General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS

2010-11
General Agriculture
For ICARs EXAMS, JRF, SRF, ARS & IARI Ph. D. Exams
(Based on Authorized and Current information)
Compiled by :
Roop Singh Maitry
(Ph.D. Scholar, WST, I.A.R.I.)
Special thanks to
Ajit Uchoi
(Ph.D. Scholar, PGR, I.A.R.I.)
Indian Agricultural Research Institute

New Delhi-110012
Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Indian Agriculture: At A Glance

Horticulture
Biochemistry
Microbiology
Crop Physiology
Entomology
Agronomy
Agricultural Economics
Plant Pathology
Genetics and Plant Breeding
Statistics
Soil Science
Agricultural Extension
Crop Biotechnology
Environmental Science
Seed Technology
Agricultural Engineering
Agricultural Physics
History of Agricultural Research
in India
20. Agricultural Points
PREFACE
Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. In India,
the competition in agricultural education is increasing day by
day. The competitive examination is an only routine procedure
of admission in Agricultural Universities, viz. Central
Agriculture University (CAU), State Agricultural Universities
(SAUs), Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). The
competitive examination is also an only routine procedure of
recruitment in agricultural job/posts, viz. Agricultural
Research Services, State PSC and UPSC. Thus, one has to prepare
him/herself very strongly for these competition exams and for
the success, need to read authentic and authorised reading
materials. The knowledge of general agriculture is very essential
for every competition exams related to agriculture. Many
authors are attempted to compile the notes/books of general
agriculture, in which, TNAU notes is well famous. Other books
were also made impact on the readers. But still no book is there
with authentic and authorised information. Therefore, I and my
friends feel need to write this book. This book has been so as to
serve, as best as possible to aim of writing this book.
Here, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to the
person who prepared the TNAU notes with his /her hard work. I
am highly thankful to Mr. Ajit Uchoi who helped me for
material collection and typing. Finally, I wish to thank all the
friends, who encouraged me to compile this book, Deepak Gupta,
Gopal Mahajan, Somnath Holkar. And also thanks to other
friends for there, cooperation, Ramnna, Datta, Imtiyaj.
References:
1. Handbook of Agriculture- ICAR (new edition)
2. General Agriculture- Muni raj Singh (new edition)
3. Economic Survey of India- Govt. of India (2009-10)
4. India-2010
5. ICAR websites
6. TNAU notes
7. Fundamentals of Soil Science-ISSS

1. INDIAN AGRICULTURE: AT A GLANCE (2010-11)
Indian Agriculture-2010:
A record production of 233.88 Million tons of food grains in 2008-09
Contribution to Growth rate in GDP 4.7% (2007-08), 1.6% (2008-09)
Contribution to GDP 16.4 % (2007-08), 15.7% (2008-09)
Share to total imports 2.95% (2007-08), 2.74% (2008-09)
Share to total exports 12.05% (2007-08), 10.23% (2008-09)
Contribution to total Employment- 52% (2008-09)
MSP increase in 2008-09 over last year:
Wheat-8% (lowest)
Ragi-58% (highest)
India supports(of worlds):
Total geographical area-2%
population- 18%
Livestock-15%
Forest-1.5%
Total Geographical Area (TGA) 329 M.H
Potential for Biological Production - 265 M.H
Per Capita land availability-0.37ha (1991-92)
Per Capita Agri. land availability -0.16 ha(1991-92)
Net cultivated area- 143 Mha
Irrigated area-56.3 Mha
National Commission on Farmers-2004 (Chairman- M.S. Swaminathan)
National Horticulture Mission-started 2005
National Bamboo Mission-started 2006-07
NRAA- National Rain fed Area Authority, since 03/11/2006
National food security mission-started Rabi, 2007
RADP- Rain fed Area Development Programme, Since 20 March, 2008
All India avg. fertilizer consumption- 128.8 Kg/ha (2008-09)
Highest avg. fertilizer consumption- Punjab (212Kg/ha)
Lowest avg. fertilizer consumption Arunachal Pradesh (5 kg/ha)
Nutrient consumption ration (NPK), 2007-08)- 5.5:2.1:1
NPMSF- National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertilizer, 2008-09
ISOPOM-Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm & Maize, started since 1st
April, 2004
Kisan Call Centre(KCC),started since 21st Jan 2004 (toll free No. 1551)
DMRI- Directorate of Marketing Research and Inspection, Nagpur , Maharashtra
First livestock census conducted in India: 1919
Rank of India in Silk production-2nd (1st-China), - 18,320 MT
Provides about 65% of the livelihood
Contributes 21% of Total Exports, and Supplies Raw materials to Industries
Growth Rate in production - 5.8%
About 75% people are living in rural areas and are still dependent on Agriculture.
About 43% of Indias geographical area is used for agricultural activity.
Organizational Setup of ICAR: (Present scenarios-2009-10)
Union Minister of Agriculture is the ex-officio President of the ICAR Society.
(Present- Sharad Pawar)
1/122
Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture,

Govt. of India & Director-General, ICAR the Principal Executive Officer of the
Council. (Present- Dr. S. Ayyappan)
Agricultural Scientists' Recruitment Board, Chairman-Dr. C. D. Mayee (Plant
Pathlosist)
Deputy Directors-General (8)
Additional Secretary (DARE) and Secretary (ICAR)
Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor
Assistant Directors-General (24)
Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, New Delhi
Directorates/Project Directorates - 25 (with upgradation of 12 NRCs)
National Bureaux 6 (New-NBAII, Bengaluru and NBAIM, Mau, UP)
Deemed Universities status -6(New- NAARM, Hydrabad and NIASM, Malegaon,
Maharastra)
National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) [formerly Project
Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC)] is a nodal Institute at national level for
research and development on all aspects of work on harnessing resources of insects
including biological control of crop pests and weeds, training, information repository,
technology dissemination and national/international cooperation.(2009)
National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganism(NBAIM), Mau, UP
(2005)
There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) established under
ICAR institutes.
ICAR Introduced revised curricula and syllabi for 95 disciplines in Masters and 80
disciplines in Doctoral programmes.
The Handbook of Agriculture updated as 6th edition (2009).
NIASM (National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management), Malegaon,
Maharastra,2008
Established a network of over 568 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK).(upto Dec.2009)
Deputy Director General (Natural Resource Management): Dr. A.K. Singh,
Union Minister for Agriculture: Shri. Sharad Pawar
Minister of State for Agriculture: Prof. K.V. Thomas.
New Director-General of ICAR: Dr. S. Ayyappan
Handbook of Agriculture (New entry-2010):

Father of Hybrid rice in India- Dr. E.A. Siddiqe
st
Milk production in India (Highest over World)-108 Mt.(2009) and 1 rank in world.
Milk Availability (g./person/day)- 245 (2007-08), 258 (2008-9)
Food grain production (Mt.)-233 Mt
nd
Fruit production - 63 Mt (2007-08) 2 rank
nd
Vegetable production -125 Mt (2007-08) 2 rank
Agriculture accounts .% of National work force-52
Project Directorates-25 (upgrated NRCs-12)
SAUs-45
National Research Centres (NRCs)-17
AICRPs-61
National Institutes-6 (very Imp.)
Central Institutes-49
Directorate of Women in Agriculutre-Bhuwneshwar, Orissa
Directorate of Floricultural Research- New Delhi
Directorate of Information and Publication in Agriculture- New Delhi
AICRP, NSP-crops, New Delhi
AICRP, Arid Zone fruit-Bikaner
2/122
AICRP, NSP-vegetable,Varanasi
AICRP, Pestiside residue, New Delhi
AICRP, Agrometeorrology, Hydrabad
General Agriculture (New, ICAR wbsites):

Sahbhagi Dhan - new varieties of rice capable of withstanding drought.
Water submergence variety of rice- Swarna-Sub 1, can survive for 14 days under
water.
To ward off threat to wheat production from the globally spreading menace of
resistant varieties of wheat stem rust- Ug99,DBW 17, PBW 550, Lok 1, and Turja
identified.
In potato, dry matter-rich variety Kufri Frysona developed for making French Fries.
Cloned and surviving buffalo calf, GARIMA, produced for faster multiplication of
selected highly productive animals.
For Bird Flu diagnosis, High Security Animal Disease Laboratory, Bhopal, conferred
OIE-international recognition.
Devised drip and sprinkler irrigation systems saving water (30-50%), labour (50%),
fertilizer (30-40%) and increasing yields (12-76%).
Leaf Colour Chart (LCC), a simple device for nitrogen management saves 15 kg N/ha
in rice.
Tractor-mounted cumin planter saves 30% seed.
Motorized aril extractor developed for pomegranate.
The first systematic work on SRI began at TNAU, Tamil Nadu in 1993.
Golden rice: Produced by combining genetic material from daffodils, Ervinia
vredivora, Agrobacterium tumifacience and Japonica rice. by Professor Ingo Potrykus
and Dr. Peter Beyer (Germany,1999)
Purpose of golden rice- to provide a new, alternative intervention to combat Vitamin
A Deficiency.
General Agriculture by Muniraj Singh (New Entry):
National Biodiversity Board-New Delhi
Camel crop-Sorgum
Natural Genetic enginner-Agrobacterium tumefacience
Pashmina (Winter cloth) obtained from- Goats
Law of Tolerance Sheford
Oleresine- Chilli
Keshar(sefforon) belongs family-Iridaceae
st
World Food Prize,1987 (1 Indian)-M.S. Swaminathan for Green revolution
nd
World Food Prize,1989 (2 Indian)-Vergese Kurien for Milk revolution
th
World Food Prize,2000 (5 Indian)-S. K. Khus for Quality Protein Maize
st
World Food Prize, 2009- Gebisa Ejeta (Ethiopia) for 1 sorghum hybrid for drought
and srtiga weed.
Mychoryza increase availability of Phosphorus
Water Requirement of irrigated wetland rice-1500 mm
Nurient mobility concepts-Bray
PUFA conent is highest in Sunflower
Pseudocereal-Buckwheat
First Agri. Chemist of ICAR-J W Leather
Pulse crop doesnt fix N-Rajma
Avg Milling recovery of Rice-60%
3/122

Informatics in Agriculture:
IT Plan for Agriculture Sector (AGRISNET) was submitted to Ministry of Agriculture
in 1997 to establish Indian Agriculture on-line and revised in 2000.
AGMARKNET-Agricultural Marketing Information Network
NADAMS-National Agricultural Drought Advisory and Management Systems
AgRIS-Resources Information System
APHNET-Animal Production and Health Informatics Network
ARISNET-Agricultural Research and Information System
ACINET: Agricultural Credit Informatics Network
E-chaupal estabilished by Indian Tobacco Comp. (ITC) for M.P.
VERCON (Vitrual Extension, Research and Communication Network) developed byFAO,2001
Soya-Chaupal is for weather, farming practice and Market price of Soybean in M.P.
ICT- Information and Communication Technology
ARIS- Agricultural Research Information System, est. by ICAR, 1995
Nanotechnology in Agriculture:
coined by-Nario Taniguichi (1974), at Univ. of Tokyo, Japan
Nanotechnology is Understanding and control of matter at dimension of 1-100 nm
Example of Nano based Smart Delivery System-Halloysite
Nano Pesticide-Nano Particles(NPs) of ZnO, Sio2 and TiO2 used for Bacteria & Green
Algea
Nano Particles used for reclamation of heavy Particles-Amphiphylic
Polyurethane,Zeravalent Iron (nZVI), and Nano sized Zeolite.
Crop Biotechnology.
TM
First transgenic plant-Flavr Savr tomato for delayted ripining was realeasd for
commercial cultivation in 1994 by Calgene (Compony).
Final Approval Committee for release of transgenic crops in India- GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee)
Area under transgenic plant in World (2008)-125 Mha, 139 Mha (2009)
th
st
nd
rd
Rank of India for transgenic plant -4 ( 1 -USA, 2 -Mexico, 3 - Argentina)
Crops having highest transgenic plant cultivation area- Soyabean> Corn>Cotton
Area under Bt-cotton: 7.5 Mha(2008), 8.4 Mha (2009)(86% of cotton area)
First genetic engineering compony est. 1976, Genentech
First transgenic crop- tobacco
Irrigation in India-2010:
National water awards (2007)-Hiware Bazar Gram Panchayat, Ahmadnagar,
Mharastra
Area under micro irrigation system in india (2008-09): 3.88 Mha
Area under Drip in India (2008-09): 1.42 Mha (highest area-Maharashtra)
Area under Sprinkler in India (2008-09): 2.45 Mha (highest area-Haryana)
Water year-2007
Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Advisory Council (ARGWC)- constituted in
2006
National Institute of Hydrology- Roorkee, Uttarakhand
World Congress on conservation Agriculture, 2009- held at New Delhi
ITK in Agriculture:
Bael fruit can be used to contol rice blast
Cow urin used for wheat termite control , sorghum smut control
Indias position in world Agriculture
Rank
Total Area
:Seventh
Irrigated Area
: First
Population
:Second
4/122

Economically Active population
: Second
Total Cereals
: Third
Wheat
:Second
Rice
:Second
Coarse grains
: Fourth
Total Pulses
: First
Oil Seeds
: Second
Fruits and Vegetables
: Second (first-China)
Implements (Tractors)
:Third
Milk
: First
Live Stock (castles, Buffaloes)
:First
WORLD AGRICULTURAL SCENARIO
Rice
: China > India > Indonesia
Maize
: USA >China >Brazil
Wheat
: China > India >Usa
Groundnut : China > India
Sugarcane : Brazil > India
Total Cereals : China > USA > India
Coarse Cereals: Usa > China > Brazil > India
Total Pulses : India -1st
Mustard & Rapeseed: China > Canada > India
Fruits & Veg : China > India
Cotton
: CHINA > USA > India
Tobacco
: China > Brazil > India
Tea, Jute & Allied Fibres: India -1st
Coffee
:India-6th
Cattle Population: 1st (16.5%)
Buffalo Population: 1st (56.7%)
Milk Production: 1st (15%)
Egg Production: China>USA>Japan>India
Total Area of India-329 m ha-2.4% of world-7th position
Total Arable Land-162 m ha-2nd after USA
Total Irrigated Area-58 m ha-21% of world-1st position
Human Population-102.5 Crore-17% of world-2nd after China
INDIANS WHO SECURED WORLD FOOD PRIZES:
1987 - Dr MS Swaminathan- architect of Indias green revolution
1989 -Dr Verghese Kurien Milk cooperatives
1996 - Dr Gurudev S Kush improved yield potential of rice
1998 Mr B R Barwale Founder of MAHYCO
2000 Dr Surinder K Vassal Developed quality protein maize
2005 Modaduga v Gupta For Aquaculture
SOME IMPORTANT YEARS:
2004-International year of rice
2005-International year of micro credit
2006-International year of desert and desertification
2007-International year of water (theme-more crop per drop)
2008-International year of potato
2009-International year of fibre
2010- International year of Biodiversity
PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY (2009-10)
5/122
Cereals 409.9 gm/day

Pulse -29 gm/day
Milk - 245 gm /day.
Minimum requirement of milk 240 gm/day
World Green Revolution:

Increasing the wheat production that began in Mexico in 1945.
The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director
William Gaud.
CIMMYT , Mexico - the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center.
Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars.
HYVs or high-yielding varieties - A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat)
which yield 10 times more than that of traditional rice.
Father of the Green Revolution- Norman Ernest Borlaug (Birth-March 25, 1914 and
Death - September 12, 2009 (aged 95) Dallas, Texas (USA). An American agronomist
and Nobel laureate who has been deemed the. He received his Ph.D. in plant
pathology and genetics.)
Father of the Green Revolution in India- M. S. Swaminathan (Mankombu Sambasivan
Swaminathan, born August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu.)
Father of the Ever Green Revolution in India (1995) - M. S. Swaminathan.
Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops
for Green Revolution.
The land Mark of Indian Green Revolution- IARI, New Delhi
"Miracle Rice"-IR8 - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by IRRI. Crossed between
an Indonesian variety named Peta and a Chinese variety named Dee-geo-woogen.
CROP PRODUCTION SCENARIOS IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2008-09):
Total foodgrains production in 2008-09 was estimated at 233.88 million tonnes as
against 230.78 million tonnes in 2007-08.
Current trends in Indian agriculture:
10th largest economy in terms of GDP
10th in world plant biodiversity (4th in Asia)
India is in 4th position in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Leading state in production and area of crops:
Rice WB> UP, Punjab (Productivity)
Wheat UP> Punjab, Haryana (productivity)
Pulse s MP (production), Haryana (productivity)
Oilseed MP>AP, TN (productivity)
Groundnut Gujarat (production), TN (productivity)
Mustard Rajasthan
Cotton Maharashtra
Jute West Bengal
Coffee Karnataka
Tea Assam
Rubber Kerala> Tripura
Potato UP
Onion Maharashtra
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh (production), Tamil Nadu (productivity)
Maize Karnataka
Soybean MP(production), AP (productivity)
6/122

PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS:
CROPS
2006-07
Rice
93.43
Wheat
75.80
Coarse cereals
30.66
Cereals
199.89
Total pulses
14.20
Total food grains
214.09
Total oilseeds
24.29
Sugarcane
355.52
Cotton
226.3 lakh bales
2007-08
96.69
78.57
40.76
216.02
14.76
230.78
29.75
258.84
246.84 lakh bales
2008-09
99.15
80.58
39.48
219.21
14.66
233.88
28.15
231.56
231.56 Lakh bales
CROP PRODUCTION 2009-10 (Based on Advance Estimate)

