equation 3
1
R2
V1
I2
Vo
-1
R2
Signal flow graph for equation 4
SL
I2
Vo
Vi
I1
V1
11
Sc
R
R21
11
-R
Sc21
Vo
Vi
PK
No of forward paths = 1
V0
Vi
P1
I2
SL
Vo
L
Forward path gain Ti =
Feedback loops are
R1R2C
1
L1 = -
1
L2 = -
SR1C
SL
L3 = -
SR2C
R2
1
+
SL
+
SR1C SR2C
L
+
R2
R1R2C
V0
L
R1R2C
L
R1R2C
Vi
SL
1
1+
1
+
SR1C
SL
=
SL
+
SR2C
SR1R2C + R2 + R1 + S2LR1C +
+
R2
R1R2C
6. Find the transfer function for the given network using Masons gain formula
C
Vi
1
CS
R1
1
1 +SR1C
Vo
R2
R1
1 + SR1C
Z
Z=
R1 + 1 /Sc
R1
V
V
I(s)
RVi(s)
V
(s)
io2(s)
o (s)
R1 x 1/Sc
I (S ) = Vi(s) Vo(s)
Z
Z=
R1Sc + 1
= Vi(s) Vo(s)
1 + R1Sc
R1
Vo (s) = I (s) R2
Vi
1+ R1SC
R1
Vo
1 + R1Sc
R1
R1
I(s)
R2
Vo(s)
Vi
1 + R1Sc
R1
R2
Vo
1+R1Sc
R1
1 + R1 Sc
R1
1 + R1 Sc
R1
= 1 L1
= 1 + R2 ( 1 + R1Sc )
R1
R1 + R2 ( 1 + R1Sc )
=
R1
8.
R2 (1 + R1 Sc)
R1 + R2 (1 + R1 Sc )
Procedure :
1.
2.
To obtain the block diagram from the given signal flow graph, it is
necessary to write set of system equations representing the given signal
flow graph.
Assume suitable node variables, write equations for every node.
3.
(1)
Obtain the Block diagram from the signal flow graph, shown below
S
2S
W
ZU
Y
-3
4
-5
Write the equations for various node variables Y, Z, W and U, Input node is X. There are
only outgoing branches.
Y = (2S ) X 4Z - 5U
Z = 3Y 3W
W = 2Z
U = 1 W + SZ
The block digram simulation of various equations are
Equation (1)
X
+
2S
-
From Z
From U
From W
From Z
2S
REFERENCE: 1.
2.
(1)
G(j)
=
R(j)
(1.1)
1+ G(j) H(j)
(1.2)
M(j) = M () m()
(1.3)
G(j)
M(() =
(1.4)
1 + G(j) H(j)
And
G(j)
m() =
1 + G(j) H(j)
(1.5)
=
G(j) -
1 + G(j) H(j)
since the analysis is now in the frequency domain, some of the terminology used in
communication system may be applied to the present control system characterization. For
instance, M() of Eq. (1.4) may be regarded as the magnification of the feed back control
system is similar to the gain or amplification of an electronic amplifier. In an audio
amplifier, for instance, an ideal design criterion is that the amplifier must have a flat gain
for all frequencies. Of course, realistically, the design criterion becomes that of having a
flat gain in the audio frequency range. In control system the ideal design criterion is
similar. If it is desirable to keep the output C(j) identical to the input R(j) at all
frequencies, M(j) must be unity for all frequencies. However, from Eq. (1.1) it is
apparent that M(j) can be unity only when G(j) is infinite, while H(j) is finite &
nonzero. An infinite magnitude for g(j) is, of course, impossible to achieve in practice,
nor would it be desirable, since most control system become unstable when its loop gain
becomes very high. Further more, all control system are subject noise. Thus in addition to
responding to the input signal, the system should be able to reject & suppress noise &
unwanted signals. This mean that the frequency response of a control system should have
a cutoff characteristic in general, & sometimes even a band-pass characteristic.
The phase characteristic of the frequency response are also of importance. The ideal
situation is that the phase must be a linear function of frequency within the frequency
range of interest . Figure 1.1 shows the gain & phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass
filter, which is impossible to realize physically. Typical gain & phase characteristics of a
feedback control system are shown in Fig. 1.2. The fact is that the great majority of
control systems have the characteristics of a low-pass filter, so the gain decreases as the
frequency increases.
M()
1
m()
Deg
Fig. 1.1. Gain-phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter.
0
M()
Mp
m()
1
0
Deg
Frequency-Domain characteristics:
If a control system is to be designed or analyzed using frequency-domain techniques,
we need a set of specification to describe the system performance. The following
frequency-domain specifications are often used in practice.
Peak response Mp :
The peak response Mp is defined as the maximum value of M() that is given in
Eq.(1.4). In general, the magnitude of Mp gives an indication of the relative stability of a
feed back control system. Normally, a large Mp corresponds to a large peak overshoot in
the step response. For most design problems it is generally accepted that an optimum
value Mp of should be somewhere between 1.1 & 1.5.
Resonant frequency p :
The resonant frequency p is defined as the frequency at which the peak resonance Mp
occurs.
Bandwidth :
The bandwidth , BW, is defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j),
M(), drops at 70.7 percent of its zero-frequency level, or 3 dB down from the zerofrequency gain. In general, the bandwidth of a control system indicates the noise-filtering
characteristics of the system. Also, bandwidth gives a measure of the transient response
properties, in that a large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time, since higherfrequency signals are passed on to the outputs. Conversely, if the bandwidth is small,
only signals of relatively low frequencies are passed, & the time response will generally
be slow & sluggish.
Cutoff rate :
Often, bandwidth alone is inadequate in the indication of the characteristics of the
system in distinguishing signals from noise. Sometimes it may be necessary to specify the
cutoff rate of the frequency response at the higher frequencies. However, in general, a
steep cutoff characteristics may be accompanied by a large Mp, which corresponds to a
system with a low stability margin.
The performance criteria defined above for the frequency-domain analysis are illustrated
on the closed-loop frequency response, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
There are other criteria defined that may be used to specify the relative stability &
performance of a feedback control system. These are defined in the ensuring sections of
this chapter.
M()
Mp
1
Bandwidth
0
p
BW
1 + j 2 (/n) - (/n)2
We may simplify the last expression by letter u = / n. The Eq. (1.6) becomes
1
M(ju) =
1 + j2 u - u2
( 1.7)
2 2
[( 1 u ) + ( 2 u)2]
And
2 u
(1.8)
1 u2
(1.9)
The resonant frequency is determined first by taking the derivative of M(u) with respect
to u & setting it equal to zero. Thus
dM(u)
=-
1.10)
du
from which
4u3 4u + 8u2 = 0
1.11)
The root of Eq. (1.11) are
up = 0
(1.12)
and
up = 1 - 22
1.13)
The solution Eq. (1.12) merely indicates that the slope of the M() versus curve is zero
at
= 0; it is not true maximum. The solution of eq. (1.13) gives the resonant frequency,
p = n 1 - 22
(1.14)
Since frequency is a real quantity, Eq. (1.14) is valid only for 1 22 or 0.707. This
means simply that for all values of greater than 0.707, the solution of p = 0 becomes
the valid one, & Mp = 1.
Substituting Eq. (1.13) into Eq. (1.8) & simplifying, we get
1
Mp =
2 1 -
(1.15)
5
4
3
Mp
2
1
0
0.5
0.707 1.0
1.5
Damping ratio
2.0
1
2 1 - 2
1.0
0.8
up = p /n
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.5 0.707 1.0
Damping ratio
Fig 1.5. Normalized resonant frequency- versus-damping ratio for a second order system,
Up = 1 - 2 .
Fig.1.4 & 1.5 illustrate the relationship between Mp & , & u = p / n & ,
respectively.
Bandwidth :
Bandwidth BW of a system is a frequency at which M() drops to 70.7% of
its zero frequency level or 3 dB down from the zero frequency gain. Equating the Eq.
1
M(u) =
2 2
= 0.707
[( 1 u ) + ( 2u) ]
=
[( 1 u2)2 + ( 2u)2]
1
=
0.707
=
2.
1 + u4 2u2 + 42u2
= 2
Let u2 = x
1 + x2 2x + 42 x
= 2
x2 2x + 42 x
= 1
2
2
x x ( 2 - 4 )
=1
x2 x ( 2 - 42 ) 1 = 0
a = 1,
b = - ( 2 - 42 ) , c = -1
-b b2 4ac
x=
2a
(2 42 ) (2 42 )2 + 4
=
2
(2 4 ) (4 + 164 16 2 + 4
2
=
2
(2 42 ) 16 4 16 2 + 8
=
2
2 (1 22 ) 4 + 164 16 2 + 4
=
2
2 (1 22 ) 22 + 44 42
=
2
2 (1 22 ) 22 + 44 42
=
2
2 [(1 22 ) 2 + 44 42]
=
2
u2 = x =
/ n = u =
(1 22 ) 2 + 44 4 2
[(1 22 ) (2 + 44 4 2 ] 1/2
BW = n [ ( 1 22 ) + 44 - 42 +2]1/2
For the second order system under consideration, we easily establish some simple
relationship between the time domain response & the frequency-domain response of the
system.
1. The maximum over shoot of the unit step response in the time domain depends
upon only.
2. The response peak of the closed - loop frequency response Mp depends upon
only.
3. The rise time increases with , & the bandwidth decreases with the increase of ,
for a fixed n, therefore, bandwidth & rise time are inversely proportional to each
other.
4. Bandwidth is directly proportional to n.
5. Higher bandwidth corresponds to larger Mp.
Stability Analysis
Every System, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period, whether
the system will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer
to this question is whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis.
For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to
reach is our final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now anything
may happen during the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc, there is a
chance that we may not reach the next station in time. The analysis of whether the given
system can reach steady state after passing through the transients successfully is called
the stability analysis of the system.
In this chapter, we will steady
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Concept of stability:
Consider a system i.e. a deep container with an object placed inside it as shown in fig(1)
Force F
(a)
fig(1)
(b)
Now, if we apply a force to take out the object, as the depth of container is more, it will
oscillate & settle down again at original position.
Assume that force required to take out the object tends to infinity i.e. always
object will oscillate when force is applied & will settle down but will not come out such a
system is called absolutely stable system. No change in parameters, disturbances, changes
the output.
