GrammarInstructionTimeline

FRESHMEN
An
independentclause
isagroupofwordsthatcontainsasubjectandverband
expressesacompletethought.An
independentclause
isasentence.

A
dependentclause
agroupofwordsthathasbotha
subject
anda
verb
but(unlikean
independentclause
)cannotstandaloneasa
sentence
.Alsoknownasa
subordinate
clause
.
Dependentclauses
include
adverbclauses
,
adjectiveclauses
,and
nounclauses
.
Example:"WheneverIgettheurgetoexercise,Iliedownuntiltheurgepasses."
(attributedtoRobertM.Hutchins)

SimpleSentence
:Asentence/clausemustcontainasubjectandpredicatetobe
complete.
IncorrectExample:Runningtothestore.
CorrectExample:Iwasrunningtothestore.

ComplexSentence/CompoundComplex
:Sentencescontainingmultipleclausesmust
containatleastONEindependentclausetobecomplete.
IncorrectExample:BecauseIgavetheponyanapple,afteritcametome.
CorrectExample:BecauseIgavetheponyanapple,itcametome.

CompoundSentence/CompoundComplex
:Connecttwoindependentclauseswitha
commaANDacoordinateconjunction(FANBOYS).
IncorrectExample:Ihadblueberrypie,Henryhadcherry.
CorrectExample:Ihadblueberrypie,andHenryhadcherry.
OR

AfterHenryandIsharedalargemeal,Ihadblueberrypie,andhehadcherry.

CommaRules:

Comma#1
:Useacommatoseparateitems(words,phrases,orclauses)inaseries.
ex.
Correct
WehavereadpoemsbyLongfellow,Whittier,andDickinson.
Wefoundseaweedinthewater,onthesand,andinourshoes.

Comma#2
:Useacommatoseparatetwoormoreadjectivesprecedinganoun.
ex.
Correct
AnArabianstallionisafast,beautifulhorse.


Comma#3
Useacommabefore
and,but,or,nor,so
,
for,
and
yet
whentheyjoin
independentclauses.
ex.
Correct
Wewantedtogobiking,butwecouldntdecidewheretogo.

Comma#4
Useacommaafteralongprepositionphraseorafterthefinalphraseina
seriesofphrases.
ex.
Correct
Atthetopofthehillontheranch,wefoundthelostcalf.

Comma#5
Useacommaafteranintroductoryparticipialphraseoradverbclause.
ex.
Correct
Forcedonthesidelinesbyhistornligament,Johnwasrestless
andunhappy.

WhenMarchcame,thehugeicepackbegantomelt.

Comma#6
Useacommaafterwordssuchas
well,yes,no,why
whentheybegina
sentence.
ex.
Correct
Why,everyoneknowswhathappenedin1776!

Comma#7
Useacommatosetoffparentheticalexpressionsandotherwordswhich
interruptthesentence.
ex.
Correct
Thatbook,asamatteroffact,isbythesameauthor.
Texas,theLoneStarState,islargerthanMaine.

Comma#8
Useacommatoseparateanounofdirectaddress.
ex.
Correct
Bill,pleasegogetmypurse.
Answerthephone,Steve.

Comma#9
Usecommasincertainconventionalsituations.
ex.
Correct
DearAuntMargaret,

Sammovedto286LincolnRoad,Chicago,Illinois,lastJune.
SpringvacationbeginsonFriday,April12,thisyear.

Comma#10
Neveruseacommabetweenasubjectanditsverborbetweenaverb
anditscompliment.
ex.
Correct
WhatIcouldnotbelievewasthathehadneverplayedbefore.
Pamsbestimitationsincludedthoseofhermotherandfather.

Semicolon#1
:Semicolonsareusedtoseparatecloselyrelatedclauseswhicharenot
separatedby
for
,
and
,
nor
,
or
,
yet
,
but
,or
so
.
ex.
Incorrect
Eleanortrudgedthroughthewoodedpathtowardthestreamfor
shewantedtospendtheafternoonfishing.