Kharif foodgrains production - 98.83 Mt
Kharif rice production - 71.65 Mt., a decrease of about 15 per cent over 2008-09
Total kharif production of coarse cereals- 22.76 Mt.
Total production of Kharif pulses- 4.42 Mt.
Total kharif production of the nine Oilseeds- 15.233 Mt.
Sugarcane production- 249.48 million tones
Cotton production- 23.66 Million bales (of 170 kg each)
Production of jute and mesta- 10.243 Million bales (of 180 kg each)
Highest/Lowest production yearCrop
Year (highest)
Year (lowest)
Food grain
2008-09
2002-03
wheat
2008-09
2002-03
Rice
2008-09
2002-03
Pulse
2003-04
2002-03
Nine Oilseed
2007-08
2002-03
Sugarcane
2006-07
2003-04
Cotton
2007-08
2002-03
AREA COVERAGE 2009-10(Based on Advance Estimate)
Kharif total foodgrains -66.78 Mha
India ranks first in world milk production.
Production of sugar in 2008-09 sugar season declined by about 11.62 Mt.
Allied sector Production figure in 2008-09:
Milk - 108.5 million tonnes
Eggs- 55.6 Billion,
Wool - 42.7 Million kg
Meat-3.8 Million tones
Fish production- 7.6 million tones
Silk production -18, 324 Kg
MSP-2009-10 (Rs.per Quintal)
Paddy- Rs.1000/ Jwar- Rs.860/ Arhar- Rs.2300/ Cotton - Rs.2500/ Wheat- Rs.1100/ Gram- Rs.1760/ Sugarcane -Rs. 129.8/-
7/122
Barley- Rs.750/-
LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION & AREA OF CROPS:2008-09

Productivity
Crops
Prod. Leading Prod. Area
(Mt)
state
(Mha) (Kg/Ha)
Rice
99.15 WB>AP>UP
45.35 2186
Wheat
80.58 UP>PNJ>HR
27.88 2891
Maize
19.29 AP>KN>RJ
28.19 2355
Jwar
7.31
MH>KN>MP
7.68
Bajra
8.83
RJ>UP>GJ
8.74
C. Cereal
39.48 RJ>MH
27.62
Cereal
219.21
22.37
T. Pulses
14.86 MH>MP>AP
7.97
655
Chickpea
7.0
MP>MH>AP
7.97
Lentil
0.81
UP>MP
1.31
Pig.pea
2.3
MH>KN
3.4
T. Food
233.8 UP>PNJ>AP
123.22
Grain
T.oilseed
28.16 MP>MH>GJ
27.46
Soyabean
9.9
MP>MH
9.52
G. nut
7.34
GJ>AP
6.22
Mustard
7.37
RJ>UP
6.19
Sunflowe
1.25
KN>AP
1.83
Sugarcane
273.93 UP>MH
4.4
Potato
28.43 UP>WB
Cotton*
23.6
GJ>MH
9.41
419
Jute*
10.41 WB>BHR
0.91
Coffee
KN
Tea
Assam
Rubber
Kerla
Onion
MH
*Million Bales
POINTS NEED TO REMEMBER
Indias rank in fertilizer consumption- 3rd
Per ha NPK consumption-128 kg
CV of South west Monsoon in 2009- 10%
MSP given by CACP
CACP stands for - Commission on Agriculture cost and Prices
FCI Buffer stock, Oct 2009- 16.2 Mt
Swaljaldhara is drinking water project, 2002
Hariyali- watershed development program est. 2003
NAREGA changes to MAREGA (Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guaranty
Act) 2005
The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPV&FR) Authority,
established in Nov., 2005 at New Delhi (Chairaman- S. Nagrajan)
National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertility (NPMSF), has been
introduced in 2008-09
Total No. of Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs)in India-750 (2008-09)
Total irrigation potential in India- 102.77 million ha by March 2007
8/122
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97

NAFED -National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited
CCI- Cotton Corporation of India
The Macro Management of Agriculture Scheme (MMA) was formulated in 2000-01
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) has been launched from the rabi 2007-08 to
enhancing the production of rice, wheat and pulses by 10, 8 and 2 million tonnes
respectively by the end of the Eleventh Plan
Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCC) was introduced in August 1998
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) - launched in August 2007
National Bamboo Mission (NBM)- commenced in 2006-07
National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH)
Chairman, Planning Commissions- M. S. Ahuliwalia
Chairman of National Commission for Farmers - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
Indias Rank
1st Milk, Coconut, Tea, Banana, Mango, Cashew nut (export, import and processing)
and Pulses
2nd Rice , Wheat, Cotton, Fruit and vegetable
3rd Tobacco, rubber, Egg and fertilizer
Consumption of Pesticide is maximum
o Imported Pesticide: Carbaryl followed by cholorpyriphos
o Indigenous Pesticide: BHC followed by Monocrotophos & Endosulfan
Export of Agro chemicals
o Maximum (in terms of rupees): Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfan,
Phosphide & Lindane
The top Agrobusiness company: Novartis (Hindustan Ciba-Geigy & Sandoz)
Total production of pesticides in India : 95,000 tones (2007-08)
Number of pesticides registered in India: L55-(as on 31/12/99)
Number of technical grade pesticides manufactured in India:
Plant Protection adviser to GOL: Dr. R. L. RAJAK.
Insecticides Act: 1968 (Thakur committee recommendation)
Insecticides rules : 1971
Brown revolution
Promotion of Agro Industries Dvt.
Pink revolution
Promotion of onion production
Yellow revolution
Promision of oilseeds production
The word green revolution was coined by William Gadd
Father of Green revolution Norman E. Borlaoug.
Father of Green revolution in India Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
Father of hybrid rice production: yuvan long ping
First laureate of the world food prize: Dr. Swaminathan
World Food prize 1986
Rice breeders: Dr. H. M. Beachell
o Dr. Gurdev singh khush
NCIPM National Centre for Integrated Pest Management IARI, New Delhi
CPPPTI Central Plant Protection Training Institute Hyderabad
The largest per hectare pesticide consuming country Taiwan
Total number of pesticides banned in India = 29
Recently banned - Phosphamidon
Highest consumption cotton 54% followed by paddy 22%
RECENT INSECTICIDE DATA (Updated up to Nov, 2009)

Number of insecticide included in insecticide schedule- 787
9/122
Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use - 27

Pesticide / Pesticide formulations banned for use but their manufacture is allowed for
export - 2
Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and use - 4
Pesticide Withdrawn - 7
No. of pesticides refused registration - 18
Pesticides restricted for use in India 13
Insecticides approved by the registration committee for protecting buildings from
termites : Chlorpyriphos 50% EC, Ethion 50% EC, Imidacloprid 30.50% SC, Lindane
20% EC.
Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control termites in agricultural
crops under the insecticides act, 1968 : Chlorpyriphos 20 EC, Endosulfan 35 EC,
Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL.
No. of Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control household pests
in houses under the insecticides act, 1968 - 39.
RECENT HORTICULTURE DATA (2009-10)

%Share of Hoti. Crops in Production Vegt. (60%) < fruits (31%) < Plantation crops
(5%)
%Share of Hoti. Crops in Area Vegt. (40%) < fruits (30%) < Plantation (15%)
Fruits: leading crops
o Area: Mango>citrus>Banana
o Production: Banana> Mango>citrus
o Productivity: Papaya> Banana>Grape
Fruits: leading State
o Area: MH>AP>UP
o Production: AP>MH>TN
Vegetable: leading crops
o Area: Potato>Onion>Tomato
o Production: Potato>Onion>Tomato
o Productivity: Tapioca> Cabbage >Potato
Vegetable: leading State
o Area: WB>UP>Bhr
o Production: WB>UP>Bhr
Indias rank in the fruits production 2nd (1st - Brazil)
Indias rank in the vegetables production - 2nd (1st -China)
India is the largest producer of 1. Mango, 2. Banana, 3. Sapota, 4. Acid Lime, 5.
Cauliflower
India is the 2nd largest producer of 1. Onion, 2. Potato
Per capita fruit Recommended
: 120 gm/day/person
Per capita fruit Availability
: 70-80 gm/day/person
Per capita vegetables- Recommended
: 275 gm/day/person
Per capita vegetables- Availability
: 120 gm/day/person
IARI Ph.D. General Agriculture 2009-10 (Answer based on given MCQs)
Highest procurement of wheat in 2009 was-17.8 Mt
Contribution of agriculture to GDP is- 22
IVLP stands for- Institute Village Linkage Programme
Which one of these is major constituent of poultry feed? Maize
In binomial distribution Mean > variance
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Bordeaux mixture is Fungicide
Which of the following is used to turn over the soil? Mould bould plough
NBFGR-National Bureau for Fish Genetic Resource is situated at- Lucknow
Which of the following is not bio-control agent? Xanthomonas
Which of the following is complex fertilizer? Urea ammonium Phosphate
Soil having ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) greater than 15 are Alkali soil
Rain, mist, fog and cloud all these phenomena occurs in
Troposphere
Farming system is All agril. Inputs and commodities
Which nutrient helps in Biological Nitrogen Fixation?Mo
Silt is intermediate between
Sand and clay
First CO2 acceptor in C-3 pathway -RuBP carboxylase
From 1960s onward which of the following operation is in effect for milk?-Operation
flood
CIMMYT works on-Maize and wheat
Which of the following is highly salt tolerant fruit crop? Date palm
Price fixed by government recently for agricultural products Minimum support price
If farmer has only one irrigation is available for wheat crop, at which stage it is
recommended CRI
Disease occurring regularly in the same area is called as Endemic
Which of the following is essential component of nucleic acid and protein? N
Widely cultivated wheat species in India after T. diococcum
Banana is Auto triploid
Which crop in India has maximum area under irrigation? Rice
Which of the following is not found in plant cell? Glycogen
Family of cotton is Malvaceae
Certified seed is produced from Foundation seed
In prophase which is correct Elongated threads like chromosome
Indian Agriculture: General View
LAND RESOURCES IN INDIA
Total Geographic area- 328.74 million Hectare (2.4% of world area)
Average annual Rainfall- 1195 mm
Total cultivated area 142.6 mha (46.6% of total area)
Gross cultivated area 192.62 m ha
Total irrigated area 57 m ha
Gross irrigated area 79.5 m ha
Total area under forest -68.97 m ha (22.5%)
The generated rainfall volume 400 mha m
Per capita availability of agricultural use land 0.30 hectare
Cropping intensity 135.1 %
Area sown more than once 50.02 mha
The generated runoff volume 185 mha m
Total area under horticultural crops 12 mha
Maximum area under irrigation- Ganga Basin
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Total cropped area occupied by food grains- 76%

Area under pasture cum grazing land 11.30 mha (4%)
Area under cultivable wastelands- 14.63 (5%)
Area under tree crops and graves 3.6 mha (1.2%)
Area under fruit cultivation - 4 mha
Area under vegetable cultivation 6.09 mha
Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha) 98
Percentage of arable land under irrigation 34.8
Contribution of agriculture to GDP 16-18 %
Contribution of Horticulture to GDP 28-30 %
Number of agro climactic zones in India (Planning commission)- 15
Number of agro-ecological regions (NBSS and LUP) 21 (now 20)
No of Hot spots of Biodiversity in India 3 (Western ghat, the NEH region and the
Himalayas
WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

Catchment area of the rivers in India is 252.8 M ha
The Ministry of water Resources, Govt. of India has divided the country into 20 river
basine
Total volume of precipitation 400 M ha.m
Percolation is 215 Mha.m, immediate evaporation 70Mham and surface run off is
155Mham.
Usage of ground on full dev 42.3Mha m
Usage of surface water on full dev 80Mham
Storage reservoirs and tanks 73Mha m
Diversion works & direct pumping 15Mha m
Water flowing back to sea-92Mha m
Out of 42.3Mha m ground water receives 11.5Mha m is used for irrigation
The yearly average stream flow in our country is 1869Km cube
A total of 1050 Km cube of unhzable quantum of surface & ground water is available for
irrigation.
A surface water storage of 1.4Km cube has been created and another 72Km cube will be
available after completion of on going projects an another 132Km cube will be available
from projects under constructions, making the total available water to 378Km cube in the
country.
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2. HORTICUTURE
Cultivation/Production of Mango
B. N.
:
Mangifera indica
Origin
:
Indo-Burma
Fruits type :
Drupe
Edible part :
Mesocarp
Main Nutrient:
Vit. -A (46660 I U)
Main varieties: Remarks
1. Mallika
:
2. Ainrapali
: HDP, Dwarfing, developed by IARI
3. Lal Sundari
:Coloured variety, developed by IARI
4. Niranjan
: Off season bearer
5. Mandhulika
: Off season bearer
6. MDCH-2
: Off season bearer
7. Arka Aruna
: Free from spongy tissue
8. Arka Puneet
9. Arka Anmol
10. Arka Neelkiran :
11. Sindhu
: Seedless
12. Dashehari
: Best North Indian cultivar
13. Chausa
: Sweeten, Very late varieties
14. Neehun
:Best combiner, Very late varieties
15. Kalepadi
: Dwarfing
16. Totapuri
: Red small, Dwarfing
Propagation : Veneer Grafting
Intercrops : Papaya, Phalsa, Onion, Tomato
Sex forms : Male & Female (Andromonoceious)
Pollinator : Housefly
Maturity indices : 1. Specific gravity (1.01-1. 02)
Flowering to Harvest : 90-120 days
Major pest : Hoppers
Physiological Disorders:
1. Malformation:
o Due to low temperature
o Control by 1. Deblossoming, 2. Spray of NAA @ 200 ppm, 3. Resistant
cultivars- Bahaduran, Aliff, Haichi, Manjeera.
2. Black tip:
o Due to gases from brick kilns (SO2, NO2 and Acetylene)
o Cultivars with more lenticels/ unit are susceptible
o Control : Borax spray
3. Alternate bearing : Control: Paclobutrazol @300 ppm (or) Kutar @ 5 gm/
tree by, Soil as well as foliar spray
4. Spongy tissue: Convection heats
5. Internal Fruit necrosis: B deficiency.
Cultivation/Production of Tomato:
Tomato
Famous as
Family
Origin
: Lycorpersicon esculentunn,
:Wolf Apple
: Solanacae
: Peru
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Fruit type
: Bery
Main Nutrient :(rich in Vit.- A)
Main Varieties:
1. Pusa ruby
2. Pusa Early Dwarf
3. Sioux
4. Marglobe
5. Supreme (Seln-120)
Hybrids
:
1. Arka vishal,
2. Arka vardan (Registant to nematode),
3. Vaishali (Indo-American Hybrids),
4. Rupail (Indo-American Hybrids)
5. Naveen (Indo-American Hybrids)
Seed rate
Spacing
Maturity
Major pest
Major Disease
BER
Cold set
Hot set
6. Pusa Gaurav Processing

7. Arka Vikas
8. Arka Saurab
9. Arka Ahuti
10. Arka Ashish
: Normal: 300-350 gm/ha, and (Hybrid: 70-90 gm/ ha)

: 60x60 cm
and 90 x 90 cm
: Colour development
: Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armijera)
: Tomato Spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Damping off, (Vector
Thrips)
: Blosoom-End-Rot (due to Calcium deficiency.)
: eg. Pusa sheetal, Pusa Hybrid-2
: eg: Pusa Hybrid-1
Cultivation/Production of Rose:
B. N.
: Rosa hybrid
Family
: Rosaceae
Propagation :T- budding
Type
: 1. Hybrid Tea: Hybrid perpetual Tea Rose-(Large solitary flowers)
2. Floribunda: Hybrid tea Olyanthes Medium flower on clusters.
Export Varieties: First Red Golden Times, Mercedes, Belinda, Sonia, Milan, Red
Success, B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Chitra.
Cultivation/Production of Cauliflower:
Edible part :curd (Prefloral apical meristem)
Operation
: Blanching in cauliflower
Disorders
: Whiptail- Mo deficiency
Browning Boron deficiency
Varieties
: Pusa snowball, Pusa katki, Pusa deepali, Early Kunwari.
General Horticulture:
Fruit types:
Type
1. Berries
2. Drupe
3. Hesperidum
4. Amphisarca
5. Balusta
6. Pome (false fruit)
7. Pepo
8. Single seeded berry
Example
: Grapes, Guava, Phalsa, Tomato, Brinjal, Chitiles
: Mango, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Apricot
: Citrus
: Wood apple, Bael
: Pomegranate
: Apple, Pear
: Cuarbits
: Dates
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9. Single seeded nuts