Now consider a container which is pointed one, on which we try to keep a circular object.
In this object will fall down without any external application of force. Such system is
called unstable system.
(a)
fig(2)
(b)
While in certain cases the container is shallow then there exists a critical value
of force for which the object will come out of the container.
F
F
F
Fig(3)
F<Fcritical
F>Fcritical
As long as F<Fcritical object regains its original position but if F>Fcritical object will come
out. Stability depends on certain conditions of the system, hence system is called
conditionally stable system.
Pendulum where system keeps on oscillating when certain force is applied.
Such systems are neither stable nor unstable & hence called critically stable or marginally
stable systems
S
10
S(S+2) (S+4)
C(s)
A
S
B
S+2
C
S+4
1
4
S+2
1
8
S+4
10
1.25
2.5
1.25
S
S+2
S+4
1.25 2.5e-2t+1.25e-4t
=Css + Ct(t)
If the closed loop poles are located in left half of s-plane, Output response contains
exponential terms with negative indices will approach zero & output will be the steady
state output.
I.e.
Ct (t) = 0
t
Transient output = 0
Such a system is called absolutely stable systems.
Now let us have a system with one closed loop pole located in right half of s- plane
C(s)
10
R(s)
S(S-2)(s+4)
A
S
B
S-2
2t
C
10
S+4
4t
C(t)
0
1
2
4
+ 4.91
+ 44.23
+2481.88
From the above table, it is clear that output response instead of approaching to steady
state value as t
due to exponential term with positive index, transients go on
increasing in amplitude. So such system is said to be unstable. In such system output is
uncontrollable & unbounded one. Output response of such system is as shown in fig(4).
C(t)
C(t)
OR
Steady state
output
t
(a)
fig(4)
t
(b)
For such unstable systems, if input is removed output may not return to zero. And if
the input power is turned on, output tends to . If no saturation takes place in system &
no mechanical stop is provided then system may get damaged.
If all the closed loop poles or roots of the characteristic equation lies in left of s-plane,
then in the output response contains steady state terms & transient terms. Such transient
terms approach to zero as time advances eventually output reaches to equilibrium &
attains steady state value. Transient terms in such system may give oscillation but the
amplitude of such oscillation will be decreasing with time & finally will vanish. So
output response of such system is shown in fig5 (a) & (b).
C(t)
C(t)
Steady state
-----------------------
Damped oscillations
--------------------------OR
Steady state output
t
(a)
t
fig 5
(b)
2. In the absence of input, output must tend to zero irrespective of the initial
conditions.
Unstable system:
A linear time invariant system is said to be unstable if,
1. for a bounded input it produces unbounded output.
2. In the absence of input, output may not be returning to zero. It shows certain
output without input.
Besides these two cases, if one or more pairs simple non repeated roots are located
on the imaginary axis of the s-plane, but there are no roots in the right half of s-plane,
the output response will be undamped sinusoidal oscillations of constant frequency &
amplitude. Such systems are said to be critically or marginally stable systems.
Critically or Marginally stable systems:
A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable if for a
bounded input its output oscillates with constant frequency & Amplitude. Such
oscillation of output are called Undamped or Sustained oscillations.
For such system one or more pairs of non repeated roots are located on the imaginary
axis as shown in fig6(a). Output response of such systems is as shown in fig6(b).
C(t)
Constant Amplitude & frequency oscillations
X J2
-------------------------
J1
-----------------------------------
X - J1
X - J2
Fig 6(a)
non repeated poles on J axis.
If there are repeated poles located purely on imaginary axis system is said to be
unstable.
C(t)
J1 x x
J1
s-plane
x x
t
Conditionally Stable:
A linear time invariant system is said to be conditionally
stable, if for a certain condition if a particular parameter of the system, its output is
bounded one. Otherwise if that condition is violated output becomes unbounded system
becomes unstable. i.e. Stability of the system depends the on condition of the parameter
of the system. Such system is called conditionally stable system.
S-plane can be divided into three zones from stability point of view.
J axis
Real
Stable
Unstable
S-Plane
(repeated)
unstable
Sl.
No
1.
Nature of closed
loop poles.
Real negative i.e
in LHS of splane
Step response
C(t)
Stability condition
--------------------x
Absolutely stable
-02 -01
t
Real positive in
RHS of s-plane
J
C(t)
2.
x
a1
------------------------
Unstable
increasing towards
3.
Complex
conjugate with
negative real
part
C(t)
J
J 1
-a1
Absolutely stable.
-J 2
Damped oscillation
4.
Complex
conjugate with
positive real
part
Ct
J1
-J 1
-x
Unstable.
t
oscillations with
increasing amplitude
5.
Non repeated
pair on
imaginary axis
C(t)
J
x J1
x -J2
Marginally or
critically stable
C(t)
OR
J
X J2
x J1
x J1
Marginally or
critically stable
Sustained oscillations
with two frequencies 1 &
2
x J2
6.
Repeated pair
on imaginary
axis
-----------------------
x x -J1
Unstable
t
oscillation of increasing
amplitude
Relative Stability:
The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the
basis of settling time. System is said to be more stable if settling time for that system is
less than that of other system.
The settling time of the root or pair of complex conjugate roots is inversely
proportional to the real part of the roots.
Sofar the roots located near the J axis, settling time will be large. As the roots
move away from J axis i.e towards left half of the s-plane settling time becomes lesser
or smaller & system becomes more & more stable. So the relative stability improves.
C(t)
Stable for P1
x
----------------------------------
P2 P1
Relatively more stable for P2
t
J
C(t)
x
stable for 1
--------------------------------------------------------------
s-plane
b0 sm + b1 sm-1 +.+ bm
n
n-1
R(s)
a0 s + a1 s + . + an
Where a & b are constants.
To find the closed loop poles we equate F(s) =0. This equation is called as Characteristic
Equation of the system.
n
n-1
n-2
F(s) = a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + .. + an = 0.
Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which
decide the stability of the system.
Hurwitzs Criterion :
The sufficient condition for having all roots of characteristics equation in left half of splane is given by Hurwitz. It is referred as Hurwitz criterion. It states that:
The necessary & sufficient condition to have all roots of characteristic equation in left
half of s-plane is that the sub-determinants DK, K = 1, 2,n obtained from Hurwitz
determinant H must all be positive.
a3
a2
a5
a4
.. a2n-1
.. a2n-2
a1
a3
.. a2n-3
a0
a2
.. a2n-4
a1
... a2n-5
H=
...
...
an
The order is n*n where n = order of characteristic equation. In Hurwitz determinant all
coefficients with suffices greater than n or negative suffices must all be replaced by
zeros. From Hurwitz determinant subdeterminants, DK, K= 1, 2, .n must be formed as
follows:
D1 =
a1
D2 =
a1
a0
a3
a2
D3 =
a1
a0
0
a3
a2
a1
a5
a4
a3
DK =
a1
a0
0
H=
D1 = 1
=1
1 4
1 1
D2 =
1
= -3
0
a5
a4
a3
1 4 0
1 1 0
0 1 4
D3 =
1 1 0
0 1 4
= 4 16 = -12.
For higher order system, to solve the determinants of higher order is very
complicated & time consuming.
2. Number of roots located in right half of s-plane for unstable system cannot be
judged by this method.
3. Difficult to predict marginal stability of the system.
Due to these limitations, a new method is suggested by the scientist Routh called
Rouths method. It is also called Routh-Hurwitz method.
a0
a2
a4
a6
Sn-1
a1
a3
a5
a7
Sn-2
b1
b2
b3
Sn-3
c1
c2
c3
S0
an
Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation.
From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.
b1 =
a1 a2 a0 a3
a1
b2 =
a1 a4 a0 a5
a1
b3 =
a1 a6 a0 a7
a1
b1 a3 a1 b2
C2 =
b1
b1 a5 a1 b3
b1
0
This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s is obtained which will be an.
From this array stability of system can be predicted.
Rouths criterion :
The necessary & sufficient condition for system to be stable is All the terms in the
first column of Rouths array must have same sign. There should not be any sign change
in first column of Rouths array.
If there are sign changes existing then,
1. System is unstable.
2. The number of sign changes equals the number of roots lying in the right half of the
s-plane.
Examine the stability of given equation using Rouths method :
Ex.2:
s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0
Sol:
a0 = 1,
a1 = 6,
a2 =11,
S3
11
S2
S1
S0
11 * 6 6
6
6
=10
a3 = 6,
n=3
Ex. 3
Sol:
s3 + 4s2 + s + 16 = 0
a0 =1,
a1 = 4,
a2 = 1,
S3
S2
+4
16
S1
4 - 16 =
4
+16
S0
-3
a3 = 16
S4
S3
1.5
S2
S5
S4
S3
1.5
S2
6 - 3
S1
1.5(6 - 3)
0
-
(6 - 3)
S0
0
=6-
= - sign is negative.
Lim
1.5(6 3) - 2 = Lim
9 - 4.5 - 2
0
6 -3
0
6 - 3
=
0 4.5 0
0 -3
=
+ 1.5
sign is positive
S4
S3
1.5
S2
S1
+1.5
S0
Consider
Put
1 + 2 + 3 +6 +2 + 1=0
Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2
Z
Z5 + 2Z4+ 6Z3+3Z2+2Z+ 1 = 0
Z5
Z4
Z3
4.5
1.5
Z2
2.33
Z1
- 0.429
Z0
Special case 2:
All the elements of a row in a Rouths array are zero.
Effect : The terms of the next row can not be determined & Rouths test fails.
S5
S4
S3
S4
S3
4d 2e 0
characteristic equation, from the stability point of view. The stability can be predicted
from the roots of A(s)=0 rather than the roots of characteristic equation as the roots of
A(s) = 0 are the most dominant from the stability point of view. The remaining roots of
the characteristic equation are always in the left half & they do not play any significant
role in the stability analysis.
e.g. Let F(s) = 0 is the original characteristic equation of say order n = 5.
Let A(s) = 0 be the auxillary equation for the system due to occurrence of special case
2
of the order m = 2.
Then out of 5 roots of F(s) = 0, the 2 roots which are most dominant (dominant means
very close to imaginary axis or on the imaginary axis or in the right half of s-plane) from
the stability point of view are the 2roots of A(s) = 0. The remaining 5 2 = 3 roots are not
significant from stability point of view as they will be far away from the imaginary axis
in the left half of s-plane.