Correct
Eleanortrudgedthroughthewoodedpathtowardthestreamshe
wantedtospendtheafternoonfishing.

Semicolon#2
:Semicolonsareusedtoseparateitemsinaseries(list)whentheseries
alreadycontainscommas.
ex.
Correct
Lukehavecreatedthreesuperheroes:Bob,theinvisibleSal,the
everhungryandSteve,
theimperceivable.

Colon#1
:Colonsareusedbeforealistofitemsordetails.
ex.
Correct
Lukehavecreatedthreesuperheroes:Bob,theinvisibleSal,the
everhungryandSteve,theimperceivable.

Colon#2
:Useacolonbeforeastatementthatsummarizestheoriginalstatement.
ex.
Correct
Failureisnotfatal:itisthecouragetocontinuethatcounts.

Colon#3
:Colonsareusedbeforealong,formalquotation.

SOPHOMORES
Introductoryclauses
aredependentclausesthatprovidebackgroundinformationor
"setthestage"forthemainpartofthesentence,
theindependentclause
.For
example:Iftheywanttowin,athletesmustexerciseeveryday.

Introductoryadverbclauses
Placeacommaafteran
introductoryadverbclause
.An
adverbclause
showstime,
place,degree,extent,cause,orcondition.Itisasubordinate
clause
whichbeginswith
asubordinatingconjunction.
Example:
When
IwasinParis,Ivisitedthemuseums.
Adverbclausestarters
after
before
when
while
as
bythetime(that)
since
until
assoonas
once
as/solongas
whenever
everytime(that)
thefirsttime(that)
thelasttime(that)
thenexttime(that)

Introductoryparticipialphrases
An
introductoryparticipialphrase
comesatthefirstofthesentenceitmusthavea
commaafterititmodifiesanounorpronounthatcomesimmediatelyafterit.

Participle
Thefirstwordintheparticipialphraseendsiningored(someedverb
formsareirregularsuchasbuilt,spoken,gone,etc.)

ParticipialPhrase
Theparticipleanditsmodifiers(modifiersarethewordsthatrefer
to,orgowith,theparticiple)
Examples:Followingherbrother'sdirections,KatiearrivedattheMedievalFair.
Locatedinalargefield,thefairhadmanydifferentattractions.

Parallelstructure(parallelism)
Parallelstructure
(alsocalledparallelism)istherepetitionofachosengrammatical
formwithinasentence.Bymakingeachcompareditemorideainyoursentencefollow
thesamegrammaticalpattern,youcreatea
parallel
construction.

WordsandPhrases
Withthe
ingform(gerund)
ofwords:
Parallel:
Marylikeshiking,swimming,andbicycling.
Withinfinitivephrases:
Parallel:
Marylikestohike,toswim,andtorideabicycle.
OR
Marylikestohike,swim,andrideabicycle.
Donotmixforms.
Example
NotParallel:
Marylikeshiking,swimming,andtorideabicycle.
Parallel:
Marylikeshiking,swimming,andridingabicycle.
Clauses
Aparallelstructurethatbeginswithclausesmustkeeponwithclauses.
Changingtoanotherpatternorchangingthevoiceoftheverb(fromactive
topassiveorviceversa)willbreaktheparallelism.
Example
NotParallel:
Thecoachtoldtheplayersthattheyshouldgetalotofsleep,that
theyshouldnoteattoomuch,andtodosomewarmupexercises
beforethegame.
Parallel:
Thecoachtoldtheplayersthattheyshouldgetalotofsleep,that
theyshouldnoteattoomuch,andthattheyshoulddosome
warmupexercisesbeforethegame.

ListsAfteraColon
Besuretokeepalltheelementsinalistinthesameform.
Example
NotParallel:
Thedictionarycanbeusedtofindthese:word
meanings,pronunciations,correctspellings,andlookingupirregular
verbs.
Parallel:
Thedictionarycanbeusedtofindthese:word
meanings,pronunciations,correctspellings,andirregularverbs.