: Litchi
10. Sorosis
: Jack, Mulberry, Pineapple
11. Syconium
: Fig
12. Efaerio of better
: Annona sp
13. Ekaerro of Drupe lets
: Strawberry
Commercial Method of Propagation:
Fruits
Method
1. Mango
:
Venner Grafiting
2. Banana
:
Sword suckers
3. Citrus
:
T/ shield budding
4. Grapes
:
Hard wood cutting
5. Guar
:
Stooling/ Mound layering
6. Litchi. Programme to
:
Air Layering
7. Acid lime, Phalsa, Mangosrein :
Seed
8. Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum
:
T budding
9. Anola
:
Patch budding
10. Strawberry
:
Runner
11. Pineapples
:
sucker, slips
Nutrients, Deficiency symptoms and Sources:
Type
1. Vitamin-a
(Retinal)
2. Vit B-1 (Thiamin)
3. Vit B-2 (Riboflavin)
4. Vit C (Ascorbic acid)
Deficiency
Night blindness
(xerophthalmia)
Beri-beri
Dry Skin
Survey
5. Vit D (Calciferol)
6. Iron
7. Calcium
8. Potassium
9. Phosphorus
10. Iodine
Rickets
Goatee
Source
Fruits: Mango, Papaya, Japanese
Persimmon
Almond, Apricot, Cashew
Bael, Passion Fruit, Jack
F: Barbados Cherry, Orange,
Guava
V: Chitlies, Bittergourd Amla
V: Greens
Dates, Currants, Caronda, Green
Litchi, Banana, Carols, Tomato
Banana, Greens
Carrot, Tomato, Spinack
Onion Okra
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3. BIOCHEMISTRY
Major group of compounds found in a cell are carbohydrates and their derivatives,
fats and their derivatives proteins and their derivatives, nucleic acids.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
Organic compounds with a general formula (CH2O)n
Carbohydrates can be classified into 3 categories,
(a) Monosaccharides
(b) Oligosaccharides
(c) Polysaccharides
(a) Monosaccharides
Trioses: Trioses are simple sugars derived from hydrolysis of oligopolysaccharides
have C atom ranging from 3-9 (eg.)
They are of two types (a) Aldoses, (b) Ketoses
Aldoses: Sugars with terminal CHO aldehyde group aldotriose- Glyceraldehyde
(simplest sugar)
o Aldoterose- Erythrose, thresose
o Aldopentose Arabiose ribose deoxyribose
o Aldohexose Glucose, galactose, mannose
Ketoses: Having >C=O group
Ketotriose: Dihydroxy acetone simplest keto sugar
Ketohexose: Fructose It is the sweetest among all the sugars.
(b) Oligosaccharides
All derived from combination of two or more monosaccharides units Depending upon
the number of monosaccharides presence they can be classified as
(I)
Disaccharides: eg. Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose, cellobiose
(II)
Trisaccharides: eg. Raffinose
(III) Teirasaccharides: eg. Stachyose
Sucrose: Produced from alpha glucose beta fructose by alpha. 1.2. glycosidic
linkage. It is a Non- reducing sugar.
Maltose: Consists of 2 units of glucose linked together by alpha 1.4 linkage reducing
sugar found in germinating seeds largely.
Cellobiose: Consists of 2 units of glucose but the bond involved is beta, 1.4 linkage.
It is a reducing sugar.
Lactose: Consists of one molecule of beta D glucose and one molecule of beta D
galactose linked together by beta 1.4 linkages.
Stachyose: It is a tetra saccharide consists of one glucose and one fructose and 2
galactose.
(C) Polysaccharides
Molecular weight in kilo Daltons (kd)
(a) Storage polysaccharides:
In plant consists of amylase, amylopectin. (It is polymer of glucose).
Amylase is un-branched chains of glucose units joined by alpha 1.4 linkages. The
chain is nonlinear, but it is helical one.
Amylopectin: Highly branched, Bond types: Alpha-1.4 linkage but at the branching
points alpha 1.6 linkage is present.
Glycogen: It is present only in animal cells. It is just like starch, but heavily branched
and compact and it contains both alpha 1.4 and alpha 1.6 linkages.
(b) Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose: Polymer of glucose joined together by beta 1.4 linkage
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Hemicellulose: Polymer consisting of L-arabinose. D-glucose, D-galactose, DXylose, along with uranic acid (galacturonic acids)
Pectin: Polymer of galacturonic acid. Normally present in cell walls as calcium
Pectate
2. PROTEINS
The name was suggested by Berzelius
This name is derived from Greek Proteins means first rank
Proteins are polymer of amino acids.
Each amino acid is linked with another one by peptide
-C=O-NH2 bond.
Different structural levels:
Primary structure- it is the linear arrangement of amino acids.
Secondary structure- It is the structure found by linear Polypeptide chain which folds
in a regular fashion.
This may be of two kinds (1) alpha helix (2) beta pleated sheet.
These secondary structures are produced by interaction between neighboring amino
acids of same chain.
Quaternary structure:
The structure produced by association of more than one polypeptide
Examples for some commonly occurring proteins
Structural proteins :
o Collagen: Muscle protein
o Keratin: In hair and wool and nail
o Fibroin: In silk
o Elastin: Found in insect wings
o Regulatory proteins : Enzymes
o Transport proteins :
Myoglobin, Haemoglobins
Another classification of proteins:
Simple proteins Contains only ordinary amino acids
Conjugated proteins Proteins that contain non amino acid
Components in addition to amino acids these additional factors are called prosthetic
groups.
Examples:
o Nucleic proteins Nucleic acid and protein chromosomes
o Glycoprotein Protein and sugar units
o Lipoproteins Protein and lipids
o Metalloproteins - metals and proteins haemoglobin
3. ENZYMES
These are special classes of proteins. Enzymatic activity was first discovered by
BUCHNER (Zymase was the first found initially from Yeast)
The term enzyme was coined by W. KUHNS
Terminologys Holoenzymes Apoenzyme + Prosthetic group
Apo-enzyme =Without prosthetic group
Legend = Any substrata that binds with an enzyme
Active site = The site responsible for analytic molecule
Regulatory site = the site other than catalytic use where the regulatory.
Characteristics of an enzyme:
* Specific, Protinacious, colloidal nature, sensitive to temperature.
* Enzymes do not change the equilibrium level. But quickens it.
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Mechanism of action of enzymes:

o The lock and key model was proposed by Fisher
o It lowers down the activation energy.
Some special classes of enzymes.
Allosteric enzymes: are regulatory enzymes which have more than one polypeptide
o This type of enzymes have a well developed regulatory mechanism
o They produce a sigmoidal curve (instead of classical parabolic curve)
Isozymes: They are different enzymes which catalyze the same reaction in different
tissues. They are different in molecular weight and exercised from different genes.
Ribozymes: They are catalytic RNA with enzymatic property (non protein)
Factors affecting activity of enzymes are Temperature. PH. Ionic strength. Water
content.
4. VITAMINS
The term vitamins was introduced by FUNK
Classification:
1.
Water soluble: Vit. B complex (B1, B2, B12) C
2.
Niacin: (nicotinic acid)
3.
Fat soluble: Vit: A. D. E. K.
Vitamins and their deficiency symptoms
Vitamins
Deficiency symptoms
A (Retinal)
:Xerophthalmia or dry Deonatosis (dry scaly skin)
,Night: blindness because of reduction in red cone cells
B1 (thiamine)
:BERI-BERI (Extreme weakness, pain in joints)
B2 (Riboflavin)
:Ariboflavinosis (Blurred vision, cracks on skin at
angle of mouth)
B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
:Pemiocin anemia (Reduction in RBCs)
B6 NIACIN (Nicotinic
:Pellagra (Black Tongue)
acid (Peridoxin)
C (Ascorbic acid)
:Scurvy
D (Calciferol)
:Rickets (Pigeon chest in children), Osteomalacia
(adults)
E (Alpha Tocopherol)
:Sterility
Vitamins mainly act as cofactors for enzymatic activity.
5. NUCLEIC ACIDS
CLASSES DNA Deoxyribose
RNA Ribose
Nucleoside = Sugar (Ribose/ Deoxyribose) + Nitrogenous base
Nucleotide = Nucleoside + phosphate group
Types of Bases
o Adenine
o Thymine/ uracil (RNA)
o Guanine
o Cytosine
Nucleic acid: Frederick Mischer: Waston & crick B DNA 9right handed helix)
Bacteriophages single stranded DNA
Non-genetic RNAS
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t-RNA- Transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to Ribosome m-RNA- 5% carries the
message from genes (DNA) r- RNA Ribosomal RNA- Part of Ribosome (work
benches of protein synthesis.
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4. MICRO BIOLOGY
History
Anton van Leeuwenhoek : invented the simple (single biconvex lens) in 1674,
Discovered Bacteria/microbial world
Louis Pasteur : Postulated the germ theory of disease, Pasteurization
Spallanzani : First to provide evidence that micro-organisms do not arise
spontaneously in organic in fusions
Robert Hooke : Discovered compound microscope
Robert Koch : Koch postulates for test of disease
Alexander Fleming (1929) : Discovered antibiotic penicillium
Iwanowsky (1892) : Discovered Virus working with an extract from tobacco plants
infected with mosaic disease
Beijerinck (1898) : Named virus (infectious poison agent)
Brefeld : Developed pure culture techniques for isolation of micro-organisms
Hesse : First introduced agar as a solidifying agent in culture media
Petri : Designed and developed glass dishes known today as petridishes
Edward Jenner : Developed vaccine for Small pox
ROBERT HOOK used the word CELL
ROBERT BROWN used the word NUCLEUS
M. SCHLEIDEN & SCHWANN Cell Theory
Haeckel proposed PROTISTA
Whittaker 5 kingdom classification
1. Monera Prokaryotes
2. Protista Unicellular Eukaryotes
3. Plantae (Photo syn.) Multicellular plants and higher algae.
4. Fungi (adsorption) Multinucleate higher fungi.
5. Animalia (ingestion)
BERGYs manual of systematic bacteriology is the standard for taxonomy
Eukaryotic: Protozoa, fungi
Prokaryotic : Bacteria, actinomycetes, BGA
SIZE (approx.):
o Bacteria 0.5-3.0 micro m
o Fungi 1.5-10 micro m
o Protozoa 2-200 micro m
o Viruses 100-600 nano in MLO 0.1-0.3 micro m
o Algae 0.1 micro m (BGA) to x feet (higher algae)
o First living cell e800 million year ago.
o First prokayotic cell 1400 million years ago (achaean cra)
Sterilization:
o A Physical agent: High Temp. dry heat; 1800 C; 1.5 HOURS 2 HOUR
- Moist heat; 15-20 min (121.6c)
- 15 pounds / inch pressure
Pasteurization (with milk)
o Low temp High time 62.8c (30 min)
o High temp Low time 71,7c (15 second)
o L. T. Microbistatic (-4 to 7c)
o H. T. Desiccation
o Osmotic Pressure
o Radiation U. V. (2650 A- Lambda)
o Gamma rays. (Co 60)
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o X-rays (5000-1,30,000 rads)

o Chemical agents
1) Phenol compound cell wall; cyto. Membrane: protein denaturation
2) Alcohols Protein, cytoplasmic membrane
3) Iodine, chlorine, - Enzyme destruction. Amino acids
4) Aldehyde- amino acids + enzymes
5) Ethylene oxide (Gas) Enzyme + Amino acids
o Chemotheraputic agents:
1) Arsenic- for Syphilis (by Ehrlich)
2) Sulfonamide for bacterial infection (by Domagk)
Antibiotics:o Penicillin Penicillium sp G + ve; cellwall synthesis
o Tetracycline - S. aureofacines G + ve, G-ve; Protein synthesis
o Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis G + ve, cell wall synthesis
o Chloramphenicol S. venezuelae G + ve; G-ve, Protein synthesis
o Cycloheximide S. venezuelae, protein synthesis, Eukaryote
o Nystain S. nouresii Eukaryote membrane
o Erythromycin S. nouresii fungi Prokaryote
o Erythromyci S. erythreus G + ve, G-ve, Protein synthesis
o Neomycin S. fradiae G + ve, G-ve, protein synthesis
Non legumes Alnus, casurna, Myrica Frankia
Associative Symbiosis Azpospirillum
Symbiosis Rhizobium
Stem and root nodules Sesbania, Azorbizobium caulonodans,
Azospirillum and Azotobacter- Cereals, oil seeds, vegetables, horticulture
- Seed treatment
:
200g/ 10-12 kg seeds
- Seedling treatment :
1-2 kg/ ha
- Setts treatment
:
2-3 kg/q
- Soil treatment
:
4-5 kg/ha
Microscopy:
1. Dark field microscope:
Specimens are unstained, appear bright in a dark background
Applications- For gross morphology in the living specimen
2. Phase contrast microscope:
Unstained live microbial cells can be studied through this microscope
Applications For revealing cellular structures in living cells
Enables to view living cells more clearly
Causes a slight loss of resolution
3. Bright field:
Specimen is stained or unstained
Used for studying gross morphology of yeasts, molds, algae etc.
4. U V microscope:
Appearance of specimen Fluorescent
Application For differentiating cellular components
5. Fluorescence microscopy:
Used for detecting specific types of antigens using an antibody tagged with
fluorescent dye
6. Electron microscope:
Uses electromagnetic lenses and an electron beam
Resolving power and magnification is much higher than any light
microscope
Viewed on fluorescent screen
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7. Transmission electron microscope:
Contrast results from differential scattering of electrons by the specimen
Staining is done with salts of heavy metals as uranium. Tungsten
8. Scanning electron microscope:
Provide three dimensional image of the object
The surface topography of a specimen can be determined with a clarity and
depth which is not possible by any other method
The Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen constitutes about 78% of the earths atmosphere
The nitrate form of nitrogen is mostly used by plants
a) Nitrification
Process of conversion of ammonia into nitrate
Examples Nitrosomonas(ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacteria(nitrite to
nitrate), Aspergillus, Penicillium
b) Denitrification
Reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide
Occurs in waterlogged anaerobic soils
Examples Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas
Biological Nitrogen Fixation:
Fixation of the inert atmospheric elemental nitrogen by micro-organisms through a
reductive process
Accounts for about 70% of the total nitrogen fixed in the biosphere
Restricted to Bacteria only
a) A symbiotic / Free living Nitrogen fixation:
Aerobic Azotobacter, Blue green algae (BGA)
Anaerobic Clostridium, Chlorobium, Rhodospirillum etc.
b) Symbiotic Nitrogen fixation:
Example Rhizobium, Bacillus etc.
Important points:
Nitrogen fixing enzyme Nitrogenase (First discovered in 1960 from Clostridium
pasteurianum)
Nitrogen fixing gene Nif genes
Elements involved in nitrogen fixation Molybdenum
Co-factor needed for nitrogen fixation Cobalt (Co)
Non legumes Alnus, Casuarina, Myrica, Frankia sp
Stem and root nodules Sesbania, Azorhizobium cauloncians
Leguminous crop not fixing nitrogen Rajma (Phaseolus vulgaris)
Phosphorus cycle Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium,
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium
Sulphur cycle Thiobacillus, Arthrobacter, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
Red pigment in the root nodules is known as Leg haemoglobin
Bacteria not responsible for N-fixation- E.coli
Nif gene is associated with Rhizobium bacteriod
Nitrogen fixation in rice field occurs due to presence of Anabaena (BGA)
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5. CROP PHYSIOLOGY
RESPIRATION
a)
b)
Respiration in plants consists of Glycolysis & Krebs Cycle and ETC (Electron
Transport Chain)
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm & Krebs cycle and ETC in the mitochondria
Glycolysis is anaerobic.
Total ATP synthesis from on molecule of glucose in respiration is 36 ATP (Net gain)
Gross production is 38 ATP
Total ATP synthesis in glycolysis is 4 / glucose (Net gain 2 ATP)
Krebs cycle is also called as citric acid cycle or TCA (tricarboxylic acid cycle)
Final product of glycolysis is pyruyate.
Anaerobic respiration pathway products are ethanol and lactic acid.
CO2 molecules are released from the mitochondria during respiration.
Krebs cycle starts with acetyl coA and oxaloacetate
Election transport chain is present in the cristae of mitochondria where: ATP is
synthesized in respiration.
The high energy compound synthesized during respiration is by oxidative
phosphorylation of ADP with P (inorganic phosphate)
Cytochromes are electron carriers involved in the respiratory election transport chain
Energy content of molecule of glucose is 686 KCAL or 2870 KJ
1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL
1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL
The energy currency of the cell is ATP
Occurs in all living organisms except virus
Catabolic process and oxidation-reduction reaction
Raw materials used are glucose and oxygen
During the breakdown of glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed
Respiratory Quotient ratio of Co2 evolved to ratio of O2 evolved, normal in plants
0.97-1.17
36 ATP molecules are formed on complete oxidation of a glucose molecule through
hexose monophosphate shunt cycle
The net gain of energy by anaerobic respiration is 2 ATP molecules
1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL
1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL
The no of Co2 molecule released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is zero
The ratio of energy released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is 1:18
Glycolysis:
Called as EMP pathway (Embden Meyerof paranas pathway) refers to degradation of
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
Occurs in cytosol of cytoplasm
Common for aerobic and aerobic respiration
Pyruvic acid is the end product of Glycolysis
Total ATP synthesis in Glycolysis is 4 glucose (Net gain 2 ATP)
Krebs cycle:
Also called TCA cycle, citric acid cycle, organic acid cycle, mitochondrial respiration
The first stable product is citric
Krebs cycle occurs in matrix of mitochondria-aerobic condition
Krebs cycle starts with acetyl COA and oxaloacetate
In Krebs cycle, the mineral activator required for enzyme aconitase is Fe
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c)
The only 5 C compound in TCA cycle is - Ketoglutaric acid

Electron transport chain:
Also called as respiratory chain or oxidative phosphorylation
In general, it is found inside the mitochondria
The process occurs on the inner membrane of cristae
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 1012
Total carbon fixed by ocean per year =273 1011
Blackmann Explained the law of limiting factors
Calvin (1954) Traced the path of carbon in photosynthesis and gave the C3 cycle
Hatch and Slack (1965) Reported C3 pathway for carbon dioxide fixation in certain
tropical grasses
The reduction of Co2 to carbohydrate level needs assimilatory products such as ATP
and NADPH + H+
Reduction of Co2 occurs in dark but the production of assimilatory powers is light
dependent
Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b
Important accessory pigments in plants are carotenoids and xanthophylls
Light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in thylakoids or Grana
Dark reaction of photosynthesis take place in stroma
Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process
a) Calvin cycle (C3 plants):
The Co2 acceptor is Ribulose 1, 5- diphosphate
The first stable product of photosynthesis is a 3 carbon compound Phosphoglyceric
acid (PGA)
For synthesis of one glucose molecule 18 ATP are required
Photorespiration is present and easily detectable
Bundle sheaths cells are unspecialised
The enzyme RUBP carboxylase or Rubisco is found in chloroplast stroma and is the
most abundant protein on earth
Examples of C3 plants Wheat, Barley, Oat, Rye, Rice, Pea, Soybean
b) Hatch and slack cycle (C4 PLANTS):
The Co2 acceptor is phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP)
Oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) is the first stable product
Photorespiration is present only to a slight degree or absent
30 ATP are required for the synthesis of one glucose molecule
The most distinguishable anatomical feature of the leaves of C4 plants is the presence
of bundle sheath cells containing chloroplasts
The bundle sheath cells lack Grana in their chloroplast
Leaves of C4 plants show Kranz type of anatomy
PEPCO enzymes are present in C4 plants
C4 cycle is found only in certain tropical plants
C4 plants are about twice as efficient as C3 plants in converting solar energy into the
production of dry matter
Example of C4 plants sugarcane, maize, pearl millet, Cyperus rotundus etc.
c) Crassulacean acid metabolism cycle (CAM cycle):
Occurs in mesophyll cells
Most (not all) CAM plants possess the succulent habit
Examples Bryophyllum, Opuntia, Agave, Pineapple etc.
Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 x1012
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Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011

Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) = 400to 700 nm
Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b
Important accessory pigments is plants are carotenoids (1) caroteins, (2)
xanthophylls
Co2 concentration in the atmosphere is 350 ppm
Photosynthesis reaction : Co2 + 2H2o + light =C6 H12 O6 + H2O + O2
Two parts of photosynthesis:
Light it action or hill reaction takes place in grana of chloroplast dark reaction of
Calvin
Cycle takes place in stroma of chloroplast
The products of the light reaction are ATP and NADPH2
Three types of Photosynthesis Mechanisms
C3 pathway or reductive pentose pathway or Blackman reaction (Calvin cycle): Rice,
Wheat, Pea, Soyabean, Barley.
C4 pathway (Hatch sack pathway or Dicarboxylic acid pathway): Sorghum, Maize,
Sugarcane or B-carboxylation cycle or cooperative Photo synthesis
CAM pathway (Crassulacean acid metabolism) (Pineapple, opuntia, Agave)
The most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2 fixation is Rubisco
(Ribulose-bi phosphate carboxylase).
Rubisco is also the most abundant protein in the world.
C3 plant first enzyme in CO2 fixation: Rubisco
C4 Plants first enzyme in CO2 fixation: PEP carboxylase
Water use efficiency: CAM>C4>C3
In photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical energy
Light reaction takes place in the Thylakojds and dark reaction takes place in the
stroma of
the chloroplast
Higher productive plants: C4 (Maize, S. Cane, sorghum)
High productive plants: C3 (Wheat, Rice Pulses)
Low Productive plants: CAM (Pineapple)
C4 plants two types of photosynthesis cells; Mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells
(Kranz type leaf anatomy)
Photorespiration occurs in C3 plants in light only.
Normal respiration/ Dark respiration occurs in all cells all the time in all the plants.
Calvin cycle & Hatch Slack pathway occurs in chloroplast
Chlorophyll molecule contains Mg3+ion in its structure
Photosynthetic rate is the highest in C4 plants
The processes of formation of ATP in chloroplast with the help of light is called as
photophosrylation or photosynthetic phosporylation.
First product of photosynthesis 3 PGA in C3
One NADH2 will prpoduce 3 ATP
One FADH2 will produce 2 ATP
PHOTORESPIRATION
Refers to production of Co2 in respiration from 2 C compounds in presence of light
Reported only in green cells such as Beta, Phaseolus, glycine, Oryzae, Pisum,
Gossypium, Capsicum, Helianthus etc
Discovered by DECKER in tobacco plants
Substrate for photorespiration is glycolic acid (2 c) and hence called as C2 cycle or
glycolate metabolism
It occurs in between chloroplast, cytosol, peroxisome and mitochondria
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It occurs in C3 plants and temperate plants

The presence of photorespiration process decreases the photosynthetic efficiency of
plants
Photorespiration is said to be highest in Rice
Serine amino acid is produced in photorespiration
Photorespiration involves more than one organelle
In photorespiration, NAD is reduced to NADH2
MINERAL NUTRITION
Essential element (criteria proposed by Arnon and stout)
(1) In the absence of that element, plants is not able to complete its life cycle
(2) The element should not be substituted by other element
(3) Element should form a part of any molecule or constituent of the plant.
Beneficial element They do not form the constituent of plant can grow without it but
if present it is advantageous to the plant
Macronutrients: C, H, O, N, S, Ca, Mg, K, P (>100 g/g dry matter)
Micronutrients : Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo (100 g/ g dry mater)
Mobile elements: N,P,K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Cl, Zn and Na
Immobile elements: Bo, Fe, Ca, Cu, S
Beneficial elements: Co, Sl, Selenium, Na, Ni
Cobalt: Legumes
Silicon: Rice, Maize
Nickel: Legumes
Criteria of the essentiality of mineral elements propose by Arnon and stout
Atleast 60 elements are present in plants out of which only 16 are essential
Carbon: (46% dry weight basis)
o Source: Co2 from the air
o Function: Most of the compounds in the living cells are C-containing.
Oxygen: (50%)
o Source: O2, Co2, H2o
o Function: The most abundain elements by weight in plants Required for all
compounds in plants.
Hydrogen: (6%)
o Source: H2O
o Function: Most abundant elements by number of atoms Present in all the
compounds in the living cell component of H2O
Nitrogen: 1.5%
o Source: NO3, NH4 in the soil solution, Legumes through N2 fixation.
o Function: All the crops prefer No3-(Nitrate) except Rice which prefers NH4 +
(ammonium)
o Components of nucleic acid. Chlorophyll molecule, Proteins
o Deficiency: Pale yellow leaves & reduced growth redleaves in cereals
o Red colour develops in Apple due to the anthocyanin production
o Root lengthening in wheat
o Excess Nitrogen leads to vegetative growth, delay in flowering
Phosphorus: (0.2-0.8%)
o Source : H3PO4 & Hpo4 from the soil solution
o Function: Component of nucleic acid, Phospholipids (Membranes), ATP
o Deficiency: variable colour development in leaves (Dark green) reduced
tillering & leaf fall. Anthocyanin produced give pink colour.
Potassium:
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o Only present in plants as K+ not bound to any components

o Function: Stomatal closing & opening
o Disease resistance
o Osmotic adjustment, needed for cell elongation
o Deficiency: rosette, die back in plants
Chlorosis:
o Stunted growth & Thin shoots
o Tip burns & leaf scorch in older leaves
Magnesium
o Constitutent of chlorophyll
o Activates many enzymes
o Deficiency: Older leaves affected Cholorosis. Sand drown disease in tobacco
Sulphur: 0.1%
o Source: Soluble sulphates
o Functions: Aminoacids (Cystein and Methonene)
o Coenzyme A
o Volatile Oils
o Deficiency: Downward cupping of leaves e.g. tobacco, Torr, Tea,
o Tea yellow disease
o Chlorosis
Calcium:
o Functions: Calcium pectate is present in the middle lamella of the cell wall
o ATPase activator
o Counteract metal toxicity
o Deficiency: Young leaves are mostly affected
o Hooked tips & distort leaves
Iron
o Component of cytochromes, Catalase, peroxidase
o Deficiency: L
o Intervienal Chlorosis (iron Chlorosis)
o Leaf bleaching (S. Cane)
Deficiency symptoms of Elements:

N: general starvation
Fe: Intervienal chlorosis e.g. S. Cane
Mn: Grey speck Disease of oats, pahla blight of sugarcane, marsh spot of pea
Copper: Die back disease of citrus or exanthema, Reclamation, white tip disease
Zinc: Mottled leaf of citrus, drenching of citrus
Little leaf/ Rosette as in Apple, Pine, Peach walnut, citrus etc, white tip of maize
Khaira disease of rice
Molybdenum: Whip tail of cauliflower and brassicae, scald of legumes
Boron: Heart rot of sugar beet and marigold
Canker of table beet
Browning & Hallow stem of cauliflower
Cracked stem of alfa-alfa
Hard fruits of Citrus
Top sickness of Tobacco
Water core of turnip
Phosphorus: Sickle leaf disease
Calcium: blossom End Rot (BER) in tomato and Tip hooking in cauliflower
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:
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Thiamann suggested the use of term Phytohormone in plants
Phytohormone are organic substances which are naturally produced in plants
AUXINS (weakly acidic growth hormone):
Auxin was named by KOGL. It is a Greek word derived from Auxein which means
to grow
Naturally occurring Auxin IAA
Synthetically produced auxins are NAA, IBA, 2, 4 D, MCPA
Anti-auxins Naphthythalamic acid (NTA) , Ethylene chlorohydrins
Active sites of auxins shoot tip region, coleoptiles and developing embryos etc.
The Auxin synthesis occurs rapidly in green leaves in presence of light than the in the
dark
Tryptophan is the precursor of IAA and zinc is required for its synthesis
Translocation of auxins is polar
The site of Auxin transport is located on the plasma lemma
Avena curvature test and split pea stem curvature test are the bioassays that are
generally used for auxins
Role of auxins:
1. Promotes apical dominance
2. Increases cell division in cambium
3. Promote the elongation of cells
4. Auxin increase in shoot and decrease in root
5. Induces uniform flowering in pineapple
6. IBA promotes rooting of cutting
GIBBERELLINS:
Second important growth hormone found in plants
Discovered by KUROSAWA (1926)
First isolated from Gibberella fujikuroi, the causal organism of foolish seedling of
rice or commonly called Bakanae disease of rice.
Gibberellins are CYCLIC DITERPENES with gibbane skeleton
Gibberellins moves in both xylem and phloem
Chemically gibberellins are related to terpenoids and its precursor is N- Kaurene
Anti- gibberellins: phosphon D, Cycocel (CCC), Maleic hydrazide, paclobutrazol
Role of gibberellins:
1. Breaking of dormancy
2. Induction of flowering in long day plants
3. Promotes male flowers production
4. Enhances seed germination
5. The most important effect of GA is the stem elongation i.e. GA induces internode
elongation or sub apical elongation
CYTOKININS:
Plays a key role in higher plants and moves through xylem
Miller and Skoog identified kinetin
Term cytokinin proposed by Letham (1963)
The first naturally occurring hormone identified Zeatin
Root tip is an important site of cytokinin synthesis
Precursor of cytokinin is either adenine or adenosine i.e. purine bases
Mobility is polar and basipetal
Role of cytokinin:
1. Initiation of cell division
2. Delay of senescence
3. Induce flowering in short day plants
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4. Promotes stomatal opening
5. Promote femaleness in male flowers
ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA):
Naturally occurring growth regulator
It acts as stress hormone
ABA first identified by WAREING (1965)
Lunalaric acid found in algae and liverworts acts similar to abscissic acid
Violoxanthin serves as a precursor for biosynthesis of ABA
Biosynthesis of ABA also takes place through mevalonic acid
It is a terpenoids
Bioassays are rice seedling growth inhibition test and inhibition of amylase in
barley endosperm
Role of ABA:
1. Induces bud dormancy and enhances the process of abscission
2. Senescence of leaf is promoted by ABA
3. Stimulates the release of ethylene
4. Brings the closure of stomata during water stress
5. ABA is called ANTI- GIBBERELLIN.
ETHYLENE:
It is known as RIPENING HORMONE
Production increased with increase in respiration rate
Auxin increases ethylene level in plants
Naturally occurring volatile hormone
BURG (1962) established that ethylene is the only gaseous growth regulator
Maximum ethylene is formed in ripening fruits and senescing tissues
Biosynthesis of ethylene occurs from methionine which is a sulphur containing amino
acid
Inhibitors of ethylene synthesis are amino-ethoxyvinylglcine
Bioassays for ethylene are triple pea test and pea stem swelling test
Role of ethylene:
1. Responsible for fruit ripening with increase in respiration
2. Induces uniform flowering and ripening in pineapple
3. Inhibits stem elongation and cause abscission of leaves
4. Induces fruiting in ornamental plants
5. ETHEPHON- increase latex flow in rubber
OTHERS:
Glysophosine used to ripen sugarcane
Florigen (flowering hormone) initiation of flowering in plants
Traumatic acid (wound hormone) found in injured portions of a plant
Xanthoxin destruction product of Violoxanthin and forms ABA
Brassins steroid, isolated from pollen grains of Brassica
Jasmonic acid Methyl ester in jasmine, inhibits growth and promote senescence
Important points:
Potassium ions (K+) play an important role in the opening and closing of stomata
Plant transpirants colourless plastics, silicone ols, phenyl mercuric acetate, Absiccic
acid, Co2 etc.
Porometer is used for measuring transpiration
The growth is maximum during exponential phase
Transpiration takes place through stomata, lenticels or cuticle
Guttation refers to exudation of water from plants in the form of liquids
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Short day plants soybean, potato, sugarcane, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tobacco,

rice, onion, upland cotton, strawberry, datura etc
Long day plants spinach, lettuce, radish, alfalfa, sugar beet, opium, poppy, oats,
wheat etc.
Day neutral plants tomato, cucumber, cotton, pea, sunflower, maize etc.
Vernalisation refers to method on inducing early flowering in plants by pretreatment of their seeds at very low temperature
Hormone responsible for vernalisation is vernalin
Water use efficiency is highest in CAM plants followed by C4 and C3 plants
Photosynthetic efficiency is highest in C4 plants
To make one molecule of glucose, 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required
The efficiency of photosynthesis is 40 %
The ratio of photosynthesis to respiration during day time is 10:1
In most succulent plants, Co2 is fixed by the activity of PEP carboxylase
The ratio of Co2 reduced and oxygen released during photosynthesis is 1:1
DCMU is an example of photosynthetic inhibitor
The products of light reaction are ATP and NADPH2
Major form of carbon transfer in plants is by sucrose
For photosynthesis, the visible range of spectrum between 250 to 750 nm is essential
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6. ENTOMOLOGY
PESTS OF SUGARCANE
1) Shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus (crambidae) or early shoot borer
Number of feeding punctures near the base of shoot. Rotten portion of straw colored
dead heart emits offensive odour. It can be pulled out eastly.
Control: Earthing up during early stage.
- Trash mulching
- Trichogramma Chilonis
Soil application of Gammas HCH emulsion @ 1 kg a.i./ha over the cane sets in
famous at the time of planting
Granulosis Virus can also be used
2) Top borer: Scirphophaga excerptalis (Pryalidae)
Midrib tunnelling. Shot holes on axial bud growth leaves, dead heart and can be
pulled out easily and given bunchy top appearance, Acrial root formation.
Control:
i. Avoiding of frequent irrigation
ii. Carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./ha synchronizing with brood emergence
iii. Trichogramma japonicum
iv. Pre-pupal parasitoid Isotima Javensis
v. Resistant var: COJ67, CO 1007
3) Internode borer: Chilo sacchaviphagus indicus (crambidac)
Attack starts from 4th months onwards. Internodes constricted and shortened with
many bore holes: fresh bore holes with wet frass, stunted growth. Major pests in
peninsular India. Hardening of internodes.
Control: Detrashing at 5.7 & 9th months
-T- chilonis @ 3.5 cc/ha/fortnight from 4th month until a month before harvest.
4) Gurdaspur borer: (Crambidae) Acigone steniellea
Two phases: Gegarious phase feed on first internode from to & may larvae enter
into the core through single hole.
Solitary phase dispersed to other came by silhen treads.
5) White grub: Holotrichia consanguinea: H. Serrata. (Meloionthidae Anomula
begglensis (Rutelinae)
Drying of crops : Yellowing & nibbling of leaves: roots eaten away.
Control: Netarhizium onisopliae
o Pudding & crop rotation
o B. Popillae milky disease
6) Termites: Odentotermes spp: Microtermes obesi
Older leaves dry up first & cane falls down if disturbed.
Filled with moist soil inside the papery rind.
7) Sugarcane scale: Melanaspis glomerate: (diaspridiadae)
Grayish block appearance of stem. Reduced yield, juice quality of Jaggery production
Control: Detrashing & Trash burning.
8) Leaf hopper: Pyrilla perpusilla (Lophopidae)
Yellowish white spots on leaves; sooty mould on later stages.
Control: Externel parasitoid: Epiricarlia melanoleuca (Ephpyropidae)
Green muscardine fungus: Aceria sacchari (Eriophyidae)
Forming a circular Ereneum gall in the inner side of the leaf sheath
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PESTS OF WHEAT
The rabi crops which are seriously damaged by white grub beetle are wheat and
potato.
Wheat shootfly: Atherigona naquii
Ghujia weevil: Taenymecus indicus is a pest of wheat, barley gram and mustard. The
adult weevils cut to germinating seedlings grub feed on soil humus.
Wheat aphid: Macrosiphum miscanthi
Wheat gall nematode or ear cockle nematode: Anguina triticl Bacterium associated:
Corynebacterium tritici
Seed galls/ Thundu disease/ yellow ear rot (Bacterium+Nematode)
o Mgt. Hot water treatment of seeds at 500C for 2 hrs.
Wheat stems borer: Sesamia inferens (Noctuidae).
PESTS OF RICE
Yellow stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulas (Pyraustidae)
- Deed heat in young seedlings
- White earhead in panicle stage. No grain formation.
- Monophagous pest
Control:
Parasitiods: Tetrastichus Schoenobii; egg parasitiod Trichogramma Japonicum
o Destruction of stubbles
o Host plant resistance: TKM 6 resistant variety contains Penta deconal &
silica.
o Pheromone Oviposition deterants in rice for stem borer
Gall fly or gall midge: Orseoeoa oryzae (Cecidomyiidae)
o Silver shoot or onion leaf which is a modified leaf sheathcaused by maggot.
o Bio control agent: Playigaster oryzae
Leaf folder: cnapholocrocis medinalis (Pyraustidae)
o Longitadial folding of leaves & drying of leaves by larva.
o Control: Avoid use of excess nitrogen
o Parasitoids: Trichogramma Japomcum
Green leaf hopper: Nephotettix virescens (Cicadellidae)
o yellowing of leaves
o Vector of rice Tungro, Yellow dwarf, Transitory yellowing
Brown planthopper: Nilaparvata lugens (Delphacidae)
o Hopper burn drying burning symptom in young plants. Circular patches of
drying. Vector of grassy stunt. Ragged stunt and wilted stunt.
o Avoid use of excess nitrogen
o Resistant varieties: Py3, CO42, Mudgo (low aspargine content)
o Resurgence causing pesticides: Acephate, Fenthion, Phosphamidon,
synthetic Pyrethriods, Methyl demeton
o Predators: Cyrtorhimus lividipennis Lycosa sp. Microvetia sp.
Ear head bug: Leptocorisa acuta: L. oratorius (Gundhi bug) (Alydidae): chaffy
grains with black spot. Feeds on tender stem. Peduncle and milky grains leads to
chaffy ear head.
o Control: Fenthion 100 EC 200 ml
o Malathion 5% dust @ 10 kg/ha.
o Clean cultivation- removal of weeds & grasses.
Rice root nematode: Hirschmaiviella oryzae (Mentck disease)
White up rematode or spring dwarf nematode: Aphelexhcopdes besseyi hot water
treatment of seeds at 520C for to min.
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Rice stem nematode: ditylenchus angustus