The roots of auxillary equation may be,
1. A pair of real roots of opposite sign i.e.as shown in the fig. 8.10 (a).
j
j
x
Fig. 8. 10 (b)
Fig 8. 10(a)
2. A pair of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 8.10(b).
3. The non-repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the
fig.8.10 (c).
j
j
x
x
xx
x
x
Fig. 8.10(c)
xx
Fig. 8.10(d).
4. The repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the Fig.8.10
(d).
Hence total stability can be determined from the roots of A(s) = 0, which can be
out of four types shown above.
After replacing a row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s) , complete the Rouths
array.
ds
But now, the criterion that, no sign in 1st column of array for stability, no longer
remains sufficient but becomes a necessary. This is because though A(s) is a part of
original characteristic equation, dA(s) is not, which is in fact used to complete the
array.
ds
So if sign change occurs in first column, system is unstable with number of sign
changes equal to number of roots of characteristics equation located in right half of
s-plane.
But there is no sign changes, system cannot be predicted as stable . And in such
case stability is to be determined by actually solving A(s) = 0 for its roots. And from
the location of roots of A(s) = 0 in the s-plane the system stability must be
determined. Because roots A(s) = 0 are always dominant roots of characteristic
equation.
By using the criterion, critical value of system gain can be determined hence
frequency of sustained oscillations can be determined.
It helps in finding out range of values of K for system stability.
It helps in finding out intersection points of roots locus with imaginary axis.
S6
-16
-48
S5
-64
S4
-48
S3
A(s) = 3S4 48 = 0
Lim
= 12S3
S6
-16
-48
S5
-64
S4
-48
S3
12
S2
( ) 0
-48
S1
576
-48
S0
dA
ds
576
0
0
0
0
Therefore one sign change & system is unstable. Thus there is one root in R.H.S of the s
plane i.e. with positive real part. Now
Solve A(s) = 0 for the dominant roots
A(s) = 3s4 48 =0
Put S2 = Y
3Y2 = 48
S2 = + 4
S
= 2
Y2 =16,
Y = 16 = 4
S2 = -4
S = 2j
So, S = 2j are the two parts on imaginary axis i.e. with zero real part. Root in R.H.S.
indicated by a sign change is S = 2 as obtained by solving A(s) = 0. Total there are 6
roots as n = 6.
Roots with Positive real part = 1
Roots with zero real part
=2
Roots with negative real part = 6 2 1 = 3
Ex.2:
K
S (1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25 s)
K
1+
=0
s(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25s)
s [ 1 + 0.65s + 0.1s2} + K = 0
0.1s3 + 0.65s2 +s + K = 0
S3
0.1
From s0,
K>0
S2
0.65
from s1,
S1
0.65 0.1K
0.65
K
S0
Now marginal value of K is that value of K for which system becomes marginally
stable. For a marginal stable system there must be row of zeros occurring in Rouths
array. So value of K which makes any row of Routh array as row of zeros is called
marginal value of K. Now K = 0 makes row of s0 as row of zeros but K = 0 can not be
marginal value because for K = 0, constant term in characteristic equation becomes zeros
ie one coefficient for s0 vanishes which makes system unstable instead of marginally
stable.
Hence marginal value of K is a value which makes any row other than s0 as row of
zeros.
0.65 0.1 K mar = 0
K mar = 6.5
To find frequency, find out roots of auxiliary equation at marginal value of K
A(s) = 0.65 s2 + K = 0 ;
0.65 s2 + 6.5 = 0
Because K = 6.5
s2 = -10
s = j 3.162
comparing with s = j
= frequency of oscillations = 3.162 rad/ sec.
Ex : 3 For a system with characteristic equation
F(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s +15 = , examine the stability
Solution :
S5
S4
15
S3
-12
S5
S4
15
S3
-12
S2
S1
S0
S2
S1
S0
(2 + 12)
15
(2 + 12)( -12 ) 15
2 + 12
15
Lim
2 + 12
12
=2+ = +
=2 +
Lim
(2 + 12)( -12 ) 15
2 + 12
Lim
-24 - 144 15 2
2 + 12
0 144 - 0
=
= - 12
0 + 12
S5
3
15
S4
S3
-12
0
There are two sign changes,
so
system is unstable.
15
S1
- 12
S0
15
Ex : 4
Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback
system whose open loop transfer function is
e -sT
G(s) =
s(s+1)
Sol :
1 +
= 0
s(s+1)
s2 + s + e sT = 0
sT
s2 T2
= 1 sT +
+
2!
Truncating the series & considering only first two terms we get
esT = 1 sT
s2 + s + 1 sT = 0
s2 + s ( 1- T ) + 1 = 0
So Rouths array is
S2
1-T
S0
Ex : 5
Sol :
(s 2 ) 4 + 10 (s 2)3 + 36(s 2 )2 + 70 ( s 2) + 75 = 0
s4 + 2s3 + 0s2 + 14s + 15 = 0
S4
15
S3
14
15
S2
-7
S1
18.28
S 0
15
Two sign change, there are two roots to the right of s = -2 & remaining 2 are to the
left of the line s = -2. Hence the system is unstable.
Date : 2 5 -2005
Stability Analysis
Every System, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period. Whether
system will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer to
this question is whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis.
For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to
reach is our final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now any thing
may happen during the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc, there is a
chance that we may not reach the next station in time. The analysis of wheather the given
system can reach steady state after passing through the transients successfully is called
the stability analysis of the system.
In this chapter, we will steady
7. The stability & the factor on which system stability depends.
8. Stability analysis & location of closed loop poles.
9. Stability analysis using Hurwitz method.
10. Stability analysis using Routh-Hurwitz method.
11. Special cases of Rouths array.
12. Applications of Routh-Hurwitz method.
Concept of stability:
Consider a system i.e a deep container with an object placed inside it as shown in fig(1)
force F
(a)
fig(1)
(b)
Now, if we apply a force to take out the object, as the depth of container is more, it will
oscillate & settle down again at original position.
Assume that force required to take out the object tends to infinity i.e always
object will oscillate when force is applied & will settle down but will not come out such a
system is called absolutely stable system. No change in parameters, disturbances, changes
the output.
Now consider a container which is pointed one, on which we try to keep a circular object.
In this object will fall down without any external application of force. Such system is
called Unstable system.
(a)
fig(2)
(b)
While in certain cases the container is shallow then there exsists a critical
value of force for which the object will come out of the container.
F
F
F
Fig(3)
F<Fcritical
F>Fcritical
As long as F<Fcritical object regains its original position but if F>Fcritical object will come
out. Stability depends on certain conditions of the system, hence system is called
conditionally stable system.
Pendulum where system keeps on oscillating when certain force is applied.
Such systems are neither stable nor unstable & hence called critically stable or marginally
stable systems
Stability of control systems:
The stability of a linear closed loop system can be determined from the locations of
closed loop poles in the S-plane.
If the system has closed loop T.F.
C(s)
10
R(s)
(S+2) (S+4)
Output response for unit step input R(s) =
C(s)
Find out partial fractions
S
10
S(S+2) (S+4)
A
S
B
S+2
C
S+4
1
C(s) = 8
S
=
C(s) =
1
4
S+2
1
8
S+4
10
1.25
2.5
1.25
S
S+2
S+4
-2t
-4t
1.25 2.5e +1.25e
=Css + Ct(t)
If the closed loop poles are located in left half of s-plane, Output response contains
exponential terms with negative indices will approach zero & output will be the steady
state output.
i.e.
Ct (t) = 0
t
Transient output = 0
Such system are called absolutely stable systems.
Now let us have a system with one closed loop pole located in right half of s- plane
C(s)
10
R(s)
S(S-2)(s+4)
A
S
B
S-2
2t
C
10
S+4
4t
C(t)
0
+ 4.91
+ 44.23
+2481.88
From the above table, it is clear that output response instead of approaching to steady
state value as t
due to exponential term with positive index, transients go on
increasing in amplitude. So such system is said to be unstable. In such system output is
uncontrollable & unbounded one. Output response of such system is as shown in fig(4).
C(t)
C(t)
OR
Steady state
output
t
(a)
fig(4)
t
(b)
For such unstable systems, if input is removed output may not return to zero. And if
the input power is turned on, output tends to . If no saturation takes place in system &
no mechanical stop is provided then system may get damaged.
If all the closed loop poles or roots of the characteristic equation lies in left of s-plane,
then in the output response contains steady state terms & transient terms. Such transient
terms approach to zero as time advances eventually output reaches to equilibrium &
attains steady state value. Transient terms in such system may give oscillation but the
amplitude of such oscillation will be decreasing with time & finally will vanish. So
output response of such system is shown in fig5 (a) & (b).
C(t)
C(t)
Steady state
-----------------------
Damped oscillations
--------------------------OR
Steady state output
t
(a)
t
fig 5
(b)
Besides these two cases, if one or more pairs simple non repeated roots are located
on the imaginary axis of the s-plane, but there are no roots in the right half of s-plane,
the output response will be undamped sinusoidal oscillations of constant frequency &
amplitude. Such systems are said to be critically or marginally stable systems.
Critically or Marginally stable systems:
A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable if for a
bounded input its output oscillates with constant frequency & Amplitude. Such
oscillation of output are called Undamped or Sustained oscillations.
For such system one or more pairs of non repeated roots are located on the imaginary
axis as shown in fig6(a). Output response of such systems is as shown in fig6(b).
C(t)
Constant Amplitude & frequency oscillations
X J2
-------------------------
J1
-----------------------------------
X - J1
X - J2
Fig 6(a)
non repeated poles on J axis.
If there are repeated poles located purely on imaginary axis system is said to be
unstable.
C(t)
J1 x x
J1
s-plane
x x
t
Conditionally Stable:
A linear time invariant system is said to be conditionally
stable, if for a certain condition if a particular parameter of the system, its output is
bounded one. Otherwise if that condition is violated output becomes unbounded system
becomes unstable. i.e. Stability of the system depends the on condition of the parameter
of the system. Such system is called conditionally stable system.
S-plane can be divided into three zones from stability point of view.
J axis
Real
Stable
Unstable
S-Plane
(repeated)
unstable
Sl.No
1.
Nature of
closed loop
poles.