JUNIORS
SubjectVerbAgreement:
Subjectsshouldalwaysagreeinnumberwiththeirverbs.
Incorrect
Eachofthemen
have
donethework.
Correct
Eachofthe
men
has
donethework.
ManyrulesofSubjectVerbAgreement
Rule1
.Asubjectwillcomebeforeaphrasebeginningwithof.Thisisakeyrule
forunderstandingsubjects.Thewordofistheculpritinmany,perhapsmost,
subjectverbmistakes.
Incorrect:Abouquetofyellowroseslendcolorandfragrancetotheroom.
Correct:Abouquetofyellowroseslends...(bouquetlends,notroses
lend)
Rule2
.Twosingularsubjectsconnectedbyor,either/or,orneither/norrequirea
singularverb.
Examples:
Myauntormyuncleisarrivingbytraintoday.
NeitherJuannorCarmenisavailable.
Rule3
.Theverbinanor,either/or,orneither/norsentenceagreeswiththenoun
orpronounclosesttoit.
Examples:
Neithertheplatesnortheservingbowlgoesonthatshelf.
Neithertheservingbowlnortheplatesgoonthatshelf.
Thisrulecanleadtobumpsintheroad.Forexample,ifIisoneoftwo(or
more)subjects,itcouldleadtothisoddsentence:
Awkward:
Neithershe,myfriends,norIamgoingtothefestival.
Ifpossible,it'sbesttorewordsuchgrammaticallycorrectbutawkward
sentences.
Better:
Neithershe,I,normyfriendsaregoingtothefestival.
Rule4
.Asageneralrule,useapluralverbwithtwoormoresubjectswhenthey
areconnectedbyand.
Example:Acarandabikearemymeansoftransportation.
Butnotetheseexceptions:
Exceptions:
Breakingandenteringisagainstthelaw.
Thebedandbreakfastwascharming.

Rule5
.Sometimesthesubjectisseparatedfromtheverbbysuchwordsas
alongwith,aswellas,besides,not,etc.Thesewordsandphrasesarenotpartofthe
subject.Ignorethemanduseasingularverbwhenthesubjectissingular.
Examples:
Thepolitician,alongwiththenewsmen,isexpectedshortly.
Excitement,aswellasnervousness,isthecauseofhershaking.
Rule6
.Withwordsthatindicateportionsalot,amajority,some,all,etc.Rule
1givenearlierisreversed,andweareguidedbythenounafterof.Ifthenounafterofis
singular,useasingularverb.Ifitisplural,useapluralverb.
Examples:
Alotofthepiehasdisappeared.
Alotofthepieshavedisappeared.
Athirdofthecityisunemployed.
Athirdofthepeopleareunemployed.
Allofthepieisgone.
Allofthepiesaregone.
Someofthepieismissing.
Someofthepiesaremissing.
Rule7
.Insentencesbeginningwithhereorthere,thetruesubjectfollowsthe
verb.
Examples:
Therearefourhurdlestojump.
Thereisahighhurdletojump.
Herearethekeys.
Rule8
.Useasingularverbwithdistances,periodsoftime,sumsofmoney,etc.,
whenconsideredasaunit.
Examples:
Threemilesistoofartowalk.
Fiveyearsisthemaximumsentenceforthatoffense.
Tendollarsisahighpricetopay.
BUT
Tendollars(i.e.,dollarbills)werescatteredonthefloor.
Rule9
.Somecollectivenouns,suchasfamily,couple,staff,audience,etc.,may
takeeitherasingularorapluralverb,dependingontheiruseinthesentence.
Examples:
Thestaffisinameeting.
Staffisactingasaunit.
Thecoupledisagreeaboutdiscipliningtheirchild.
Thecouplereferstotwopeoplewhoareactingasindividuals.