Larva disease in rice.
Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis
Larva with in tubular cases. Floating on water.
PESTS OF COTTON:
consuming 54% of total inscticide in India though the area under cotton is only 5%
1) Cotton jassid or leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (A.biguttula biguttula cicadellidae)
Hopper burn yellowing, curling, bronzing & drying.
2) Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Aleyrodidae)
Shedding of leaves, stunting of plants, bud boll opening and poor quality lint.,
contamination of lint with honey dew and sooty mould appearance.
Vector of cotton leaf curl virus disease in Punjab.
Whitefly outbreak on cotton in AP during 1985-86.
Outbreak was due to indiscriminate use of insecticides particularly synthetic
pyrethroids against Heliothis.
3) Spotted bollworm: Earias vitella
Spiny bollworm: Earias insulana (Noctuidae)
Symptom: Boring of terminal shoots of young, plants Flaring of squares and
boring of young bolls frass at the entrance hole.
Moths are green in colour.
4) Pink bollworm: Pectinophora gossypiella (Gelichidae)
Symptom: Rosetting of flowers
Eating of seeds
Double seed formation, Locular burrowing
Diapause during winter
5) American bollworm: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae)
Large, circular bore holes with faecal pellets. Larvae feed by thrusting their heads
alone inside.
6) Red cotton bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Pyrrhocoridae)
Roting of bolls: water soaked spots
Lay eggs in soil
Bacterim associated: Nematospora gossypii staining of hint.
Control measures: All pests
Crop rotation with cereal: i) Bhendi should not be grown in rotation
o ii) Yellow sticky trap for monitoring whitefly
o iii) Whitefly tolerant var. LPS 141 and Supriya
o iv) Pheromone trap for PBW (Gossyplure)
Pheromone trap for Helicopiveria (Helilure)
Biological control:
o Trichogramma chilonis against bollworms
o Spodoptera NPV 250-500 LE/ha (1 LE=6x109 POB= 3 larvae)
o Helicoverpa NPV
o B.t. Formulation against early instars of bollworms
o Synthetic pyrethriods should be used only during peak flowering and boll
formation stages.
7) Stem weevil: Pempherulus affinis
Stem gall near the base of the plant
MCU 3 resistant variety
Control soil application of granular insecticide/Neem cake
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PESTS OF CHICK PEA (BENGAL GRAM)

Helicoverpa armigera Gram pod borer or gram caterpillar consume foliage and
developing pods.
Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon (Noctuidae)
Cut the stems at ground level
TERMINOLOGY:
Regular pest: Occur most frequently on cultivated crops
Eg.: cotton bollworms, Brinjal fruit borer
Occasional pest: Occurring less frequently
Eg.: case worm on rice
Seasonal pests: Occurs in a particular season of year
Eg.: red hairy caterpillar on groundnut
Persistent pest: Occurs throughout the year on crops
Eg.: chilli thrips, Rose thrips
Sporadic pests: Occurs in a few isolated localities
Eg.: Gall midge on rice in Madurai area
Endemic pests: Occurs in same Agril. Area year after year
Eg.: nematode on potato in Nilgris
Migratory pests: Moves from one area to others and causes damage
Eg.: Locust
Epidemic pests: Occur in particular area/season in severe form
Pandemic pests: Occur in a large geographical area/entire country or continent
Eg.: locust outbreak
Pesticide calculation:
1) Apply 0.75 kg a.i./ ha of 3% carbofuran granules
Formula: Rec. Dose of ai./ha
x 100
% al. of formulation
0.75x100 =25kg granules/ha
3
2) Quantity of Malathion 50 EC required spraying 1 ha of field, o.5% strength
Pesticide V1 x N1
= V2 x N2 (Spray fluid)
V1 = V2 x N2
(500 lit of spray fluid in required/ha)
N2
500x0.5
=
= 5 liters
50
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7. AGRONOMY
PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY:
1. CLIMATE AND ITS INFULENCE ON CROPS
Weather is a condition of atmosphere at a given place at a given time
Climate is a weather condition over a given region during a longest period.
Structure of atmosphere
Troposphere- statosphere- Mesosphere lonosphere par
All weather phenomous like rain, fag, above mist occur in Troposphere zone found in
stratosphere.
Solar constant: Energy falling in one minute is a surface area of one square cm at the
outer boundary of atmosphere.
It is equivalent to 1.94 cal/cm2 /min.
Photosyntheticaly Active Radiation
Photoperiodic effect influence of crop growth by the relative length of day and night
especially for floral inition
Long day plant plants require long day (>14 hrs.) for floral inifiation (eg. Wheat,
Barley, Oat)
Short day plant Plants require shorkerday (less than 10 hrs) ( eg. Rice, Sorghum
Maize)
Neutral plants cotton, sunflower, buck wheat
Average rainfall in India (120 cm)
Rain bearing clouds cumulonimbus, cumulus.
Rainy day if the rainfall received is more than 2.5 mm on a particular day it is called
as rainy day.
Instruments
o Radiation: Pyranometer: Pressure : Barograph
o Photosynthetically active radition: quantum sensor
o Temperature: Thermograph: Humidity-Psychrometer (or) hygrometer
o Dew: Darosometer: water table: Pizometer rain Raingauge
o Soil moisture : Tensiometer
Chemical used for cloud seeding Silver iodide for cold clouds sodium chloride for
warm cloud
Indian Meteorological organization situated in PUNE
Isotherm Lines of equal temperature
Isobar Lines of equal pressure
Isohyets- Lineo of equal rainfall
Isotach Lines of equal wind speed
Kharif season crop- June to September crops (sorghum, maize, rice, cotton, pegion
pea, other pulses, ground nut)
Rabi season crops crop grown during winter (October March) eg. wheat, chickpea,
oat, barley, sun flower.
2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
C3 plant eg. Rice, wheat , cotton, soybean
Enzyme- ribulose 1.5-bisphosphate carboxylate photorespiration is high in C3 plants
(Rubisco)
C4 Plants- sugarcane, maize, sorgham pearl millet enzyme PEP Carboxylase
CAM- Pine apple; sisal, ogave
Plant growth regulators (commercial use) in Agriculture.
Abscisic acid- Cotton defoliatant; 2.4, -D- herbicide
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Glyphosate Sugarcane ripener: gabbroic acid seed less grape

NAA- fruits thinner, flower initiation
MH Succur control in tobacco, Ethelene ripening of fruits
3. SOIL & FERTILIZER

Soil fertility Inherent capacity of soil to supply adequated nutrients
Soil Productivity Capacity of soil to produce in terms of yields.
Soil texture relative proportion of soil particles i.e. clay silt. And sand
Soil structure arrangement of soil particles
Particle dimension: Sand 0.2 to 0.02, silt 0.02 to 0.002
Clay < 0.002, gravel> 2mm
Crumby structure is better for crop cultivation
Pore space occupied by water and rain
Total pore space is more in clay soil
Bull density weight of soil per unit volume- 1.5g/cm3
Particle density weight of solid portion of soil per unit volume 2.6g/cm3
% pore space Particle density bulkdensity
-----------------------------------x 100
particle density
Soil air- Co2 concentration over 0.3%
Well decomposed organic matter is called as humus
Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration for organic matter 12:1
o Legume 23:1 cereals 90% FYM : 100
Soil water:
Field capacity the soil moisture held by the soil against gravitation
Force: energy status - -0.1 to 0.33 bar
Available soil moisture: -0.33 bar to 15 bar =1569 g
Annual fertilizer consumption: 16:18 MT
Per ha fertilizer consumption = 76:8 kg/ha
Fertilizer :
Organic fertilizer urea; Neutral fertilizer CAN 9calcium ammonium nitrate)
Recommended ratio of NPK for crops 4:2:1 NPK
At present India to consumption ratio: 9:3:1 NPK
Per area fertilizer consumption more in Punjab union feretory
Pondichery. Total pesticide consumption
Deficiency disorders:
Mn. Gray speck in oat, Marsh spot in pea, pahala blight in sugarcane
Cu. Reclamation disease in cereals
Zn. Kharif in rice, white (bud) in maize, Frenching on citrus
Mo. Whiptail is cauliflower
Mg. Is a constituent of chlorophyll
Bo. Browning of cauliflower
Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria: Rhizobium
Gene responsible for N fixation Nif genes
Micro element needed for N fixation Molybdenum
Free living N fixing bacteria Azotobactor, clostridium
Micro organism associated with casuavina frankia
Conversion of ammonia to nitrite Nitrosomonas,
Conversion of nitrite of Nitrate- Nitrobacter
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4. TILLAGE
Tilth physical condition of soil resulting from Tillage
Implements used for primary tillage: country plough , Mouldboard, Plough, Bose
plough
Implements used for secondary tillage ( blade harrow, disc harrows tractor drawan
ultivator)
Breeding sub soil chisel plough
Pudding Wet land puddler, tractor drawn cage wheel
Sowing Mechanical seed drill
Weeding Japanese rotary weeder
Net sown = 143 mha (1998) and 142.22 mha 1999
Rainfed = 92 mha (1998)
Irrigated = 50 mha, 25 mha (37.6%)
5. IRRIGATION
Potential area under irrigation 89.44 mha
Major irrigation project Project covering more than 10,000 ha of command area
Medium 2000- 10,000ha
Minor irrigation project less than 2000 ha
1 ha cm = 1 lakh liter of water 1 cubic metre 1000 litre of water
1 cu feet 28.32 liters
Duty of water Number of hectare irrigated by constant flow of one current of water
Delta Total depth of water irrigated by one ha.
Transpiration gaseous loss of water from the surface leaf
Evapotranspiration Evaporation + Transpiration
Water use efficiency Ratio between yield and Evapotranspiration or WUE = Y/ ET
Consumptive use
Irrigation efficiency more in clay soil. less the sandy soil
Type of irrigation
Flooding rice, check basins wheat finger millo (ground pit)
Basin method Fruit, crops: furrow irrigation, cotton, sugarcane tobacco, vegetables;
sprinkler undulated areas
Important river project:
Rive
Name of the project
states benefited
1. Damodar
Damodar valley project
West Bengal
2. Sutlet
Bhakra; nangal
Punjab, H. P Rajasthan
(Indira Gandhi)
3. Kosi
Kosi Dam
Bihar/Nepal
4. Mahanadi
Hirakund (largest dam
Orrisa
in the world)
5. Krishna
Nagaarjuna sagar
Andra, Karnataka
6. Tungabhadra
Tunga bhadra project
KN, AP
7. Chambal
Gandhi sagar, Kota Borrage
MP. Rajasthan
(Ranna pratap sagar)
Water requirement of crops:
Rice 1250 mm wheat 300-400 mm groundnut 550-600. sugar cane 2250-2500mm
6. DRY FARMING
The practice of crop production entirely with rainwater received during the crop
season in low rainfall (<800mm) areas is called as dry or dryland farming.
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Arid climate: Extremely dry climate with an annual average precipitation usually less
than 250 mm.
Seed hardening: Process of subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate cycle of
wetting and drying to induce tolerance to drought.
Proline: Chemicals, K2H2SO4, KCL 0.5 is an amino acid which is increased in
plants during drought.
Water harvesting Collecting and storage water on the surface of soil for
subsequent use.
Antitrans pirants Any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing
water loss.
Types:
o Stomatal closing type- Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA)
o Film forming type Mobileaf, Silicone oil
o Reflectant- Kaoline spray
o Growth retartent cycocel
7. HERBICIDES
Selective herbicide Kills only targeted plants on weeds while crops are ont affected
Eg. Siomazine, atrazine, 2,4-D butachlor, alachlor, fluchloralin, pendimethalum
MCPA, Glyphosate, Propanil
Non Selective herbicide Kill all vegetation that they come in confact.
Eg. Paraquat, Diquat.
Systemic herbicide: Systemic herbicide move within the plant
Eg: Atrayine, simayibne, propanil, 2.4-D MCPA, Glypthocte Butachlor, Fluchloralin.
etc.
Contact herbicide Kills plants when they come in contact with plants
Eg. Diquat, Paraquat.
Pre-emergence application application of herbicide before the emergence of weeds.
(c4) Paraquat, Diguat, 2.4-D, Propanil, Isoproturon, Glyphosate .
Pre Planting incorporation application of herbicide before sowing of crops eg.
Fluchloralin.
Soil sterilenths (eg.) Diuron, Atrazine, Methyl bromide
Effective herbicides on Monocotylidous weeds
eg. Delapon, Fluchloalin.
Herbicides which have low residual toxicity- Diquat paraquat
Herbicides which have high residual toxicity Diuron, Atrazine.
Parasitic weeds
Weds which derives foods directly from the host plant
Total stem parasite Cuscuta associated with lucorn crop
Partial stem parasite Loranthus associated with tree crops
Total root parasite
Orabanche associated with Tobacco
Partial root parasite Striga associated with sorghum
Aquative weeds
Weeds growing in water bodies eg. Water hyacinth,
hydrilla, Salvania, cattail weeds.
Allelopathy One plant having detrimental effect on other plants by releasing root
chemical through roots.
8 . CROPPING SYSTEM
Mono Cropping Growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year
Multive cropping Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one
calender year.
Inter cropping Growing 2 or more crops simultaneously with definite row
arrangement.
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Sequential cropping- Growing at low or more crops in sequate on the same piece of
land in a farming year.
Cropping Intensity Ratio between grass sown area and Net sown area is
Gross Sown Area
X 100
Net sown ares
=131.2%
Zaid cropping Growing of crops in between Kharif and rabbi season
Jham/ shifting cultivation The slash and burn type of cultivation in the hill treats of
North Eastern Region.
Catch crop Quick growing crop incidentally planted and harvested in between two
major crops, mainly to utilize residual fertilizer
Cover crop Crops which are grown primarily to cover the soil and to reduce the loss
of moisture and eroion
Multy storey cropping- system of growing together crops of different heights at the
same time on the same piece of land (eg.) coconut + Pepper + cocoa + Pineapple
9. WEED MANAGEMENT
Weed : is an unwanted plants, a plant out of place
Classification of weeds
1. Based on duration:
(a) Annuals Complete their life eyclein one year eg. Phaloris monr, Echinocloa
colonum, Amaranthus (Pig weed family)
(b) Binneal weeds complete their life cycle in five years (eg.)
Alternanithra echinata; Eichorrutim intybus
Perennial weeds More than 2 years
(eg.) cynodam dactylon, cyperus rotundus
2) Based on Morphological Characters:
(a) Grasses weeds belong to the family of graminance
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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION:
1. SUGARCANE
The sugarcane flowering in called as Arrowing,
Sacharum Spontoneum wild type cane
- Called as Noble can used for chewing purpose
S. officinarium
- Sugarcane which takes 18 months for harvesting usually
Adsali sugarcane
planted in June/July (kharif)
It
takes 12 months for maturity. Usually planted in
Eksali sugarcane
December/ January is south India Feb/Apri in North India
(Due to late harvest of Rice)
- is the instrument used to the maturity of sugarcane Brix
Brix Meter
meter madding of 18-22% is ideal time before harvest sugar
or sucrose content of cane 10 %
- U.P 957% area, 47% products )
Largest area and
Production
- Tamil Nadu
Highest productivity
- 3 budged set 25-30000 sets 2 bud 45-50000 sets and single
Seed rate
budded : 1.25000
- 90 cm between the rows
Spacing
- 270:150:120 kg kg a.i./ha
Fertilizer
- Glyphosine 5 kg / ha
Sugarcane ripener
- Sorghum halapense, Cynodan dectylon cypones
Weeds
- Atrazine @ 1 kg a.i./ha
Herbicides
- 2,4-D
Post emergence
- Red rot resistant var Co 1148, co 19,B17
Varieties
- co 52-7, 449
Smut resistant var
- COC 671 (highest sugar %)
Wonder cane
- North India 60-100 t/ha
Yield
- 120-140 t/ha
South India (Tn)
2. Wheat
Triticum aestivum Are 7 mha. Production 70.8 mt. Highest production- UP; Highest
productivity Punjab, protein 11%, Protein of wheat is called as glutelin.
Three groups of wheat are (1) Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat) 87% of area (2) T.
durum (Macroni wheat) 12% of area (3) T. dicoccum (Emmer wheat) 1% area.
Varieties Normal sown- Kalyansona, Sonora 64; Lermaroja
Sabarmathi sonora (Mutant var), Arjun, Heera
Late Sown Sonalika
Season Normal sown 1 fortnight of November
Late sown II fortnight of November
Seed rate- 100 Kg. Spacing 22.5 cm between rows, No spacing between plants, depth
of sowing, depth 5 cm dwarf varieties,
Critical period for irrigation Crows not initiation stage (20-25 DAS)
Weeds phalaris minor, wild oat, Herbicides- Isoproturon, 2.4 D (post emergence)
Fertilizer 80: 40: 40 kg NPK/ha
Yield - Average 2500 kg/ ha
Gene responsible for dwarf in wheat Norin 10
3. Rice
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Oryza sativa Area 40 mha, production 86 mt. Highest production and productivity
west bengal protein content 7% Gene responsible for dwarf varieties DEE-geewoo-gen
Three types- 1) Indica (long stem which had lodging tendency)
2) Japanica (short stem which has no Lodging Tendency)
3) Japanica ( wild type)
Three types of rice culture Upland, Low and Deep water rice
Upland Seeds are sown directly of the main field. 60% of area is under upland. Seed
rate 100 kg.
Wet or transplanting system- Nursery area 1/10 area of main field
Dapog method of Nursery Originated from philippines, 30-40 m2 is enough for
planting one hectare
Seed rate 40-50 kg/ha, spacing short duration var 20x10. medium duration var
20x15
Fertilizer 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha. Zn 25 kg/ha
Season human rice May -June harvested in Oct./Dec.
AUS rice- sown in March/ April harvested in July/August
Boro rice- December/ January harvested in April/ May
Weeds Echinocloa colonum, E.gresgali
Herbicides Pre emergence Butachlor (machete)
Varieties Taichung Native (TNI) is first developed dwarf variety in rice
Drought tolerant variety- Bala, Bhavani
Blast resistant var. Jaya. Rasi, CO-14
BLB resistant TKM-6 Salt resistant Jaya, Ratna
Super rice- Lunisree is a variety developed by CPRI
Deep water rice- Pankaj, Jaganath
Yield National average 1750 kg/ha
4. Bengal gram (Chickpea)