Real negative
i.e in LHS of
splane
Step response
Stability condition
C(t)
---------------------
Absolutely stable
-02 -01
2.
Real positive
in RHS of splane
C(t)
x
a1
------------------------
Unstable
t
increasing towards
3.
Complex
conjugate with
negative real
part
C(t)
J
J 1
-a1
Absolutely stable.
-J 2
Damped oscillation
4.
Complex
conjugate with
positive real
part
Ct
J1
-J 1
-x
Unstable.
t
oscillations with
increasing amplitude
5.
Non repeated
pair on
imaginary axis
C(t)
J
x J1
Marginally or
critically stable
x -J2
OR
t
C(t)
J
X J2
x J1
t
Marginally or
critically stable
Sustained oscillations
with two frequencies 1 &
x J1
x J2
Two non repeated pairs on
imaginary axis.
6.
Repeated pair
on imaginary
axis
J
C(t)
x x J1
-----------------------
Unstable
t
x x -J1
oscillation of increasing
amplitude
4 5-2005.
Relative Stability:
The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the
basis of settling time. System is said to be more stable if settling time for that system is
less than that of other system.
The settling time of the root or pair of complex conjugate roots is inversely
proportional to the real part of the roots.
Sofar the roots located near the J axis, settling time will be large. As the roots
move away from J axis i.e towards left half of the s-plane settling time becomes lesser
or smaller & system becomes more & more stable. So the relative stability improves.
J
C(t)
Stable for P1
----------------------------------
P2 P1
Relatively more stable for P2
t
J
C(t)
x
stable for 1
--------------------------------------------------------------
s-plane
The T.F.of any linear closed loop system can be represented as,
C(s)
=
b0 sm + b1 sm-1 +.+ bm
n
n-1
a0 s + a1 s + . + an
R(s)
Where a & b are constants.
To find the closed loop poles we equate F(s) =0. This equation is called as Characteristic
Equation of the system.
n
n-1
n-2
F(s) = a0 s + a1 s + a2 s + .. + an = 0.
Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which
decide the stability of the system.
Necessary Condition to have all closed loop poles in L.H.S. of s-plane.
In order that the above characteristic equation has no root in right of s-plane, it is
necessary but not sufficient that,
3. All the coefficients off the polynomial have the same sign.
4. Non of the coefficient vanishes i.e. all powers of s must be present in
descending order from n to zero.
These conditions are not sufficient.
Hurwitzs Criterion :
The sufficient condition for having all roots of characteristics equation in left half of splane is given by Hurwitz. It is referred as Hurwitz criterion. It states that:
The necessary & sufficient condition to have all roots of characteristic equation in left
half of s-plane is that the sub-determinants DK, K = 1, 2,n obtained from Hurwitz
determinant H must all be positive.
H=
a3
a2
a5
a4
.. a2n-1
.. a2n-2
a1
a3
.. a2n-3
a0
a2
.. a2n-4
a1
... a2n-5
...
...
an
The order is n*n where n = order of characteristic equation. In Hurwitz determinant all
coefficients with suffices greater than n or negative suffices must all be replaced by
zeros. From Hurwitz determinant subdeterminants, DK, K= 1, 2, .n must be formed as
follows:
D1 =
a1
D2 =
a1
a0
a3
a2
D3 =
a1
a0
0
a3
a2
a1
a5
a4
a3
DK =
H=
D1 = 1
D2 =
D3 =
a3
a2
a1
a5
a4
a3
1 4 0
1 1 0
0 1 4
=1
1 4
1 1
1 4 0
1 1 0
0 1 4
= -3
= 4 16 = -12.
4.
For higher order system, to solve the determinants of higher order is very
complicated & time consuming.
5. Number of roots located in right half of s-plane for unstable system cannot be
judged by this method.
6. Difficult to predict marginal stability of the system.
Due to these limitations, a new method is suggested by the scientist Routh called
Rouths method. It is also called Routh-Hurwitz method.
a0
a2
a4
a6
Sn-1
a1
a3
a5
a7
Sn-2
b1
b2
b3
Sn-3
c1
c2
c3
S0
an
Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation.
From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.
b1 =
a1 a2 a0 a3
a1
b2 =
a1 a4 a0 a5
a1
b3 =
a1 a6 a0 a7
a1
b1 a3 a1 b2
C2 =
b1
b1 a5 a1 b3
b1
0
This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s is obtained which will be an.
From this array stability of system can be predicted.
Rouths criterion :
The necessary & sufficient condition for system to be stable is All the terms in the
first column of Rouths array must have same sign. There should not be any sign change
in first column of Rouths array.
If there are sign changes existing then,
3. System is unstable.
4. The number of sign changes equals the number of roots lying in the right half of the
s-plane.
Examine the stability of given equation using Rouths method :
Ex.2:
s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0
Sol:
a0 = 1,
a1 = 6,
a2 =11,
S3
11
S2
S1
11 * 6 6
6
6
S0
=10
a3 = 6,
s3 + 4s2 + s + 16 = 0
a0 =1,
a1 = 4,
a2 = 1,
a3 = 16
n=3
S3
S2
+4
16
S1
4 - 16 =
4
+16
S0
-3
Date : 5 5 2005.
Special Cases of Rouths criterion :
Special case 1 :
First element of any of the rows of Rouths array is zero & same remaining rows
contains at least one non-zero element.
Effect : The terms in the new row become infinite & Rouths test fails.
e.g. : s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
S5
S4
S3
1.5
S2
examine
lim
Sign change by taking
S5
S4
S3
1.5
S2
6 - 3
S1
1.5(6 - 3)
0
-
(6 - 3)
S0
0
=6-
= - sign is negative.
2
Lim
1.5(6 3) - = Lim
9 - 4.5 - 2
0
6 -3
0
6 - 3
=
0 4.5 0
0 -3
=
Rouths array is,
+ 1.5
sign is positive
S5
S4
S3
1.5
S2
S1
+1.5
S0
Second method : To solve the above difficulty one more method can be used. In this,
replace s by 1/Z in original equation. Taking L.C.M. rearrange characteristic equation
in descending powers of Z. Then complete the Rouths array with this new equation in
Z & examine the stability with this array.
F(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
s=1/Z
Consider
Put
1 + 2 + 3 +6 +2 + 1=0
Z
Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2
Z5 + 2Z4+ 6Z3+3Z2+2Z+ 1 = 0
Z5
Z4
Z3
4.5
1.5
Z2
2.33
Z1
- 0.429
Z0
Special case 2 :
All the elements of a row in a Rouths array are zero.
Effect : The terms of the next row can not be determined & Rouths test fails.
S5
S4
S3
S4
S3
4d 2e 0
Auxillary equation is always the part of original characteristic equation. This means the
roots of the auxillary equation are some of the roots of original characteristics equation.
Not only this but roots of auxillary equation are the most dominant roots of the original
characteristic equation, from the stability point of view. The stability can be predicted
from the roots of A(s)=0 rather than the roots of characteristic equation as the roots of
A(s) = 0 are the most dominant from the stability point of view. The remaining roots of
the characteristic equation are always in the left half & they do not play any significant
role in the stability analysis.
e.g. Let F(s) = 0 is the original characteristic equation of say order n = 5.
Let A(s) = 0 be the auxillary equation for the system due to occurrence of special case
2
of the order m = 2.
Then out of 5 roots of F(s) = 0, the 2 roots which are most dominant (dominant means
very close to imaginary axis or on the imaginary axis or in the right half of s-plane) from
the stability point of view are the 2roots of A(s) = 0. The remaining 5 2 = 3 roots are not
significant from stability point of view as they will be far away from the imaginary axis
in the left half of s-plane.
The roots of auxillary equation may be,
5. A pair of real roots of opposite sign i.e.as shown in the fig. 8.10 (a).
j
j
x
Fig. 8. 10 (b)
Fig 8. 10(a)
6. A pair of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 8.10(b).
7. The non-repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the
fig.8.10 .
j
x
x
xx
xx
Fig. 8.10
Fig. 8.10(d).
8. The repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the Fig.8.10
(d).
Hence total stability can be determined from the roots of A(s) = 0, which can be
out of four types shown above.
Imaginary j
Ex.1. s6 + 4s5 +3s4 16s2- 64s 48 = 0 Find the number of roots of this equation with
positive real part, zero real part & negative real part
Sol:
S6
-16
-48
S5
-64
S4
-48
S3
0
dA
A(s) = 3S 48 = 0
= 12s3
ds
S6
-16
-48
S5
-64
S4
-48
S3
12
S2
( )0
-48
S1
576
-48
S0
Lim
576
0
0
0
Therefore One sign change & system is unstable. Thus there is one root in R.H.S of the s
plane i.e. with positive real part. Now
solve A(s) = 0 for the dominant roots
A(s) = 3s4 48 =0
Put S2 = Y
3Y2 = 48
S2 = + 4
Y2 =16,
S2 = -4
Y = 16 = 4
= 2
S = 2j
So S = 2j are the two parts on imaginary axis i.e. with zero real part. Root in R.H.S.
indicated by a sign change is S = 2 as obtained by solving A(s) = 0. Total there are 6
roots as n = 6.
Roots with Positive real part = 1
Roots with zero real part
=2
Roots with negative real part = 6 2 1 = 3
Reference : 1. Modren control Engineering byOgato
2. Automatic control system by B.C.kuo
3. Control engineering by U.A. Bakshi.
Date : 9 5
2005.
Ex.2 :
K
S(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25 s)
K
1+
=0
s(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25s)
s [ 1 + 0.65s + 0.1s2} + K = 0
0.1s3 + 0.65s2 +s + K = 0
S3
0.1
From s0,
K>0
S2
0.65
from s1,
S1
0.65 0.1K
0.65
K
S0
Now marginal value of K is that value of K for which system becomes marginally
stable. For a marginal stable system there must be row of zeros occurring in Rouths
array. So value of K which makes any row of Routh array as row of zeros is called
marginal value of K. Now K = 0 makes row of s0 as row of zeros but K = 0 can not be
marginal value because for K = 0, constant term in characteristic equation becomes zeros
ie one coefficient for s0 vanishes which makes system unstable instead of marginally
stable.
Hence marginal value of K is a value which makes any row other than s0 as row of
zeros.