Danglingmodifiers
A
danglingmodifier
isawordorphrasethatmodifiesawordnotclearlystatedinthe
sentence.A
modifier
describes,clarifies,orgivesmoredetailaboutaconcept.
Example:
Havingfinishedtheassignment,JillturnedontheTV.

Strategiesforrevisingdanglingmodifiers:
1.Nametheappropriateorlogicaldoeroftheactionasthesubjectofthemain
clause:
Havingarrivedlateforpractice,awrittenexcusewasneeded.
Whoarrivedlate?Thissentencesaysthatthewrittenexcusearrivedlate.
Torevise,decidewhoactuallyarrivedlate.Thepossiblerevisionmight
looklikethis:
Havingarrivedlateforpractice,theteamcaptainneededawrittenexcuse.
Themainclausenownamestheperson(thecaptain)whodidtheactioninthe
modifyingphrase(arrivedlate).

2.Changethephrasethatdanglesintoacompleteintroductoryclausebynaming
thedoeroftheactioninthatclause:
Withoutknowinghisname,itwasdifficulttointroducehim.Whodidn't
knowhisname?Thissentencesaysthat"it"didn'tknowhisname.Torevise,
decidewhowastryingtointroducehim.Therevisionmightlooksomethinglike
this:
BecauseMariadidnotknowhisname,itwasdifficulttointroducehim.
Thephraseisnowacompleteintroductoryclauseitdoesnotmodifyanyother
partofthesentence,soisnotconsidered"dangling."

3.Combinethephraseandmainclauseintoone:
Toimprovehisresults,theexperimentwasdoneagain.
Whowantedtoimproveresults?Thissentencesaysthattheexperimentwas
tryingtoimproveitsownresults.Torevise,combinethephraseandthemainclause
intoonesentence.Therevisionmightlooksomethinglikethis:
Heimprovedhisresultsbydoingtheexperimentagain.

SENIORS
Passivevs.ActiveVoice
WhatIsActiveVoice?
I'llstartwithactivevoicebecauseit'ssimpler.Inanactivesentence,the
subject
isdoingtheaction.Astraightforwardexampleisthesentence"Steve
lovesAmy."Steveisthesubject,andheisdoingtheaction:helovesAmy,the
object
ofthesentence.
AnotherexampleisthetitleoftheMarvinGayesongIHeardItthrough
theGrapevine."I"isthesubject,theonewhoisdoingtheaction."I"ishearing
"it,"theobjectofthesentence.

WhatIsPassiveVoice?
Inpassivevoice,thetargetoftheactiongetspromotedtothesubject
position.Insteadofsaying,"StevelovesAmy,"Iwouldsay,"Amyislovedby
Steve."ThesubjectofthesentencebecomesAmy,butsheisn'tdoinganything.
Rather,sheisjusttherecipientofSteve'slove.Thefocusofthesentencehas
changedfromStevetoAmy.
IfyouwantedtomakethetitleoftheMarvinGayesongpassive,you
wouldsayItwasheardbymethroughthegrapevine,notsuchacatchytitle
anymore.

Is"ToBe"aSignofaPassiveSentence?
Alotofpeoplethinkallsentencesthatcontainaformoftheverbtobe
areinpassivevoice,butthatisn'ttrue.Forexample,thesentence"Iamholding
apen"isinactivevoice,butitusestheverbam,whichisaformoftobe.The
passiveformofthatsentenceis"Thepenisbeingheldbyme."
Noticethatthesubject,thepen,isn'tdoinganythinginthatsentence.It's
nottakinganactionit'spassive.Onecluethatyoursentenceispassiveisthat
thesubject
isn'ttakingadirectaction.

IsPassiveVoiceAlwaysWrong?
Anotherimportantpointisthatpassivesentencesaren'tincorrectitsjust
thattheyoftenaren'tthebestwaytophraseyourthoughts.Sometimespassive
voiceisawkwardandothertimesitsvague.Also,passivevoiceisusuallywordy,
soyoucan
tightenyourwriting
ifyoureplacepassivesentenceswithactive
sentence.
Whenyouputsentencesinpassivevoice,it'seasytoleaveouttheperson
orthingdoingtheaction.Forexample,"Amyisloved,"ispassive.Theproblem
withthatsentenceisthatyoudon'tknowwholovesAmy.