Cicer arietinum
Area 7.87 mha. Production 4.5 mt. It occupies an are 33% of area under pulses and
40% of pulse production
Leaf contains Malic acid which is used for during stomach disorder
Season-II fortnight of October/ Spacing 30x10. seed rate 100kg fertilizer 20 kg N, 60
Kg P/ha: depth of sowing 7-10 cm Nipping Plucking of apical buds on 30 DAS to
encourage lateral branching
Harvest- duration 150 days, average yield irrigated 1500 kgs, rainfed 400-500 kg
5. Redgram/Arhar/Pigeonpea- Cajanus cajan
Season-June/July, Seed rate-15 kg/ha, spacing- Extra early var 50 x30, Early var
75x30, Long duraation-90x30
Varieties- Pusa Ageti, prabhat, Mukhta (Wilt resistant)
Ground nut, Arachis hypogea Origin Brazil
Largest producer- Gujarat; Oil 40-50%, Soil Sandy loam
Season June/July 9kharif), Seed rate 120 kg for spreading type, 110 for bunch
type, Spacing- 45x1- (Spreading), 30x10 (Bunch)
Fertilizer 20-40; 40-90; 20-40 kg NPK/ha, Gypsum- 400kg/ha spreading type has
Dormancy, to beat dormancy GA3 is used Bunch type tends to germinate in the field
itself
before harvest to arrest this M(malic hydraouide) is used.
NAA @ 40 ppm on 40 DAS for floral initiation
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Aspergillus flavus is the fungi which affect kernal during shortage,

Afalotoxin is produced by this fungi so the kernal be comes bitter in taste.
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8. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Australia has the maximum arable land per person

The Indian Food grains storage management and Research Institute is located at
HAPUR, UP
The world first agricultural census was conducted in 1930
The headquarters of Directorate of marketing and Inspection (DMI) established in
1935 is located at Faridabad, Haryana
The Agricultural produce (Grading and Marking) Act was passed in 1937
Agriculture Price Commission (presently, CACP) declared prices every year on
Minimum support price
The most limiting factor of production in Indian agriculture is capital
The govt. Determines the support prices of crop products on the recommendation of
Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices
The demand for agricultural products in general is Inelastic
The apex body for institution finance for agriculture in India is National Bank For
agriculture and Rural Development
The earlier name of WTO was GATT
AGMARK is an indicator of Purity. Established in 1937
The govt. Of India set up planning commission in march, 1950
The price below which the producers are not ready to sell is known as Reserve price
NABARD was set up in July 1982
The highest per capita income of farmers is in Punjab
The scheme of Regional Rural banks (RRBs) was launched in India on 2nd October,
1975
The Reserve Bank of India Act for its establishment was passed in the year 1934
The Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCCS) was introduced in 1998-99
The national Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) was introduced in the country
from : Rabi 1999-2000
The net capital ratio is given by : Total assets / Total liabilities
The minimum wages act was enacted by the govt. Of India on 1948
Farm machinery and equipments are an example of Working assets
NABARD was established on 12th July, 1982 on the recommendation of Shivaraman
Committee
Cooperative movement in India was started in 1904
The headquarters of Asian Development Bank (ADB) is at manila
The National Agriculture Policy (NAP) was announced on 28th July, 2000
The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the
minimum Support Prices for 24 important crops.
The period of 11th five year plan in India is 2007-2012
The chairman of National Development Council (NDC) is prime minister
Value added tax (VAT) is a direct and Indirect tax
The governor of Reserve Bank of India is D Subba Rao
RATIO METHODS
A. Capital Ratios:
1. Net capital Ratio = Total assets
Total liabilities
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Working assets + Current assets
2. Working capital Ratio=
intermediary liabilities + current liabilities
Current assets
3. Current ratio =
Current liabilities
Deferred liabilities
4. Debt equity ratio =
Net Worth
B. Income Ration:
Gross income
1. Rate of turn over =
Total assets
Total returns to fixed farm resources
2. Net income per acre=
Total acres
C. Cost Ratios:
Total expenses
1. Gross ratio=
Gross income
Fixed expenses
2. Fixed ratio=
Gross income
Operating expenses
3. operating ratio=
Gross income
D.
1. Adjusted crop yield = Crop yield index X Cropping intensity on the farm
Cropping intensity in the area
Potential net income per hectare on the farm
2. System index =
X 100
Average net income per hectare in the area
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Cost concepts in farm Management
1. Cost A1 = Value of casual labour + attached labour + hired bullock labour + imputed value
of owned bullock labour + hired machine labour + imputed value of owned machine labour +
seed + manure and fertilizers + plant protection chemicals + irrigation charges + interest on
working capital + depreciation + land revenue.
2. Cost A2 = Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in land, if any
3. Cost B = Cost A1 + imputed rental value of owned land + interest on owned land capital
4. Cost C = cost B + imputed value of family labour
Cost c is also called gross ocost or total cost of cultivation. All cost that paid out for the
factors of production.
AGGREGATE MEASURES
A.
1. Net operation income = Gross income (Operating expenses + depreciation on working
assets)
2. Net farm income = Net operating income (fixed expenses + depreciation on lixed assets).
B. Income measures in relation to different cost concepts
1. Farm business income = Gross income cost A1
2. owned farm business income = Gross income cost A2
3. Family labour income = Gross income Cost B
4. Net income = Gross income cost C
5. Farm investment income = Net income + rental value of owned land + interest on owned
Fixed capital.
FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS
A. Test Ratios:
Total current assets
1. Current ratio =
Total current liabilities
Total current assets + intermediate assets
2. Intermediate ration =
Total current liabilities + intermediate liabilities
Total assets
3. Net capital ratio =
Total liabilities
Cash receipt accounts receivable +
Securities in more than one year
4. Acid ratio =
Total current liabilities
Current liability
5. Current liability ratio =
Owners equity
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Total debts.
6. Debt equity ratio =
or Leverage ratio Owners equity
Owners equity
7. Equity to asset value ratio =
Total asses value
FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS

A. Input-Output ratios:
Operating expenses
1. Operating ratio =
Gross income
Fixed expenses
2. fixed ratio =
Gross income
Total expenses
3. Gross ratio =
Gross income
B. Investment to income ratio:
Gross income
1. Capital turn-over ratio =
Average capital investment
Net return to capital
2. Rate of return on investment =
Average capital investment
C.
Annual fixed cost
1. Break-even point (BEP) =
Selling cost per unit variable cost per unit
2. Margin of safety = Total output output at break even point
= Total revenue revenue at break even point
Break even point out put
3. Percentage of margin of safety =
X 100
Volume of output
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INVESTMENT ANALYSIS (CAPITAL BUDGETING)
A. Time value of money:
1. Future value of present money, A = P(1 +I)1
Where. A = future value of present sum invested in the project
P = Principal amount invested in the project
i = rate on interest
t = no. of years of life of the project
A
2. Present value of future money . PW =
(1 + I)1
(1 +I)1 - 1
3. Future value of annuity, A = F
i
Where, P = annual investment
1 + (1+I)1
4. Present value of annuity. PW = P
I
PROJECT APPRAISAL
A. Undiscounted measures:
1. Ranking by inspection
2. Pay back period, P = 1/F
Where, 1 = investment amount
E = annual net cash revenue
3. Proceeds per rupee of outlay
4. average annual proceeds per rupee of outlay
B. Discounted measures:
N
B1
t=1 (1-i)n
1. Benefit/Cost ratio =
(BCR)
n
C1
t=1 (1-i)n
Where1 B1= benefit in
year
C1= cost in
year
N= total no. of years of projects life
I= discount rate
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N (B1 C1
2. Net present value/worth, NPV/NPW =
t=1 (1 + I)1
3. Internal rate of return, IRR =
NPV
4. Profitability index, PI =
co
1
=
co
1
=
co
t=0
cr
(1+I)t
Where, cr = total capital required

Co = initial capital expenditure
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9. PATHOLOGY
Plant Pathology
Father of Plant pathology- Anton De Bary
Father of Indian Plant Pathology- E. J. Butler
An Indian whose name is associated with wheat rust- K. C. Mehta
Irish Famine(1845)- Due to late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans)
Bengal Famine(1943)- Due to brown spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae)
Father of plant virology- Beijerinck
Father of plant Bacteriology- E. f. smith
Most imp disease of rice- Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) controlled by Hinosan, Kitazin,
Blasticidin, Beam.
Kresek phase- Bacterial leaf blight of rice (Xanthomonas oryzae)
Bakanae disease of rice (Foot rot)- Gibberella fujikuroi (Also known as Foolish
seedling disease-symptom: plant become very tall)
Sheath rot of rice- Sclerotium oryzae
Rice Tungro- A virus transmitted by Nephottetix virescens
Ufra disease of rice- By nematode (Ditylenchus angustus)
Most pathogenic bacteria are gram negative and rod shaped
Gram positive plant pathogenic bacteria: Corynebacterium/ Clavibacter (tundu
disease of wheat)
Tundu disease caused by- Bacteria and nematode (Anguina tritici) association, a
complex disease
Plant viruses are mostly single stranded RNA
Virus contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, never both
Virus contain nucleic acid 5 % and protein (nucleoprotein)- 95 % (TMV)
Tobacco mosaic virus is single stranded RNA- Rod shaped transmitted by sap or
mechanically
Single stranded DNA plant virus- Gemini virus
Double stranded RNA virus- Reovirus
Double stranded DNA virus- Caulimovirus
Total stem parasite- Cascuta (Dodder)
Partial stem parasite- Loranthus
Total root parasite- Orobanche
Partial root parasite- Striga
Bacterial cell wall is made up of Murein/peptidiglycan
Karnal bunt of wheat discovered by- Mitra et al., in 1931
A disease affecting wheat export from India- Karnal Bunt (Neovossia indica /
Tilletia indica)
Wheat: a. Stem Rust (Black) - Puccinia graminis tritici- Alternate host: Berberi
(Berberis vulgaris) b. Leaf rust (Brown) - P. recondita, Alternate host: Thalictrum
sp. c) Stripe rust (Yellow)- P. striiformis
Rust disease is controlled by Plantvax- a systemic fungicide
Smut disease is controlled by- Vitavax (a systemic fungicide)
Wheat rust in India survive in the southern hill (Nilgiri) and in Northern hill
(Himalaya) in the form of Uredospore
Loose smut of wheat- Ustilago nuda tritici (Internally seed borne, controlled by
Vitavax, solar Heat Treatment)
Molya disease of wheat- Nematode- Heterodora avanae
Black arm of cotton- Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum
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Red rot of sugarcane- Collectrichum fulcatum

Grassy shoot- Phytoplasma
Sporadic- Occurs irregularly in a place at low level
Endemic- Occurs every year in a confined area at some level
Pandemic- Occurs over a few countries or few continents
Epidemic- Occurs over a large geographic area in short time at a devastative level
Viroid- a plant pathogen made up of only RNA (single stranded). No protein is there
Prions- Infectious protein molecule
Potato- 1. Spindle tuber disease (1st discovered Viroid disease)
Other Viroid disease- Coconut cadang cadang, Citrus exocartis
Disease caused by Phytoplasma(MLO)- a. sandal spike b. sugarcane grassy shoot c.
Brinjal little leaf d. Sesamum Phyllody e. coconut root wilt
Disease caused by Spiro plasma (Phyllody)- Citrus stubborn
Viral disease- Bunchy top of banana- Pentalonia nigronervosa
Crown gall of stone fruit- Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Fire blight- First bacterial disease discovered- Erwinia amylovora
Ergot of Bajra- Claviceps microcephala (purpurea)
Green ear disease of Bajra- Sclerospora graminicola
Wart of potato and Golden nematode- Endemic pest, domestic quarantine
Bunt- Tilletia foetida. T. caries
Fungicide- Bordeaux mixture discovered by Millerdat
Systemic fungicide- Van Schmelling & Marshal Kulka
Pomegranate blight- Xanthomonas campestris pv. punica. Recently epidemic in
Maharashtra
Panama wilt of banana- fungal disease
Moko disease of banana- Bacterial disease
Soft rot of potato- Erwinia carotovora
Kalisena- Bio formulation of Aspergillus niger N27 to control soil borne disease,
developed in IARI
Gene deployment for control of Rust- by Nagarajan
Seed gall wheat- Nematode, Molya disease, Anguina tritici
Destructive insect pest act- 1914
Cyanobacteria-BGA-prokaryotic
Powdery mildew- controlled by sulphur fungicide
Apple scab caused by- Venturia inequalis (perfect) Spilocaea pomi (fungi)
Scab of potato caused by- Steptomyces scabies (Actinomycetes)
Electron Microscope discovered by Knoll and Ruska (1932)
Crystallization of Virus Stanley (1935)
First book on plant pathology written by Julius Kuhn (1858)
Wart disease of Potato is endemic to Darjeeling only
Plasmid extra chromosomal fragments found in bacterial cells
Gene to gene Hypothesis proposed by Flor (1955) in linseed rust
PLANT PATHOLOGY IN INDIA:

K. R Kirtikar was the first Indian scientist who collected many Fungi and identified
them
E. J Butler (1910) did detailed studies of Fungi and diseases caused by them. He
wrote a book Fungi and Diseases in Plants
E. J Butler is called the Father of Modern Plant Pathology in India
J. F Dastur (1886-1971) was the first Indian plant pathologist to study in detail on
fungi and plant diseases
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B. B Mundkar identified and classified the smut fungi found in India

The Indian Phytopathological society is founded by B. B Mundkar in 1948
Dr Karam chand Mehta (K. C Mehta) of Agra college discovered disease cycle of
cereal rust in India
Prof. Jaichand Luthra and Sattar developed solar heat treatment technique of seeds
to control loose smut in wheat
M. J Thirumalachar performed extensive studies on rusts and smuts in India.
Developed antibiotics like Oreofungin and Streptocyclin
INTRODUCED DISEASE INTO INDIA:

Name of disease
Leaf rust of coffee (Hemileia vastatrix)
Fire blight of apple (Erwinia amylovora)
Flag smut of wheat (Urocystis tritici)
Bunchy Top of Banana (viral disease)
Wart disease of Potato (Synchytrium
endobioticum)
Onion smut (Urocystis cepulae)
Golden nematode of potato
Groundnut rust
Citrus canker
Introduced from
Srilanka
England
Australia
Srilanka
Holland
Year
1876
1940
1940
1952
Europe
U.S.A
U.S.A
1960s
1970s
-
Mycoplasma:
Larger than viruses but smaller than Bacteria
Devoid of cell wall and cytoplasm
Enveloped by a lipo-protein plasma membrane
Highly resistant against the antibiotic Penicillin but is sensitive to Tetracycline
antibiotic
Tetracycline used to control Mycoplasma
First isolated from sheep infected by Pleuro pneumonia and therefore called PPLO
(Pleuro pneumonia like organisms)
Most of the yellow diseases of plants are caused by Mycoplasma
E.g. Witches broom of Potato, Mulberry dwarf and Aester yellows etc.
Miscellaneous:
Virus = Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) + Protein (outer cover)
Lipo-virus = Nucleic acid + protein + lipid e.g. Influenza virus
Animal virus (Bacteriophage) = DNA + Protein
Plant virus = RNA + protein
Viroid = nucleic acid only
Plant Viroid = RNA only
BACTERIOPHAGES:
Discovered by F. W. Twort (1915) and Felix de Herelle (1917)
Contains nucleic acid (double stranded DNA)
It has two parts viz tail and head
The tail is composed of protein only. The head has outer coat of protein and inner
core as DNA
VIRIOD:
Term viriod used by T.O Diener
Naked nucleic acids without protein coat
Consists of only RNA
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These miniviruses are the smallest known agents of infectious disease
Potato spindle was the first disease reported to have been caused by a viriod
Infectious in plants only
Examples Citrus excortis viriod, chrysanthemum stunt and chlorotic mottle viriod
Virions:
Individual, completed and infectious nucleoprotein particles of a virus
In short, virus particles are called Virions
Also called nucleocapsids
Prions or slow viruses:
Smallest proteinaceous infectious
Contains protein only
Example Mad cow disease, Alzheimers disease
Nanometre is the unit for measurement of viruses
DISEASES OF RICE/ WHEAT/ COTTON/ SUGARCANE/ PIGEON PEA
Diseases of Rice:
1) Blast
- Pyricularia oryzae: air borne: edifenphos/ Hisoses 0.05%
Magnaparthe grisea)
2) Brown spot
- Helmininosporium oryzae; Seed borne; common fungicide
Bipoloris oryzae (Cochlioboltus miyabeanus)
3) Bacterial blight
- Xanthomonas campestris pv.- orzyae
Seed and any antibiotic infected debris streptomycin +
tertacyclin
Symptom : Kresek in seedling stage
4) Foot rot (or)
- Gibberella fujikorai; seed lime; common fungicide
Foolish seedling disease (or) (Fusarium Moniliforme)
Bakanae disease
5) Sheath blight (or)
- Rhizoctonia solani; Soil borne; Cultural practice +
fungicides
Leaf smut
- Enteloma oryzae
6) Stem rot
- Sarocladium oryzae (Leptosphaeria salrini)
7) Udabatta disease
- Ephelis oryzae (Balansia oryzal) Hot water
8) False smut or Green smut - Ustilaginoidea virens
9) Bunt
- Tilletia barcleyana (Neovosia horrida)
10) Rice tungro virus
- Vector Nephotetti cinticeps: N. virescens (GLH) reduced
tillering and orange discoloration
11) Rice yellow dwarf
- Phytoplasma starting, leaves remains green in colour
12) Ufra disease
- Ditcylanchus angustus
13) Pan sukh (dry physiological leaf disease)
14) Kaira disease
- Zinc deficiency.
3)
Diseases of Wheat
Stem rust
Leaf rust
(Brown, rust)
Yellow rust
i.
ii.
iii.
Control
Sulphur dust
Plant vax (oxy corboxin)
Loose smut
1)
2)
- Puccinia graminis tritici

- P. graminis recondita
- P. graminis striiformis
(stripe rust) (air borne)
Ustilago tritici
internally seed borne solar heat
Treatment. Hot water treatment (vitavax, carboxin)
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Hill bunt
Tilletia foetiaa
Externally seed brone
T. caroues
v.
Kornal bunt
- Neovossia indica Soil & air brone
vi. Flag smut
- Urouystis gramininis-Seed & soil borne
Control for smut & bunts
Seed treatment with Agresan 2g/kg.
Benomyl spray for bunts
(1) Exerlite
- Angiuna tritici
(2) Tundu (Yellow ear rot) - Corynebacterium tritici
Anguna tritici
(3) Molya (or) cereal
- Heterodera avemae
root-eel worm
iv.
Diseases of cotton :
1)
2)
3)
4)
Wilt
Wilt
Root rot
Blackarm
5)
6)
Stenosis or smail leaf