0.65 0.1 K mar = 0
K mar = 6.5
To find frequency, find out roots of auxiliary equation at marginal value of K
A(s) = 0.65 s2 + K = 0 ;
0.65 s2 + 6.5 = 0
Because K = 6.5
2
s = -10
s = j 3.162
comparing with s = j
= frequency of oscillations = 3.162 rad/ sec.
S5
S4
15
S3
-12
S5
S4
15
S3
-12
S2
S1
S0
S2
S1
S0
Lim
(2 + 12)
15
(2 + 12)( -12 ) 15
2 + 12
15
2 + 12
12
=2+ = +
=2 +
Lim
(2 + 12)( -12 ) 15
2 + 12
Lim
-24 - 144 15 2
2 + 12
0 144 - 0
=
= - 12
0 + 12
S5
3
15
S4
S3
-12
0
There are two sign changes,
so
system is unstable.
S2
15
S1
- 12
S0
15
Ex : 4
Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback
system whose open loop transfer function is
e -sT
G(s) =
s(s+1)
Sol :
e -sT
1 +
= 0
s(s+1)
s2 + s + e sT = 0
sT
s2 T2
= 1 sT +
+
2!
Trancating the series & considering only first two terms we get
esT = 1 sT
s2 + s + 1 sT = 0
s2 + s ( 1- T ) + 1 = 0
So rouths array is
S2
1-T
S0
Ex : 5
Sol :
s = s1 2
(s 2 ) 4 + 10 (s 2)3 + 36(s 2 )2 + 70 ( s 2) + 75 = 0
s4 + 2s3 + 0s2 + 14s + 15 = 0
S4
15
S3
14
15
S2
-7
S1
18.28
S 0
15
Two sign change, there are two roots to the right of s = -2 & remaining 2 are to the
left of the line s = -2. Hence the system is unstable.
12 5 - 2005.
(1)
G(j)
=
R(j)
(1.1)
1+ G(j) H(j)
(1.2)
M(j) = M () m()
(1.3)
G(j)
M(() =
(1.4)
1 + G(j) H(j)
And
G(j)
m() =
1 + G(j) H(j)
(1.5)
=
G(j) -
1 + G(j) H(j)
since the analysis is now in the frequency domain, some of the terminology used in
communication system may be applied to the present control system characterization. For
instance, M() of Eq. (1.4) may be regarded as the magnification of the feed back control
system is similar to the gain or amplification of an electronic amplifier. In an audio
amplifier, for instance, an ideal design criterion is that the amplifier must have a flat gain
for all frequencies. Of course, realistically, the design criterion becomes that of having a
flat gain in the audio frequency range. In control system the ideal design criterion is
similar. If it is desirable to keep the output C(j) identical to the input R(j) at all
frequencies, M(j) must be unity for all frequencies. However, from Eq. (1.1) it is
apparent that M(j) can be unity only when G(j) is infinite, while H(j) is finite &
nonzero. An infinite magnitude for g(j) is, of course, impossible to achieve in practice,
nor would it be desirable, since most control system become unstable when its loop gain
becomes very high. Further more, all control system are subject noise. Thus in addition to
responding to the input signal, the system should be able to reject & suppress noise &
unwanted signals. This means that the frequency response of a control system should
have a cutoff characteristic in general, & sometimes even a band-pass characteristic.
The phase characteristics of the frequency response are also of importance. The ideal
situation is that the phase must be a linear function of frequency within the frequency
range of interest. Figure 1.1 shows the gain & phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass
filter, which is impossible to realize physically. Typical gain & phase characteristics of a
feedback control system are shown in Fig. 1.2. The fact is that the great majority of
control systems have the characteristics of a low-pass filter, so the gain decreases as the
frequency increases.
M()
1
m()
Deg
Fig. 1.1. Gain-phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter.
0
M()
Mp
m()
1
0
Deg
Frequency-Domain characteristics:
If a control system is to be designed or analyzed using frequency-domain techniques,
we need a set of specification to describe the system performance. The following
frequency-domain specifications are often used in practice.
Peak response Mp:
The peak response Mp is defined as the maximum value of M () that is given in
Eq.(1.4). In general, the magnitude of Mp gives an indication of the relative stability of a
feed back control system. Normally, a large Mp corresponds to a large peak overshoot in
the step response. For most design problems it is generally accepted that an optimum
value Mp of should be somewhere between 1.1 & 1.5.
Resonant frequency p :
The resonant frequency p is defined as the frequency at which the peak resonance Mp
occurs.
Bandwidth:
The bandwidth, BW, is defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of M (j),
M(), drops at 70.7 percent of its zero-frequency level, or 3 dB down from the zerofrequency gain. In general, the bandwidth of a control system indicates the noise-filtering
characteristics of the system. Also, bandwidth gives a measure of the transient response
properties, in that a large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time, since higherfrequency signals are passed on to the outputs. Conversely, if the bandwidth is small,
only signals of relatively low frequencies are passed, & the time response will generally
be slow & sluggish.
Cutoff rate:
Often, bandwidth alone is inadequate in the indication of the characteristics of the
system in distinguishing signals from noise. Sometimes it may be necessary to specify the
cutoff rate of the frequency response at the higher frequencies. However, in general, a
steep cutoff characteristic may be accompanied by a large Mp, which corresponds to a
system with a low stability margin.
The performance criteria defined above for the frequency-domain analysis are illustrated
on the closed-loop frequency response, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
There are other criteria defined that may be used to specify the relative stability &
performance of a feedback control system. These are defined in the ensuring sections of
this chapter.
M ()
Mp
Bandwidth
0
p
BW
1 + j 2 (/n) - (/n)2
We may simplify the last expression by letter u = / n. The Eq. (1.6) becomes
1
M(ju) =
1 + j2 u - u
( 1.7)
[( 1 u2 )2 + ( 2 u)2]
(1.8)
And
M(ju) = m(u) = - tan
-1
2 u
(1.9)
1 u2
The resonant frequency is determined first by taking the derivative of M(u) with respect
to u & setting it equal to zero. Thus
dM(u)
1
=-
1.10)
du
from which
4u3 4u + 8u2 = 0
1.11)
The root of Eq. (1.11) are
up = 0
(1.12)
and
up = 1 - 22
1.13)
The solution Eq. (1.12) merely indicates that the slope of the M() versus curve is zero
at
= 0; it is not true maximum. The solution of eq. (1.13) gives the resonant frequency,
p = n 1 - 22
(1.14)
Since frequency is a real quantity, Eq. (1.14) is valid only for 1 22 or 0.707. This
means simply that for all values of greater than 0.707, the solution of p = 0 becomes
the valid one, & Mp = 1.
Substituting Eq. (1.13) into Eq. (1.8) & simplifying, we get
1
Mp =
2 1 - 2
(1.15)
4
3
Mp
2
1
0
0.5
0.707 1.0
1.5
Damping ratio
2.0
1
1.0
0.8
up = p /n
0.6
2 1 - 2
0.4
0.2
0
0.5 0.707 1.0
Damping ratio
Fig 1.5. Normalized resonant frequency- versus-damping ratio for a second order system,
Up = 1 - 2 .
Fig.1.4 & 1.5 illustrate the relationship between Mp & , & u = p / n & ,
respectively.
Bandwidth :
Bandwidth BW of a system is a frequency at which M() drops to 70.7% of
its zero frequency level or 3 dB down from the zero frequency gain. Equating the Eq.
1
M(u) =
[( 1 u2)2 + ( 2u)2]
2 2
[( 1 u ) + ( 2u) ]
= 0.707
1
=
0.707
=
2.
= 2
x2 2x + 42 x
= 1
= 2
x2 x ( 2 - 42 )
=1
x2 x ( 2 - 42 ) 1 = 0
a = 1,
b = - ( 2 - 42 ) , c = -1
-b b2 4ac
x=
2a
(2 42 ) (2 42 )2 + 4
=
2
(2 4 ) (4 + 164 16 2 + 4
2
=
2
(2 42 ) 16 4 16 2 + 8
=
2
2 (1 22 ) 4 + 164 16 2 + 4
=
2
2 (1 22 ) 22 + 44 42
=
2
2 (1 22 ) 22 + 44 42
=
2
2 [(1 2 ) 2 + 44 42]
2
=
2
u2 = x =
/ n = u =
(1 22 ) 2 + 44 4 2
[(1 22 ) (2 + 44 4 2 ] 1/2
BW = n [ ( 1 22 ) + 44 - 42 +2]1/2
For the second order system under consideration, we easily establish some simple
relationship between the time domain response & the frequency-domain response of the
system.
6. The maximum over shoot of the unit step response in the time domain depends
upon only.
7. The response peak of the closed - loop frequency response Mp depends upon
only.
8. The rise time increases with , & the bandwidth decreases with the increase of ,
for a fixed n, therefore, bandwidth & rise time are inversely proportional to each
other.
9. Bandwidth is directly proportional to n.
10. Higher bandwidth corresponds to larger Mp.
USHA
Practically, output of the system takes some finite time to reach to its final value.
This time varies from system to system and is dependent on different factors.
The factors like friction mass or inertia of moving elements some nonlenierities
present etc.
Example: Measuring instruments like Voltmeter, Ammeter.
Classification:
The time response of a control system is divided into two parts.
1 Transient response ct(t)
2 Steady state response css(t)
. . . c(t)=ct(t) +cSS(t)
Where c(t)= Time Response
Total Response=Zero State Response +Zero Input Response
Transient Response:
It is defined as the part of the response that goes to zero as time becomes very
large. i,e, Lim ct(t)=0
t
A system in which the transient response do not decay as time progresses
is an Unstable system.
C(t)
Css(t)
Ct(t)
Step
ess
= study state
error
The performance of a system can be evaluated with respect to these test signals.
Based on the information obtained the design of control system is carried out.
The commonly used test signals are
1. Step Input signals.
2. Ramp Input Signals.
3. Parabolic Input Signals.
t
O
The ramp is a signal, which starts at a value of zero and increases linearly
with time.
Mathematically r (t) = At for t 0
= 0 for t 0.