Politiciansoftenusepassivevoicetointentionallyobscuretheideaofwho
istakingtheaction.RonaldReaganfamouslysaid,Mistakesweremade,when
referringtotheIranContrascandal.Otherexamplesofpassivevoiceforpolitical
reasonscouldincludeBombsweredropped,andShotswerefired.Pay
attentiontothenewsandlistenforexamplesofpassivevoice.

PronounAntecedentAgreement
Pronounsshouldagreewiththeirantecedents(the
wordstowhichthepronounsrefer).
Example:
Incorrect
Eachofthegirlsdid
their
work.
Correct
Eachofthe
girlsdid
her
work.

A
pronoun
isawordusedtostandfor(ortaketheplaceof)a
noun
.
Awordcanrefertoanearliernounorpronouninthesentence.

Wedonottalkorwritethisway.Automatically,wereplacethenoun
Lincoln's
witha
pronoun.Morenaturally,wesay

Thepronoun
his
refersbackto
PresidentLincoln
.
PresidentLincoln
isthe
ANTECEDENT
forthepronoun
his
.

An

antecedent

isawordforwhichapronounstands.(
ante
="before")
Thepronounmustagreewithitsantecedentinnumber.

Rule:
Asingularpronounmustreplaceasingularnounapluralpronounmustreplacea
pluralnoun.

Thus,themechanicsofthesentenceabovelooklikethis:

Hereareninepronounantecedentagreementrules.Theserulesarerelatedtothe
rulesfoundin
subjectverbagreement
.

1.A
phrase
or
clause
betweenthesubjectandverb
doesnotchangethenumberof
theantecedent.

2.
Indefinitepronouns
asantecedents
Singularindefinitepronounantecedentstakesingularpronounreferents.

Pluralindefinitepronounantecedentsrequirepluralreferents.
PLURAL:
several,few,both,many

 Someindefinitepronounsthataremodifiedbya
prepositionalphrase
maybe
eithersingularorplural.
EITHERSINGULARORPLURAL:
some,any,none,all,most

Sugaris
uncountable
therefore,thesentencehasasingularreferentpronoun.

Jewelryis
uncountable
therefore,thesentencehasasingularreferent
pronoun.

Marblesare
countable
therefore,thesentencehasapluralreferent
pronoun.

Jewelsare
countable
therefore,thesentencehasapluralreferent
pronoun.

3.
Compoundsubjects
joinedby
and

alwaystakea
plural
referent.

4.
With
compoundsubjectsjoinedby

or/nor
,
thereferentpronounagreeswiththe
antecedentclosertothepronoun.

Example#1(pluralantecedentclosertopronoun):

Example#2(singularantecedentclosertopronoun):

Note:Example#1,withthepluralantecedentclosertothepronoun,createsa
smoothersentence

thanexample#2,whichforcestheuseofthesingular"hisorher."

5.CollectiveNouns
(group,jury,crowd,team,etc.)maybesingularorplural,
dependingonmeaning.

Inthisexample,thejuryisactingasoneunittherefore,thereferent
pronounissingular.

Inthisexample,thejurymembersareactingastwelveindividuals
therefore,thereferentpronounisplural.

Inthisexample,thejurymembersareactingastwelveindividualstherefore,
thereferentpronounisplural.

6.Titlesofsingleentities.
(books,organizations,countries,etc.)takeasingular
referent.

7.Pluralformsubjectswithasingularmeaning
takeasingularreferent.
(news,
measles,mumps,physics,etc)

8.
Every

or
Manya
beforeanounoraseriesofnounsrequiresasingularreferent.

9.
Thenumberof
vs
Anumberof
beforeasubject:
Thenumberof
issingular.

Anumberof
isplural.