Anthrocanose
Grey or Areolate mildew Common control
7)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum

Verticillium dahliae
Macrophomina phaseoline
Xanthomonas compesttris
Pv. Maliacearum (x, axnopodis new name)
Spray 500 ppm streptomycin sulphate
MLO (mycoplasma like organisms) vector-jassid
Colletotrichum capsici
Physalospora tucumanensis
Spread through setts 0.1% Carbendaym- sett treatment
Ramularia areola
Acid delinting
Diseases of Sugarcane:
Red rot
- Colletotrichum falcatum
Physalospora tucumanensis
Spread through setts 0.1% carbendays sett treatment.
Smut
- Ustilago scitaminea remove infected clump & dip in hot
water avoid ratooning
Sett rot (or) Pineapple
- Ceratocystis paradoxa
Gummosis or gumming disease - Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vascularum
Red stripe
- Pseudomonas rubrilineans
Mosaic
- Virus vector - Rhopalosiphum maidis
Grassy shoot
- MLO (Myoplasma Like organisms) vector Proveista
moesta Hot water treatment 52% c 1/hr. Aerated steam
therapy 54%C for 8/hr.
Root knot nematode
- Meloidogyne sp.
Bengal gram:
(1) Wilt
(2) Root rot
(3) Blight
Fusarium Oxysperium j. sp. ciceri

Macrophamina phasoline
Asehochyta rabei seed borne
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10. GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING
IMPORTANT POINTS:
1717: Thomas Fairchild produced the first artificial hybrid popularly known as
Fairchilds mule by crossing carnation with sweet William
Dwarfing gene in rice Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen (Japonica rice, Taiwan)
Dwarfing gene in wheat Norin 10 (Japanese variety)
Tift 23 A source of Cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet
Kafir 60 source of CMS in sorghum
Non-traditional area of wheat cultivation West Bengal
Non-traditional area of Rice cultivation Punjab
Gregg 399 is an important source of genetic male sterility in cotton
Exotic varieties of wheat Sonara 64 and Lerma Rojo
Wheat variety resistant to all the three rust sparrow
Wheat variety susceptible to all the three rust Agra Local
Exotic varieties of Rice Taichung Native 1 (TN1), IR 8 introduced in India in 1966
Autotriploid (3x) E.g. banana
Triploid Apples, Watermelons, sugar beets
Autotetraploid potato
Autopolyploid ornamental plants, sweet potato, oat, alfalfa
Allopolyploids wheat, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, rapeseed etc
Allohexaploid common bread wheat (Triticum aestivum)
Allotetraploids cotton and tobacco
Man made cereal Triticale (rye wheat)
Maize is called the Drosophila of crop plants
Examples of secondary introduction wheat: kalyan Sona and Sonalika selected
from introductions from CIMMYT
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL ORGANELLES

Organelles
* Cell wall
Structure
* Found between middle lamella and
plasmalemmas
* Have primary cell wall, secondary
cell wall (3 layers)
* Made up of cellulose microfibrills
The chief function

Shape: strength and Rigidity
* Plasmamembrane
* Lipid bilayer model of Davson

Danieli, (1935) where protein
molecule arranged outside
To regulate the movement of

various molecules into & out
of cyloplasm
* Neucleus
(1993, Robert Brown)
Nuclear membrane
* Double membrane with pores
* contains genetic material

* Communteat with
Cyptoplasm (ER)
* Chromatin
* Nueleolus
* Nucleoplasm
*Thread like (DNA + Nucleoprotein)

* Globular synthesis
*DNA-genetic material
* Site of RNA
* With material for building
DNA + MRNA
Cytoplasm
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* Ribosome
- 80s size (Animal & Plant)

- 70s size (cukaryotic organelles)
& prosktuyotes
Site of protein Synthesis
* Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
(Porter, 1948)
-Network like in cytoplasm rough

(ER) with Ribosome
Smooth (ER)-without Ribosome
* Protein Syn; aid in protein

modification
* Lipid synthesis site
* Mitochondria
(Benda.) (Power
house of cell)
* Cylindrical body dia: 0.2-1p length

3-10p
* Inner folded membrane (Cristae)
* Matrix inside
* Production of ATP
through the krebs cycle &
electron transport chain
* -exudation of long chain
fatty acids
* Plastid when
Differentiated
Chloroplast (With
chlorophyll)
* Biconvex lens shaped (5m*dia)

* Have membranes (grana and
stroma lamellae)
* Chlorophyll
photosynthesis
* Grara & storma lamellae
with thousands of
quastacomes (Electron
transport &
photophosphorylation)
(Colourless plastid
leucoplast)
* Storma consists of
enzymes of dark reaction
* Membranes
* Golgi body
apparatus/ dictyosome
in plants
(Camillo golgi, 1822)
* Shipment in transport
vesicles (Packaging) &
transport
*Lysosome
(Duve, 1955)
*Vacuole
* Sac of digestive enzyme /

Digestive vacuoles
* Membrane (Tonoplast) bound
* Cell destruction if captured
* Centriole
Rarely present in Plants
Form poles of spindle

apparatus
* Cytosol/ hyaloplasm The fluid protein of cytoplasm

exclusive of organelles
* Storage deposit for water

metabolites and product
* turgidity of cell
Have compounds for

building macro molecules
II Mitosis & Meiosis

Stages
1. Prophase:
Mitosis
(*Equational division)
Chromatin condensation
Chromosomes visible
Nucleolus & Nuclear
envelop disappear
Meiosis
(*Reduction division)
1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II
I. Meiosis I :
A. Prophase 1
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2. Metaphase :
Chromosomes are
arranged in equational
plate
3. Anaphase:
Move to opposite pole
4. Telophase:
Chromosomes form into

two groups
5. cytoplasmic
division
a. Leptotene : Chromosome look thin

thread (of loss ball shape because of
condensation
b. Homologous chromosome begin to
pairsynapsis/ synaptonemal complex
found
c. Pachytene: complete bivalent tetrad.
Crossing over
Chiasmata can be seen as the result of
spearation of homologous Chiasma
terminilization
d. Diakinesis: Chromosomes reach
maximum condensation, nucleolar
membrane disappear, spindle begin to
form
Metaphase I: Bivalents orient at random on
the equatorial plane.
Anaphase I: The centromeres do not divide
continue to hold sister chromatids together
- Because of cross over, sister
chromatids no longer be genetically
identical.
Homologues more to opposite pole
- This movement reduce the
chromosome number from the
diploid condition (2n) condition to
Haploid (n) state.
Telephase I : This divide the diploid
cytokinesis mother cell into 2 haploid daughter
cell.
Meiosis II (equational division similar to
Mitosis
1. Haploid cells mitosis (Meiosisll)
4. Haploid cells.
Significant difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

SN
1.
Mitosis
Equational division separation sister
chrmatids
2.
3.
One cytokinesis per karyokinesis

No synopsis: No chiasmata form No
genetic exchange between homologues
(crossing over) & gastric recombination
2 daughter cells/ cycle
Genetic content of product identical to
mother cell.
4.
5.
:
:
:
:
Meiosis
Relational division- separation of
homologues
Equational division- Separation of
sister chromatics
Two cytoplasmic division
These do occur
4 gametes/ spores per cycle
Not identical in terms of
1) Chromosome No. (Haploid)
2) Consent (crossing overrecombination
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6.
Occar in somatic cell
Specialized cells of germ line
Ploidy Level in Seeds

Embryo-2n Endosperm 3n
Testa-2n
Aleuron 2n
Post-mendalian era:
devries, correns, Tschemark- Rediscovery of mendehan principles (1900).
Sutton & bovery chromosomal theory of inheritance (1903).
Bateson term GENETICS (1905)
- Epitasis interallelic intraction (1909)
Histones are velly charged proteins on which velly charged DNAs are coiled. 5
types of Histones are available.
Hetro chromatin Darkly stained
Euchromatin lightly stained
-genetically inactive
-genetically active
Chromosome named by waldayer a neucleoprotein

Chromosome discovered by strasburger (1875)
Parts of chromosome (1) Centronere (2) Telomere (3) Nucleolar organising region
(4) Arms.
Sources of new variation : (1) Independent assortment (2) Mutation (3)
Recombination cause of C. over (d) Poly Ploidy (5) Somoclonal variation
DNA Replication Semiconservative model
Proposed by Watson and Crick
Base + Sugar Nucleoside
Base sugar + PO4 Nucleotide
A= T;
G=C
A+G=T+C
Opposite strands are running in antiparallol way
Codon: Triplet sequence found in m RNA and codes for single amino acid anticodon:
Corresponding (complementary) triplet seq in t RNA start + codon: AUG stop/ Non
sense/ termination codon: UAA, UAG, UGA.
Genemutiation Addition of a base
Mutation
Deletion of bases
Frame shift mutation
Chromosomal
Substitation of bases
mutation
Muller first used X-rays as mutagen
Natural mutation is of low frequency 10-6
Muton The unit in which mutation occurs
Inbred- Progeny of a single cross fertilized heterozygous individual
Xenia effect of pollen on endosperm expression
Metaxenia effect of pollen on seed coat colour
Pure lime are homozygous and hemogenons in nature
Clone group of individuals descending from a single plant through several
reproduction.
X = Basic chromosome number = Monoploid number = Genome number
n = Haploid number = Gametic number
ex.: Triteum aestinum, 2n = 6x = 42
n = 21 (42/2), X = 7 (42/6)
Genome All the chromosomes of a diploid species that are distinct from each other
with reference to gene content and morphology.
Superiority of F1 hybrids over both of its parents : Heterosis
Isogenic lines: Two lines differing for a single locus
Parthenogenesis: Embryo originates from unfertilized egg.
Parthenocarpy : Development of fruit without fertilization , ex.: Banana
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Aneuloidy : Changes in the genome with reference to individual chromosomes. Ex.

Monosome (2n-1), Trisomy (2n=1), Tetrasomy (2n=2)
Euploidy : Changes in the genome with reference to a set of chromosomes genome.
Ex.: Triploid-3x, Tetraploid- 4x.
Test cross: F1 x homozygous recessive parent.
Backcross : Repeated crossing of hybrid progeny back to one of its parents
Pleiotrophy : Single gene governing multiple traits.
Apomixis: A type of asexual reproduction in which embryo development and seed
formation take place without fertilization and with or without meiosis.
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11.
1) AVERAGES:
No Average
1
Arithmetic
Mean
STATISTICS
Definition
Sum of all values/No. of values
Uses
To calculate average yield, SD, and
correlation and regression coefficients.
Harmonic
Mean
I
(1/x1+1/x2++1xn) (1/n)
When deal with Rate, price and speed
Geometric
Mean
(X1*X2**Xn)1n
When deal with relative changes

Ex. Bacterial growth, cell division
Median
Middle most item of all values
For open
ended
class
datas
Intelligence, Ability and Efficiency.
Mode
Most frequently occurred item
Typical soil type, cropping pattern in a

locality, and shoe and shirt size in
business
Symmetrical distribution: Mean = Median = Mode
Moderately skewed distribution: Mean Mode = 3 (Mean Median)
2) MEASURES OF DISTRIBUTION:
Coefficient of variation = (SD/ mean) X 100
3) SKEWNESS:
Lack of symmetry 1 = m23/m32. Y1= b1
Symmetrical distribution Y1=0
Negatively skewed
Y1= -Ve
Negatively skewed
Y1= +Ve
KURTOSIS
A Measure of peakedness or convexity 2= 4/32 Y2=2-3
Normal distribution - Y2 = 0
Platykurtic - Y2= -Ve
Leptokurtic
- Y2= +Ve
4) REGRESSION AND CORRELATION
a) Correlation: To study the association between two or more variables
Properties of correlation coefficient:
1. It lies between 1 to +1 if it is 0; There is no relationship between variables
2. Independent of change of scale and origin of the variables.
3. It is geometric mean of two regression coefficients.
4. The degree of relationship between two variables is symmetric i.e. rxy = ryx
b) Regression: To measure the average relationship between two of more variables.
Properties:
1. It gives the nature of relationship between two variables.
2. It gives the cause and effect of relationship
3. Regression coefficients are not symmetric, bxy byx
4. It is independent of change of origin but not of scale
5) PROBABILITY
Probability ranges from 0 to 1
No of favorable cases
Probability = --------------------------------------Total no of equally likely cases
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Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0

Eg. Probability of 7 in throwing a die 0
Additive theorem
(I) Mutually exclusive events
P (A or B) =P (A) +P(B), where P(AB)=0
(II) Not mutually exclusive events
P (A or B)=P (A) +P (B)-P (AB)
Multiplication theorem
(I) P (A and B)=P (A) X P(B)
6) DISTRIBUTION
a) Binomial Distribution (BD)
Random variable of BD is a discrete one
BD has Bernoulli trials containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failure)
The BD is
P (X)=n Cxpxqn-x
Where
n = no of trials
p = probability of success
q = probability of failure
x = no of successes in n trials
Mean (np) variance (npq)
If n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal

distribution.
When n> 20; p<0.05, BD approaches Poisson distribution.

b) Poisson Distribution (PD) (the law of improbable events)
PD discrete probability distribution
e-mmx
P(x) = -------------X!
Where
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
e = 2.7
m = mean (np)
Mean (np) = variance (npq) p 0; q 1
Uses of PD
Printing errors in a book
No of deaths in a district in a given period
Arrivals of trucks aeroplanes at terminals
Telephone calls
c) Normal Distribution (ND)
ND continuous probability distribution
Standard deviation of a sample = Tv

Where,
s = SD of population
n = sample size
The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical
Mean = median = mode
Area under standard normal curve = 1; mean = 0; SD = 1
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7) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental error : the variation due to uncontrolled factors
Treatment
: the objects of comparison
Replication
: allocation of treatments to the different experimental units
by a random process
Local control
: the principle of making use of greater homogeneity in groups
of experimental units for reducing experimental error
Critical difference
: (standard error) diff. X t value for error df at 5% or 1% level
SN
1
Type
Design
CRD
of Type
of
material
Homogeneous
experimental Error degrees of freedom
RBD
Variation in one direction
(n-1) x (r-1)
LSD
Variation in two directions
(n-1) x (n-2)
N-n
Where,
N = total no. of observations
n = no of treatments
r = no. of replications
Split Plot Design: To study effects of 2 or more factors requiring different plot sizes
E. g. to study agronomic practices with fertilizer treatments
Factorial experiments: To study the effects of two or more factors and their inter
relationships
8) TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypotheses :
assumption about a population parameters
Null hypothesis :
Ho (No significant difference between two parameters)
Altemative hypothesis : Ha (significant difference between two parameters)
Errors:
Type I error: hypothesis is true but our test rejects it
Type II error: hypothesis is false but our test accepts it
9) TESTS OF SIGNEFICANCE (Small sample < 30)
SN Type of Test
1. Students t test
Uses
Small samples
2.
3.
4.
Large samples
To test the proportions and variances
Test of independence, test of goodness of fit, test homogeneity
Z test
F test
CHI2
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12. SOIL SCIENCE