In LT form R(S) = A
S2
If A=1, it is called Unit Ramp Input
Mathematically
r(t) = t u(t)
=
t for t 0
0 for t 0
In LT form R(S) = A = 1
S2
S2
Slope = At
r(t)
t
In LT form R(S) = A
S3
If A = 1, a unit parabolic function is defined as r(t) = t2 u(t)
2
ie., r(t)
=
t2 for t 0
2
0 for t 0
In LT for R(S) = 1
S3
4. Impulse Input Signal :
It is the input applied instantaneously (for short duration of time ) of very high
amplitude as shown in fig 2(d)
Eg: Sudden shocks i e, HV due lightening or short circuit.
It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.
r(t)
ie., t
0 (zero) applied
momentarily
A
O
t
R(S)
1/S
1/S2
1/S3
1
First order system:The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+aoc (t) = bor(t)------ (1)
dt
Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants.
Dividing Eq:- (1) by
Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0
a0
a0
Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:-
K .
1+TS
1
TS
C(S)
Unit step response of 1st order system:Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system,
Then, r (t)=u (t) & R(S) =
1 . ---------------(1)
S
W.K.T. C(S) = G(S). R(S)
C(S) = 1 . 1 . =
1 .
T . ----------------- (2)
1+TS S
S
TS+1
Taking inverse L.T. for the above Eq:then, C(t)=u (t) e t/T ; t.>0.------------- (3)
slope = 1 .
T
c (t)
0.632
Since dc = 1 .e -
dt
t/T
1 e t/T
t
T
From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically
from 1 . at t=0 to zero. At t=
T
a2 d c(t) + a1 .
2
a0 dt
a0
2
a2 d c(t) +
2
a0 dt
2a1 . a2 .
2a0 a0 . a2
3) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) =
K . where,
S(1+ST)
T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be
reduced so that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced
from 75% to 25% (b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6.
Solution: G(S) =
K .
S(1+ST)
Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak
overshoot is 25%
.
Mp =
e 1- 2
.
ln 0. 75 =
1-
0.0916 =
1- 2
(0.0084) (1-2) = 2
(1.0084 2) = 0.0084
= 0.091
1 = 0.091
2 = 0.4037
k
.
S+S T .
1+ K
. =
2
S+S T
2
w.k.t. T.F. =
G(S)
1+ G(S) . H(S)
T.F. =
K
.
2
S + S T+K
K/T
.
S2 + S + K .
T T
, 2 Wn = 1 .
T
K .
T
2TWn
2 KT
1 .
1 . = 2 K 1T
2
1
2 K2T
K2 .
K1
K2 .
K1
0.091 =
0.4037
K2 . = 0.0508
K1
K2 = 0.0508 K1
1 . = 20
0.0508
0.1 =
0.6
K2 . = 0.027 K2 = 0.027 K1
K1
K2 .
K1
1 . = 36
0.027
4) Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open
loop T.F. is given by
G(S) =
25 .
S(S+6)
Solution:
25 .
G(S) =
=
25 .
S(S+6)
Wd = Wn 1- 2
=
S(S+6) .
1 + 25 .
S(S+6)
25
.
S2 + ( 6S+25 )
W2n = 25 , Wn = 5,
tr
G(S)
.
1 + G(S) .H(S)
2 Wn = 6 = 6 . = 0.6
2x5
= 5 1- (0.6)2 = 4
- , = tan-1 Wd
Wd
= Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3
4
.
MP =
e 1-
e 1-
ts = 4 .
0.6 .
for 2% =
Wn
x3.4 = 9.5%
0.62
4 . = 1.3 3sec.
0.6 x 5
5) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by
Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural
undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent
peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error
resoponse.
5 .
C(S) =
2
R(S) S + 4S +5
Solution:
5 . , Wn2 = 5 Wn = 5 = 2.236
C(S) =
R(S) S2 + 4S +5
2Wn = 4 =
MP =
4
. = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018
2 x 2.236
.
e 1-
e 1-(0.894)
0.894 .
Cos Wdtr +
= e-0.894x2.236t
1-
X 3.14 = 0.19%
2
. sin wdtr
2
1-(0.894)2
6) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the
dt
value of damping ratio, undamped and damped
dt2
frequency of ascillation.
Soutions:-
d2 + 10 d = 15 ( r - ) ,
2
dt
dt
= 150r 150.
10
2 x 12.25
. = 0.408.
Wd =
Wn 1 - 2 = 12.25 1- (0.408)2 = 11.18.
rad 1sec.
7) Fig shows a mechanical system and the response when 10N of force is applied to the
system. Determine the values of M, F, K,.
K
x(t)inmt
f(t)
0.00193
0.02
M
F
x
1
Given :- F(S) = 10
S.
X(S) =
10
.
S(MS2 + FS + K)
SX (S) =
10
.
MS2 + FS + K
10
S
= 500.)
MP = 0.00193 = 0.0965 = 9.62%
(K
0.02
MP = e
. ln 0.0965 =
1 - 2
1 - 2
0.744 = . 0.5539 =
2 .
1 - 2
1 - 2
0.5539 0.5539 2 = 2
= 0.597 = 0.6
tp = =
Wd
3 =
Sx(S) =
.
Wn 1 2
. Wn = 1.31 rad / Sec.
Wn 1 (0.6)2
10/ M
.
(S2 + F S + K )
M
M
Wn =
M
F = 2Wn
(1.31)2 = 500 .
M = 291.36 kg.
600 / S
.
S + 70S + + 600
2
R(S) =
600 / S
.
S + 70S + + 600
2
2 Wn = 70, =
70 . = 1.428
2 x 24.4
9) The C.S. shown in the fig employs proportional plus error rate control. Determine
the value of error rate const. Ke, so the damping ratio is 0.6 . Determine the value of
settling time, max overshoot and steady state error, if the i/p is unit ramp, what will be
the value of steady state error without error rate control.
R
(S)
__
K1
+
__
1
S(1+S)
K2S
.
C
K1
C . =
.
2
R
S + ( 1 + K2 ) S + K1
Wn2 = K1 Wn =
2Wn = 1 + K2 =
Wd
rad/Sec
Wn 1 - 2
K1
1 + K2
2 K1
Wn =
9.5
10.96
1 0.52
K1 = (10.96)2 = 120.34
2Wn = 1 + K2 , K2 = 9.97
MP =
e
ts =
= 16.3%
1 - 2
4 . =
4
. = 0.729 sec
Wn
0.5 x 10.97
Steady state Error :Steady state errors constitute an extremely important aspect of system
performance. The state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the
nature of i/ps type of system and from non-linearties of the system components. The
steady state performance of a stable control system are generally judged by its steady
state error to step, ramp and parabolic i/p.
G(S)
R(S)
E(S)
C(S)
H(S)
C(S) =
G(S)
. (1)
R(S)
1+G(S) . H(S)
The closed loop T.F is given by (1). The T.F. b/w the actuating error signal e(t)
and the i/p signal r(t) is,
E(S) = R(S) C(S) H(S) = 1 C(S) . H(S)
R(S)
R(S)
R(S)
= 1 G(S) . H(S) .
1 + G(S) . H(S)
=
1
1 + G(S) . H(S)
Where e(t) = Difference b/w the i/p signal and the feed back signal
E(S)
1
.
1 + G(S) . H(S)
.R(S) .(1)
The steady state error ess may be found by the use of final value theorem
and is as follows;
ess
= lt
Substituting (1),
e(t) = lt SE(S)
S O
ess
= lt
SO
S.R(S)
. .(2)
1+G(S) . H(S)
Eq :- (2) Shows that the steady state error depends upon the i/p R(S) and the forward
T.F. G(S) and loop T.F G(S) . H(S).
The expression for steady state errors for various types of standard test signals are
derived below;
1) Steady state error due to step i/p or position error constant (Kp):The steady state error for the step i/p is
ess
= lt
SO
S. R(s)
.
1 +G(S). H.S
=
1 + lt
SO
1
G(S). H(S)
lt G(S) . H(S) = Kp
(S O )
ess
1 .
1 + Kp
(1 + Kp)
ess
=1
Note :- ess
Kp = 1 - ess
ess
1 + Kp
2) Steady state error due to ramp i/p or static velocity error co-efficient (Kv) :The
given by,
ess of the system with a unit ramp i/p or unit velocity i/p is
ess
= lt
S O
lt
S O
ess
= lt
S
. . 1 . = lt
1
.
2
1 + G(S) . H(s) S S O S +S G(S) H(s)S
1 .
ess
= 1 .
S + Kv
S O
Kv
Velocity error is not an error in velocity , but it is an error in position error due to
a ramp i/p
3) Steady state error due to parabolic i/p or static acceleration co-efficient (Ka) :The steady state actuating error of the system with a unit parabolic i/p
(acceleration i/p) which is defined by r(t) + 1 . t2 Taking L.T. R(S)= 1 .
2
S3
ess
= lt
S O
S
. 1 .
1 + G(S) . H(S) S3
lt
S O
ess
S O
1
.
S + S G(S) . H(S)
2
2
S G(S) . H(S) = Ka.
= lt
S O
Note :-
lt
ess =
1 .
S + Ka
2
1 .
Ka
Types of feed back control system :The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system can be written in two std, forms;
1) Time constant form
and
. .
[ .
Let, G(S) = K .
S+1
ess
(Position) =
. .
. Kp = lt
H(s) = 1]
1
. = 1 .=
1 + G(O) . H(O)
1+K
G(S) . H(S) = lt
S O
ess
S O
(Velocity) = 1 . =
Kv
ess
S+1
(acceleration) = 1 . =
Ka
1 .=
O
Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = lt
SO
S O
K . = O.
S+1
(Position) = 1 . = O
1+
Kp = lt
G(S) . H(S) = lt
S O
S O
Kv =
lt
S O
ess
S2
2) Type 1 System :-
ess
S K . = O.
S O
SO
= K
1 .=
O
Kv = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt
K .
S+1
1 .
1 + Kp
K .
S(S+1)
(Velocity) = 1 .
K
= K
K .
S( S + 1)
K .
S (S + 1)
ess
(acceleration) = 1 . = 1 . =
O
O
Ka = lt S2
SO
. = O.
S (S + 1)
3) Type 2 System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) =
Kp = lt
K .=
S (S + 1)
2
SO
.
. .
ess
(Position) = 1 . = O
Kv = lt
SO
ess
. .
. .
ess
(Velocity) = 1 . = O
S
SO
.=
K
S (S + 1)
Ka = lt
K . = K.
S (S + 1)
2
(acceleration) = 1 .
K
& ess = O.
K .
S (S + 1)
2
LCS
The error co-efficient Kp, Kv, & Ka describes the ability of the system to
eliminate the steady state error therefore they are indicative of steady
state performance. It is generally described to increase the error coefficient while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable
limit.
PROBLEMS;
1. The unit step response of a system is given by
C (t) = 5/2 +5t 5/2 e-2t. Find the T. F of the system.
T/P = r(t) = U (t). Taking L.T, R(s) = 1/S.
Response C(t) = 5/2+5t-5/2 e-2t
Taking L.T, C(s) = 5
=
5 1
S2
- 5
1 + 2
S
S2
2 (S+2)
1
S+2
S2+2S+2S+4
2
C(s)
=
5
S(S+2)+2(S+2)-S2
= 5
2
S2(S+2)
2
10 (S+1)
S2 (S+2)
T.F = C (S) = 10 (S+1) S
10
(S+1)
R (S)
S2(S+2)
S(S+2)
S (S+10)
system
is
Find the static error constant and the steady state error of the system
when subjected to an i/p given by the polynomial
R(t)
= Po +
p1t + P2 t2
2
G(s) =
100
S (S+10)
KP = lt
S
Similarly KV = lt
S
Given :- r(t)
ess
R1
state
R2
S (S+10)
R1
0
Ka = lt S2 G(S)
R2
+
1+Kp
R3
+
= 10
Po+P1t +P2 t2
steady
= 100
S (S+10)
2
Therefore
ess
100 x s
100 x s2
0
100
=:
SG(s) = lt
lt
S
S (S+10)
G(s) = lt
R3
+
Kv
error
Ka
P0
P2
P1
+
Ess = 0+0.1 P1 + =
3. Determine the error co-efficeint and static
G(s) =
1
And H(s) = (S+2)
error
S(S+1) (S+10)
The error constants for a non unity feed back system is as follows
(S+2)
G(S).H(S) =
S(S+1) (S+10)
for
Kp = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
(0+2)
=
0(0+1) (0+10)
Kv = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
(0+2)
= 1/5 = 0.2
0(0+1) (0+10)
Ka = 0
1
=
Kv
=5
0.2
Kp = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
50
S2 (S+2) (S+5)
Kv = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
Ka = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
50 x S
S2 (S+2) (S+5)
S2 x 50
=
50
=
Lt
S2 (S+2) (S+5)
The
steady
error
state
Ess = lt
S
0
S. 1/S
1+50
S 0
S2 (S+2) (S+5) + 50
= 0/50 = 0
K
5. A certain feed back C.S is described by following
C.S G(S) =
H(S) = 1
S2 (S+20) (S+30)
Determine steady state error co-efficient and also determine the value of
K to limit the steady to 10 units due to i/p r(t) = 1 + 10 + t 20/2 t2.
Kp = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
50
2
S (S+20) (S+30)
Kv = lt
S
0
Ka = lt
S
S
K
2
S (S+20) (S+30)
S2
K
K
2
S (S+20) (S+30)600
+
1+Kp
=0
1+
10
Kv
20
Error due to para
i/p,
,
r (t) =
10
+
=0
40
=
Ka
i/p
20 x 600
=
2Ka
i/p
12000
=
K
First order system:The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+aoc (t) = bor(t)------ (1)
dt
Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants.
Dividing Eq:- (1) by
Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0
a0
a0
Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:-
K .
1+TS
1 .
[ Its a dimensionless T.F.]
1+TS I
1
TS
C(S)
Unit step response of 1st order system:Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system,
Then, r (t)=u (t) & R(S) =
1 . ---------------(1)
S
W.K.T. C(S) = G(S). R(S)
1 .
T . ----------------- (2)
C(S) = 1 . 1 . =
1+TS S
S
TS+1
Taking inverse L.T. for the above Eq:then, C(t)=u (t) e t/T ; t.>0.------------- (3)
slope = 1 .
T
c (t)
0.632
Since dc = 1 .e -
dt
t/T
1 e t/T
t
T
From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically
from 1 . at t=0 to zero. At t=
T
a2 d c(t) + a1 .
2
a0
a0 dt
2
a2 d c(t) +
2
a0 dt
2a1 . a2 .
2a0 a0 . a2
Wn2
(S+ wn + jwd ) (S+ wn - jwd )
Where wd = wn 1- 2
W n2
. X R (S) =
W n2
. =
(S2+2 Wn S+ Wn2)
(S2+2 WnS+ Wn2)
C(S) = 1 .
S
=
1 .
S
C(S) =
1 .
S
1 .
S
S+2Wn
.
2
S +2 WnS+ Wn
2
S+Wn
.
2
2
(S+ Wn) + Wd
__
Wn
. --------------- (5)
2
2
(S+ Wn + Wd )
S+Wn
. __
.
2
2
2
1-
(S+ Wn) + Wd
COS Wdt +
Wd
.
(S+ Wn) 2 + Wd2
The error signal for this system is the difference b/w the I/p & o/p.
At t =
. Sin Wdt
1- 2
--------------------- (7)
t > o.
If the damping ratio = O, the response becomes undamped & oscillations continues
indefinitely.
The response C(t) for the zero damping case is ,
c(t) =1-1(COS wnt) =1- COS wnt ; t > O --------------------- (8)
From Eq:- (8) , we see that the Wn represents the undamped natural frequency of the
system. If the linear system has any amount of damping the undamped natural frequency
cannot be observed experimentally. The frequency, which may be observed, is the
damped natural frequency.
Wd =wn 1 2 This frequency is always lower than the undamped natural frequency.
An increase in would reduce the damped natural frequency Wd . If is increased
beyond unity, the response over damped & will not oscillate.
C(S)
W n2
.
2
2
S +2 Wn S+ Wn
1 .
S
1
.
(S + Wn)
1 .
S
Wn 2 .
( S + Wn )2S
Taking I.L.T.,
1 .
S
Wn
.
( S+ Wn)2
(S+ Wn + Wn - 1
W n2
) ( S+ Wn - Wn 1)
S 2 1 (+ 2 1)
1
S 2 1 (+ 2 1)
e ( + 2 1) Wn t.
e ( + 2 1) Wn t.
C(t) = 1+
Wn
S 2 1
e-S1t . -
S1
e-S2t .
; t>O
S2
Where S1 = ( + 2 1) Wn
S 2 = ( - 2 1 ) Wn
Time response (Transient ) Specification (Time domain) Performance :The performance characteristics of a controlled system are specified in terms of
the transient response to a unit step i/p since it is easy to generate & is sufficiently
drastic.
MP
Response curve
3) Peak time (tp)
4) Max over shoot (Mp)
5) Settling time (ts)
It is the time required for the response to reach the 1st of peak of the overshoot.
T.F. = C(S) =
Wn 2
. ------------------------------(1)
2
2
R(S) S +2 WnS+ Wn
Assuming the system is to be underdamped (< 1)
Rise time tr
W. K.T. C(tr) = 1- e-Wnt Cos Wdtr +
. sin wdtr
1-2
Cos wdtr +
1-
1-
. sin wdtr
2
wd .
jW
wd
When must be in radians.
tr =
jWd
Wn 1-2
Wn
Wn
S- Plane
= O = Sin Wdtp
Wn
. e-Wntp
dt t = t p
1-2
Since the peak time corresponds to the 1st peak over shoot.
Wdtp = = tp =
.
Wd
The peak time tp corresponds to one half cycle of the frequency of damped
oscillation.
1 .
Wn
Setting time ts = 4x Time constant.
= 4x
1 . for a tolerance band of +/- 2% steady state.
Wn
td
PROBLEMS:
= 1+0.7
Wn
(1) Consider the 2nd order control system, where = 0.6 & Wn = 5 rad / sec, obtain
the rise time tr, peak time tp, max overshoot Mp and settling time ts When the
system is subject to a unit step i/p.,
Given :- = 0.6, Wn = 5rad /sec, tr = ?, tp = ?, Mp = ?, ts = ?
Wd = Wn
1- 2
= 5 1-(0.6) 2 = 4
= Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3.
tr =
-, = tan-1 Wd
tan-1
Wd
= 0.927 rad
MP =
MP = e
ts :-
e 1- 2
(3/4) x 3.14
/ Wd
EXERCISE:
(2) A unity feed back system has on open loop T.F. G(S) =
K .
S ( S+10)
Determine the value of K so that the system has a damping factors of 0.5 For this value of K
determine settling time, peak over shoot & time for peak over shoot for unit step i/p
LCS
The error co-efficient Kp, Kv, & Ka describes the ability of the system to
eliminate the steady state error therefore they are indicative of steady
state performance. It is generally described to increase the error coefficient while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable
limit.
PROBLEMS;
2. The unit step response of a system is given by
C (t) = 5/2 +5t 5/2 e-2t. Find the T. F of the system.
T/P = r(t) = U (t). Taking L.T, R(s) = 1/S.
Response C(t) = 5/2+5t-5/2 e-2t
Taking L.T, C(s) = 5
=
5 1
- 5
1 + 2
S
S2
1
S+2
5
2
S2
2 (S+2)
S2+2S+2S+4
2
C(s)
=
5
S(S+2)+2(S+2)-S2
= 5
3
S2(S+2)
S2 (S+2)
10 (S+1)
T.F = C (S) = 10 (S+1) S
(S+1)
R (S)
S2(S+2)
10
S(S+2)
S (S+10)
system
is
Find the static error constant and the steady state error of the system
when subjected to an i/p given by the polynomial
R(t)
= Po +
p1t + P2 t2
G(s) =
100
S (S+10)
KP = lt
S
Similarly KV = lt
S
Given :- r(t)
ess
R1
R3
state
R2
+
= 10
S (S+10)
0
Ka = lt S2 G(S)
Po+P1t +P2 t2
steady
= 100
S (S+10)
2
Therefore
ess
100 x s
100 x s2
0
100
=:
SG(s) = lt
lt
S
S (S+10)
G(s) = lt
R1
R2
+
1+Kp
=
+
R3
+
Kv
error
Ka
P0
P2
P1
+
Ess = 0+0.1 P1 + =
3. Determine the error co-efficeint and static
G(s) =
1
And H(s) = (S+2)
error
S(S+1) (S+10)
The error constants for a non unity feed back system is as follows
(S+2)
G(S).H(S) =
S(S+1) (S+10)
for
Kp = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
(0+2)
=
0(0+1) (0+10)
Kv = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
(0+2)
= 1/5 = 0.2
0(0+1) (0+10)
Ka = 0
1
=
Kv
=5
0.2
Kp = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
50
S2 (S+2) (S+5)
Kv = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
Ka = lt
lt
G(S) H(S) =
50 x S
S2 (S+2) (S+5)
S2 x 50
=
50
=
Lt
S2 (S+2) (S+5)
The
steady
error
state
Ess = lt
S
0
S. 1/S
1+50
S 0
S2 (S+2) (S+5) + 50
= 0/50 = 0
K
5. A certain feed back C.S is described by following
C.S G(S) =
H(S) = 1
S (S+20) (S+30)
2
Determine steady state error co-efficient and also determine the value of
K to limit the steady to 10 units due to i/p r(t) = 1 + 10 + t 20/2 t2.
Kp = lt
lt
Kv = lt
S
0
G(S) H(S) =
50
S2 (S+20) (S+30)
S
K
2
S (S+20) (S+30)
Ka = lt
S
S2
K
K
S2 (S+20) (S+30)600
+
1+Kp
=0
1+
10
Kv
20
Error due to para
i/p,
,
r (t) =
10
+
=0
40
=
Ka
i/p
20 x 600
=
2Ka
i/p
12000
=
K
K . where,
S(1+ST)
T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be
reduced so that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced
from 75% to 25% (b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6.
3) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) =
Solution: G(S) =
K .
S(1+ST)
Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak
overshoot is 25%
Mp =
e 1- 2
.
ln 0. 75 =
1-
0.0916 =
1- 2
(0.0084) (1-2) = 2
(1.0084 2) = 0.0084
= 0.091
1 = 0.091
2 = 0.4037
k
.
S+S T .
1+ K
. =
2
S+S T
2
w.k.t. T.F. =
G(S)
1+ G(S) . H(S)
T.F. =
K
.
2
S + S T+K
K/T
.
S2 + S + K .
T T
, 2 Wn = 1 .
T
K .
T
2TWn
2 KT
1 .
1 . = 2 K 1T
2
1
2 K2T
0.091 =
0.4037
K2 .
K1
K2 .
K1
K2 . = 0.0508
K1
K2 = 0.0508 K1
a) The amplitude K has to be reduced by a factor =
b) Let = 0.1 Where gain is K1 and
1 . = 20
0.0508
0.1 =
K2 . = 0.027 K2 = 0.027 K1
K1
K2 .
K1
0.6
1 . = 36
0.027
4) Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open
loop T.F. is given by
G(S) =
25 .
S(S+6)
Solution:
25 .
G(S) =
=
25 .
S(S+6)
G(S)
.
1 + G(S) .H(S)
25
.
S + ( 6S+25 )
Wd = Wn 1- 2
=
S(S+6) .
1 + 25 .
S(S+6)
W2n = 25 , Wn = 5,
tr
2 Wn = 6 = 6 . = 0.6
2x5
= 5 1- (0.6)2 = 4
- , = tan-1 Wd
Wd
= Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3
4
.
MP =
e 1-
e 1-
ts = 4 .
Wn
for 2% =
0.6 .
x3.4 = 9.5%
0.62
4 . = 1.3 3sec.
0.6 x 5
5) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by
C(S) =
5 .
2
R(S) S + 4S +5
Solution:
C(S) =
5 . , Wn2 = 5 Wn = 5 = 2.236
R(S) S2 + 4S +5
2Wn = 4 =
MP =
4
. = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018
2 x 2.236
.
0.894 .
e 1-
e 1-(0.894)
Cos Wdtr +
= e-0.894x2.236t
1-
X 3.14 = 0.19%
2
. sin wdtr
2
1-(0.894)2
6) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the
dt2
dt
value of damping ratio, undamped and damped
frequency of ascillation.
Soutions:-
d2 + 10 d = 15 ( r - ) ,
2
dt
= 150r 150.
dt
10
2 x 12.25
. = 0.408.
7) Fig shows a mechanical system and the response when 10N of force is applied to the
system. Determine the values of M, F, K,.
K
x(t)inmt
f(t)
0.00193
0.02
M
F
x
1
Given :- F(S) = 10
S.
X(S) =
10
.
S(MS + FS + K)
SX (S) =
10
.
2
MS + FS + K
2
10
S
= 500.)
MP = 0.00193 = 0.0965 = 9.62%
0.02
MP = e
. ln 0.0965 =
1 - 2
1 - 2
0.744 = . 0.5539 =
2 .
1 - 2
1 - 2
0.5539 0.5539 2 = 2
= 0.597 = 0.6
tp = =
Wd
3 =
Sx(S) =
10/ M
.
Wn 1 2
. Wn = 1.31 rad / Sec.
Wn 1 (0.6)2
.
(K
(S2 + F S + K )
M
M
Comparing with the std. 2nd order Eq :-, then,
Wn2 = K
Wn =
(1.31)2 = 500 .
M
F = 2Wn
M
M = 291.36 kg.
600 / S
.
S2 + 70S + + 600
R(S) = 1 .
S
600 / S
.
S2 + 70S + + 600
2 Wn = 70, =
70 . = 1.428
2 x 24.4
9) The C.S. shown in the fig employs proportional plus error rate control. Determine
the value of error rate const. Ke, so the damping ratio is 0.6 . Determine the value of
settling time, max overshoot and steady state error, if the i/p is unit ramp, what will be
the value of steady state error without error rate control.
R
(S)
__
K1
.
C
S(1+S)
__
K2S
C . =
K1
.
2
R
S + ( 1 + K2 ) S + K1
Wn2 = K1 Wn =
2Wn = 1 + K2 =
Wd
rad/Sec
K1
1 + K2
2 K1
Wn 1 - 2
Wn =
9.5
1 0.52
K1 = (10.96)2 = 120.34
2Wn = 1 + K2 , K2 = 9.97
MP =
e
ts =
= 16.3%
1 - 2
4
. =
= 0.729 sec
10.96
Wn
0.5 x 10.97
Steady state Error :Steady state errors constitute an extremely important aspect of system
performance. The state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the
nature of i/ps type of system and from non-linearties of the system components. The
steady state performance of a stable control system are generally judged by its steady
state error to step, ramp and parabolic i/p.
G(S)
R(S)
E(S)
C(S)
H(S)
C(S) =
G(S)
. (1)
R(S)
1+G(S) . H(S)
The closed loop T.F is given by (1). The T.F. b/w the actuating error signal e(t)
and the i/p signal r(t) is,
E(S) = R(S) C(S) H(S) = 1 C(S) . H(S)
R(S)
R(S)
R(S)
= 1 G(S) . H(S) .
1 + G(S) . H(S)
=
1
1 + G(S) . H(S)
Where e(t) = Difference b/w the i/p signal and the feed back signal
E(S)
1
.
1 + G(S) . H(S)
.R(S) .(1)
The steady state error ess may be found by the use of final value theorem
and is as follows;
ess
= lt
e(t) = lt SE(S)
S O
ess
Substituting (1),
= lt
SO
S.R(S)
. .(2)
1+G(S) . H(S)
Eq :- (2) Shows that the steady state error depends upon the i/p R(S) and the forward
T.F. G(S) and loop T.F G(S) . H(S).
The expression for steady state errors for various types of standard test signals are
derived below;
2) Steady state error due to step i/p or position error constant (Kp):The steady state error for the step i/p is
I/P r(t) = u(t). Taking L.T., R(S) = 1/S.
ess
= lt
SO
S. R(s)
.
1 +G(S). H.S
=
1 + lt
SO
1
G(S). H(S)
lt G(S) . H(S) = Kp
(S O )
ess
1 .
1 + Kp
(1 + Kp)
ess
=1
Note :- ess
Kp = 1 - ess
ess
R
1 + Kp
2) Steady state error due to ramp i/p or static velocity error co-efficient (Kv) :The
given by,
ess of the system with a unit ramp i/p or unit velocity i/p is
ess
= lt
S O
lt
S O
ess
= lt
S
. . 1 . = lt
1
.
2
1 + G(S) . H(s) S S O S +S G(S) H(s)S
ess
1 .
S + Kv
S O
= 1 .
Kv
Velocity error is not an error in velocity , but it is an error in position error due to
a ramp i/p
3) Steady state error due to parabolic i/p or static acceleration co-efficient (Ka) :The steady state actuating error of the system with a unit parabolic i/p
(acceleration i/p) which is defined by r(t) + 1 . t2 Taking L.T. R(S)= 1 .
3
S3
ess
= lt
S O
S
. 1 .
1 + G(S) . H(S) S3
lt
S O
ess
S O
1
.
S + S G(S) . H(S)
2
S G(S) . H(S) = Ka.
= lt
S O
Note :-
lt
ess =
1 .
S + Ka
2
1 .
Ka
Types of feed back control system :The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system can be written in two std, forms;
and
. .
[ .
Let, G(S) = K .
S+1
ess
(Position) =
. .
. Kp = lt
H(s) = 1]
1
. = 1 .=
1 + G(O) . H(O)
1+K
G(S) . H(S) = lt
S O
ess
S O
(Velocity) = 1 . =
Kv
1 .=
O
Kv = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt
SO
S O
S K . = O.
S+1
K .
S+1
1 .
1 + Kp
= K
ess
(acceleration) = 1 . =
Ka
Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = lt
SO
S2
K . = O.
S+1
S O
2) Type 1 System :-
ess
1 .=
O
K .
S (S + 1)
(Position) = 1 . = O
1+
Kp = lt
G(S) . H(S) = lt
S O
S O
Kv =
lt
S O
(Velocity) = 1 .
K
ess
(acceleration) = 1 . = 1 . =
O
O
SO
= K
K .
S(S+1)
ess
Ka = lt S2
K .
S( S + 1)
. = O.
S (S + 1)
3) Type 2 System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) =
Kp = lt
K .=
S2 (S + 1)
SO
.
. .
ess
(Position) = 1 . = O
Kv = lt
SO
ess
. .
Ka = lt
SO
.=
K
S (S + 1)
2
(Velocity) = 1 . = O
2
K . = K.
S2 (S + 1)
K .
S (S + 1)
2
.
. .
ess
(acceleration) = 1 .
K
& ess = O.