ROCKS:
Earth crust consists of the elements Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron etc. in the
decreasing order of their amounts.
Rocks are basically divided into 3 types.
Igneous Rocks: Granite, Basalt (Deccan Trap), Gabbro, Pumice, Rhyolite and
Tracheolite Acidic igneous rocks contain 60-75% quartz e.g. granite. Basic igneous
rocks contain less than 50% of quartz e.g. Basalt.
Sedimentary rocks: Limestone, sandstone, Shale, Dolomite and Conglomerate.
Metamorphic rocks: are formed from Igneous and sedimentary rocks e.g. marble,
gneiss, Schist, graphite, slate.
Important conversions: Gneiss is formed from Granite. Marble from Limestone,
Graphite from Coal, Slate from Shale Quartzite from quartz or sandstone.
SOIL:
Soil Origin, Weathering, Morphology, Factors and Processes of soil formation
Rocks are the chief sources of soil parent materials over which soils are formed.
Soil is formed from weathering of rocks.
Weathering = Disintegration + Decomposition
Disintegration breaks consolidated rocks into unconsolidated parent materials, which
on further breaking and chemical decomposition forms soil.
Physical weathering involves agents such as temperature, Water, wind, Plant and
animals and processes such as exfoliation (surface peeling off of rocks), alternate
wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, burrowing of animals, root penetration, etc.
Water, on freezing, expands 9% by volume.
Chemical weathering reactions- Solution, hydration, Hydrolysis, carbonation,
Oxidation and reduction.
Hydrolysis is the most important chemical weathering process.
Geo-chemical weathering is the weathering taking place at the layers down below
whereas pedo-chemical or pedogenic weathering is the one taking place at the surface
and subsurface layers.
Soil found at the site of formation- sedentary soils, whereas soils found far away from
the site of formation are called Cumulous or transported soils
Agent of transportation & name of the soil formed: River water-Alluvium, Lake
water- Lacustrine, Seawater-Marine, Wind-Aeolian if coarse and Loess if fine
particles, Gravity-Colluvium, Ice-Moraine.
Stages of soil formation- Infancy, youth, maturity and old age:
Soil wherein there is continuous deposition of materials always remains young e.g.
Desert soils and alluvial deposits.
Pedology is the study of origin, formation and geographic distribution of soils in
nature whereas Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to crop growth.
Soil profile is the vertical section of soil through all its horizons and it extends up to
its parent materials.
A pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognised as a soil individual and it is edimensional.
The horizontal layers in a soil profile are called horizons.
Typically there are 4 horizons O, A, B and C. O horizon is the organic horizon found
in the forest soils. A horizon is below O horizon out of which A2 layer is called
illuvial horizon. B-horizon is found below A horizon and is mostly called illuvial
horizon. Elluvial layer is the one wherein soil materials are removed whereas illuvial
layer is one wherein soil materials removed from other layers are deposited.
C- Horizon consists of unconsolidated parent materials.
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Below the C-horizon is found the R layer, which is known as the Bed Rock.
Solum = A+B horizons
Regolith = A+B+C horizons
The study of the soil in the field condition with the help of various morphological
characteristics is called Soil Morphology.
Dokuchaiev, the father of Soil science, gave the factors of soil formation, which were
later, modified by Jenny.
The five factors of soil formation are Clorpi Climate and organism (Active factors),
Relief or topography, parent material and time (passive factors).
There are various processes of soil formation out of which two are importantLaterisation and Podzolisation.
Laterisation occurs in warm humid tropical conditions whereas Podzolisation occurs
in the cold humid temperate conditions.
In Laterisation, Silica (SiO2) is removed from the A horizon and sesquioxides are left
out in the A-horizon whereas in Podzolisation, sesquioxides are leached from the A
horizon and silica is left out in upper layers.
Laterite is used for preparing bricks Laterites are very well weathered soils whereas
laterite soils are still undergoing some weathering to become laterites.
Nature and composition if soil:
Soil is a 3-phase, particulate, disperse, porous, open and heterogeneous system
Ideal soil contains 50% solid matter (45% mineral matter and 5% organic matter) and
50% pore space (25% air and 25% water).
Out of the 3 phases, Solid phase is the constant phase in terms of composition.
There are basically 3 soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay. There are two systems of
classifying the sizes of these separates.
International System given by Atterberg Coarse sand 2mm 0.2 mm, Fine sand
0.2mm to 0.02, silt 0.02mm to 0.002mm and clay less than 0.002mm or less than
2 microns.
USDA system Gravel 2mm and more, Very coarse sand 2-1mm 0.2mm, coarse
sand 1.0 to o.5mm, medium sand 0.5 to 0.25mm, fine sand 0.25 to 0.1mm, very
fine sand 0.1 to 0.05mm, silt 0.05 50 0.002mm and clay less that 0.002mm.
India follows International system of particle size classification.
Physical properties of soil:
The relative proportion of the various soil separates is called soil texture. There are
12 textural groups.
Light textured or coarse textured soils are easy to plough whereas heavy textured or
fine textured soils are difficult to plough.
The 12 textural groups from light or coarse textured to heavy or fine textured soils is
sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty
clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay and clay.
Gravel is neither a soil separate nor one of the soil textures.
Particles greated than 2mm are not considered soil.
Textured is determined by International Pipette and Bouycous Hydrometer method.
Stokes law is applied in the determination of soil texture.
Silt has intermediate characteristics between sand and clay.
Clay is called the active fraction of the soil. It is made up of alumino-silicates.
Soil texture is a static property i.e. it cannot be changed.
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil aggregates or primary and secondary
particles.
Grade denotes the durability or stability of the aggregates structureless, weak,
moderate, strong and very strong.
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Class of soil structure denotes size of the aggregates: very fine, fine, medium, coarse
and very coarse.
There are 4types soil structures: platy, prismatic or columnar, angular or sub-angular
blocky and spheroidal (granular and crumb structure).
Structure is denoted in the order of GRADE-CLASS-TYPE.
Structure of the soil can be easily changed by management practices.
Loamy texture and granular or crumb structure is best suited for agriculture crops.
Bulk density (Apparent density of soil is the mass of unit volume of soul including the
pore space.
Particle density (True Density) is the mass of unit volume of soil without pore space.
Bulk density (A) is approximately half that of particle density. So bulk density is
always lower than particle density value of Bulk Density is 1.4 to 1.8 Mg/m3. Bulk
density increases on compaction whereas it decreases on addition of organic matter.
The particle density (T) of soils is around 2.65 Mg/m3 due to dominance of quartz
whose density is also of the same value.
Porosity percentage pore space is given by the formula 100x(T-A/T).
Values: Sandy soil +30% clay soils =50-60% and loams = 40-50%
Macropores are greater in coarse textured soil and are occupied by air while
micropores are greater in fine textured soils and are occupied by water.
Soil colour:
It is found out using Munsell Colour chart. Three variables are used to denote soil
colour .They are hue-dominant Wavelength, Value-relative lightness of the colour and
chroma-purity of the colour.
Plasticity and cohesion:
Plasticity is the capacity of the soil to change its shape under moist conditions.
Cohesion is the capacity to stick together.
Plastic soils are cohesive.
Soil Colloids:
The two phases are the dispersed phase (clay and humus) and dispersion
medium/water).
Soil colloid is made up inorganic colloid-clay and organic colloid-humus.
Particles smaller than I micron are said to exhibit colloidal activity.
Colloidal property increases with decrease in diameter.
Colloids exhibit the property of sacrificial activity such as the capacity to hold solid,
gases, salts and ions.
Soil colloids have high exchange capacity, which increases with silica sesquioxides
ratio.
Soil water:
Water has maximum density at 40 C. One molecule of water is attached to four
molecules in the neighborhood. The diameter of water molecule is 30A (3x10-10m).
Water has high dielectric constant of 80. Its surface tension is 7.2x10-2N/m.
Structure of water molecule is hexagonal lattice and the angle is 1040 50.
Soil moisture constants: Hygroscopic water, capillary water and gravitational water.
Water held at tension of more than 31-atm is called hygroscopic water. It is not
available to the plants.
Water held below 1/3rd atm is called gravitational water and it is drained from the
soil due to gravity.
Water held at tensions beyond 15- atm is not available to the plants. 15 atm
represents the wilting point.
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If water is allowed to drain by gravity after supplying water, some water remains even
after drainage due to gravity. It is called field capacity. Water at field capacity is
held at 1/3red atm.
Water held between 1/3rd and 15 atm is called available water
Water in soil moves in response to difference to tension or pressure.
More water means less tension and less water is held at more tension. So water
moves from low tension to high tension.
Darcys law in soil deals to hydraulic gradient.
Soil air:
Soil air contains 10 times carbon dioxide as that of air.
Ideally 2/3rd of soil pores are filled with water and 1/3rd with air.
Ficks law deals about the diffusion of gases in soils.
Submerged soils contain less oxygen.
Soil air is characterised by ODR-Oxygen Diffusion Rate.
Soil temperature:
In soils, heat is mainly transferred through conduction
Fouriers law deals with heat conduction in soils.
Sandy soils absorb more heat than clayey soils because the specific heat of water
(heat required to heat a substance) is 4-5 times that of soil particles.
Soil temperature is used at family level categorization in soil taxonomy.
Chemical properties:
pH is the negative logarithm of H ion concentration. Sorenson gave pH scale.
There are two types of acidity in soil-active acidity and potential acidity.
pH measure only active acidity. Potential acidity forms the bulk of the soil acidity. It
is greater than active acidity.
Soil pH is also soil reaction.
Soil with pH less than 6.5 are acidic, 6.5 to 7.5 are neutral and above 7.5 are alkaline.
One unit change in pH changes H ion concentration by 10 times, 2 units by 100 times
and so on.
Electrical conductivity:
Measure of soluble salts in mmhos/cm or dS/m in solubridge or conductometer.
Ion exchange:
Most important process occurring in soil Ion exchange is a reversible pros\cess. Soil
colloids are the seat of ion exchange.
Cation and anion exchange respectively. CEC is measured at pH 7 & expressed as
meq/100 g of soil. CEC varies greatly with nature and amount of clay and OM.
Knolinite has 3-10, Illite 10-30, Montmorillionite 80-150 and Organic matter
greater than 200.
Base saturation:
BS ={(Na+ +K++Ca+++Mg++)/CEC}x100
Fertile soils are saturated with Ca++ and Mg++ ions. If soil is saturated with more than
15% exchangeable sodium, than that soil is called Alkali soil. If soil is saturated with
H+ ions. Then the soil is said to be base unsaturated or acidic.
Organic matter:
OM on decomposition by humification process gives humus. Humus is amorphous an
nature. In India OM is very less because of tropical and sub-tropical climate.
In hilly and altitudes, OM is above 1% in mangroves it is 10-30%.
CN ratio of OM is 10:1 whereas that of Indian soils is 5:1 to 25:1 with an average of
14:1
Histosols are called Organic soils.
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Organic matter decomposition stages: First sugars & starches followed by proteins
followed hemicelluloses, cellulose and fatty acids and finally lignin and waxes.
Biological properties:
Bacteria > Actinomycetes> Fungi > Algae
The smell of soils after fresh showers is due to Actinomycetes.

Bacteria occur in neutral to alkahne pH. Fungi in acid pH and Algae in shade areas.
Symbiotic N fixer Rhizobium in Legumes, Non-symbiotic or Free living is
Arotobacter.
In paddy algae or Azolla fixes N.
The amount of N fixed is 50-I50 Kg.
In plant N is fixed as R-NH2, which is converted to ammonia. The ammonia is
converted so nitrite first by Nitrosomonas or Nitrosococcus, followed by Nitrite to
nitrate by Nitrobacter. This process is called Nitrification.
Some of the nitrification Inhibitors are N-Serve and AM.
Optimum condition for nitrification process is field capacity and pH above 5.
Mineralogical Properties:
There are primary, secondary, accessory and amorphous minerals.
Primary mineral: Order of occurrence
Feldspars> Quartz> Mica> Limestone> Hornblende and augite> Olivine and serpentine
Serpentine is hydrated silicate of Mg.

Secondary minerals:
1:1- one silica and one alumina layer. Kaolinite, Halloysite and Dickite
2:1 Two silica and one alumina layer: Montmorillionite (expanding), Vermiculite
(Slightly expanding) and Illite (Non-expanding and 15% of silica is replaced by Al3and K+ ions) Illite is also called as hydrous mica.
2:1:1 or 2:2 Chlorite. The crystal unit is composed of one 2:1 unit (like mica and
Montmorillionite) and one octahedral unit, Brucite {(Mg3 (OH)6}.
Accessory minerals: B- Tourmaline, F-Topaz, P-Apatite, Ti-Rutile and Anatase.
Amorphous clay mineral: Allophane. Found in Soil order Andosols.
Negative charge is due to exposed surface of clay and isomorphous substitution.
Soil survey, classification and soils of India:
There are two types of soil survey- Reconnaissance soil survey and detailed soil
survey.
In RSS1 19 = 1 mile. Toposheets of 1:50,000 to 1:1,00,000 or aerial photo of 1:25,000
or 1:50,000 is used. Observations are once at 3-6 Kms.
DSS: 19 = 8 mile or 19 = 16 mile. Cadastral maps of 1:5000 to 1:8000 or Aeria: photo
of 1:10,000 is used Observation are once at - Km.
Forest area is surveyed by RSS.
Soil classification:
India, from 1969, follows USDAs Comprehensive system of soil classification called
soil Taxonomy. It is type of multi-category classification wherein there 6 categories:
soil order, suborder, great group, sub-group, family and series.
There 12 order and the lastly added 11th and 12th orders are Andosols and Gelisols
respectively, Andosols are found in volcanic cruption areas and contains high content
allophane. Gelisols are found in arctic regions.
The two largest orders in India are Inceptisols followed by Entisols.
Soil of India:
Largest area is occupied by alluvial soils 75 Mha.
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Black soils 9Vertisols mostly), 72 Mha, are characterised by Gilgai (shining surface),
Micro- relief (ups and down), self-churning, smectite (expanding clays) and they are
the Russian equivalent of Chernozems.
2/3rd of TN is of red soil. the parent material for red soils is mostly granite.
Laterite is older than lateritic soils. Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils.
Laterite means brick.
Desert soils come under Aridisols.
Problem soils occupy 10 Mha. Saline soils- 7.2 Mha and alkali soils- 2.8 Mha.
Problem soils are highest in UP.
Saline soils are formed mainly in aird and semi-arid regions due to rising of salt level
in the water table. Also it is due to secondary salinisation due to poor quality
irrigation water.
Type of soil
pH
EC(dS/m)
ESP (%)
Saline
< 8.5
>4
< 15
Alkali
> 8.5
<4
> 15
Saline-Alkali
< 8.5
>4
> 15
Saline are called white alkali soils and are said to cause boron toxicity. Treated by
leaching.
Alkali soils are called black soils and are reclaimed by applying Gypsum
Saline tolerant varieties: rice, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum and millets.
Sensitive crops: Pulses and oilseeds.
Acid sulphate soils: pH less than 3.5 due to Liydrogen Sulphide gas production, found
in Kerala and Sunderbans. Causes AKiochi disease. Cat clays are associated with
these soils.
Acid soils have very low pH. Reclaimed by liming with limestone or calcite
(CaCO3), Dolomite CaCO3. MgCo3. 2H2O. slaked lime Ca (OH2) and Burnt lime or
quick lime CaO.
SAR= Na+
(Ca++ + Mg++) /2
Soil Management:
The optimum physical condition of the soil for crop growth is called soil tilth.
Other practices are choice of crops, following land capability classification, conserve
soil and water, avoid salinity, alkalinity and water-logging, adopt crop rotation
especially with legumes, apply soil amendments and follow balanced fertilization.
Soil Testing:
Mainly to test the fertility status of the soil that is to find out the nutrient deficiencies
and soil amendments.
Half a Kg soil sample is taken and analysed for pH, total soluble salts by EC, Organic
Carbon by Walkley and Black Method, Available N by alkaline permanganate
method, avai P by Olsens or Brays Method, avai K by Neutral Normal Ammonium
Acetate method.
pH below 6 is termed acidic, 6-8.5 neutral to saline, 8.6 to 9 tending to be saline and
pH above 9 is termed as alkaline.
Total soluble salts: EC in dS/m: Below 1is normal, 1-2 critical for germination, 2-4
critical for growth of sensitive crops, above 4 injurious to most of the crops.
Soil test report gives soil texture, pH, EC, OC, Avai NPK, Gypsum and Lime amount
to be added, Green Manure/Compost in the Flooding and draining.
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STATUS OF AVAILABLE NPK IN SOILS

Nutrient
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
Organic carbon
Below 0.5%
0.5 0.75%
>7.5
Available N (Kg/ha)
<280
280-560
>560
Available P (Kg/ha)
10
10-25
>25
Available K (Kg/ha)
<110
110-280
>280
Soil Fertility, manures and fertilizers:
Soil productivity and fertility are synonymous terms. Soil productivity is soil fertility
+ something.
There are 16 essential elements for plant growth. There are divided into Macro and
micronutrients based on the amount of plant uptake.
Major nutrients consist of Primary elements. Beneficial elements are I, Se, Ga, AI.
Ballast elements are AI and SI.
Arnon gave the criteria for essentiality of the nutrients and Nicholas gave the term
functional or metabolic nutrients.
Law of minimum was given by Father of AG. Chemistry Leibig and Law of
Diminishing Returns was given by Mitscherlich.
Nutrient such as nitrate, chloride and sulphate are not absorbed by the soil colloids
and remain mainly in the soil solution.
Diffusion mechanism enables nutrient movement without the movement of water.
It is the mechanisms predominant are supplying most of the P and K to plant roots.
Nitrogen role: greenish colour, efficient utilization of P and K. Its def symptoms
(yellowing) occur in the older leaves because of its high mobility, Def hastens
maturity whereas toxicity delays maturity because of prolonged vegetative flush,
succulent, leathery growth and also causes lodging. Toxicity also impairs the quality
of barley, tobacco, sugarcane and fruits.
Nitrogen is available both in anionic and cationic form.
Phosphorus promotes root growth, new cell formation, formation of grains and
maturation of crops, influences the vigour of plants and improves the quality of the
crops, increases resistances to diseases, N fixing in legume crops. Its deficiency
causes reddish or purplish discolouration of stem and foliage due to abnormal increase
in the sugar content and formation of anthocyanin.
Potassium: to resist pest and diseases, cold and adverse conditions, starch production
and production and translocation of sugars, improves the quality of tobacco and citrus.
Luxury consumption is noticed. Deficiency symptoms ringing of alfalfa leaves with
rows of small white spots: reddish brown discolouration of cotton leaves, drying,
scorching and curling of leaf margins in potato and interveinal chlorosis and firing
along the edges of maize leaves.
Nitrogenous fertilizers:
Sodium Nitrate: 1st nitrogenous fertilizer. Chilean Nitrate 16% N in nitrate form.
Particularly useful in acid soils
Ammonium sulphate: 20.6% and 24% S. When close to seeds affects seed
germination
Anhydrous Ammonia contains highest N content of 32%.
Urea contains 46% N and non-proteined organic form of N, amide form of N1.
Ammonium nitrate: 33-35% N (half as nitrate form and other half as Ammonical
form), acidulating and explosive.
Nitro-chalk is obtained by mixing Ammonium nitrate with about 40% limestone or
dolomite. It has 20.5% (50% in Ammonical form and 50% in Nitrate form).
Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate: Ammonium Nitrate + Ammonium sulphate. Contains
26% N (3/4th in Ammonical form and 1/4th in nitrate form.
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Ammonium chloride: 26% N, possesses good physical condition, similar in action to

ammonium sulphate, not recommended for tomatoes, tobacco and other such crops.
CAN: Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Kisankad 25-28% N (1/2 ammonical and
nitrate).
Slow release N fertilizers: Neem coated urea, Tar coated urea, urea formaldehyde
(urea form), Urea super granules, etc.
Dried bone meal 10-12% highly available N.
Phosphatic fertilizers:
Rock phosphate: 25-35% water Insoluble Phosphoric acid. Bone meal contains 2025% P2O5.
Super Phosphate: Most widely used water-soluble P fertilizer in India. SSP: 16-18%
P2O5,DSP-32% P2O5, TSP-44-49% P2O5.
Citrate soluble P: Dicalcium phosphate- 35-38% P2O5 Basic slage 6-20% P2O5
byproduct of steel industries.
Gypsum: 20% S and 23% Ca.
Potassic Fertilizers:
India imports K fertilizers mainly from Germany and France.
MOP: KCI 50-63% K2O
SOP:K2SO4 48-52% K2O.
Wood ash 5-6% Potassium carbonate.
Complex fertilizer:
Diammonium Phosphate: (DAP) 18:46:0
Suphala: Nitro phosphate 20:20:2, 15:15:15, 18:18:9.
Manures:
FYM has 0.3%, 0.15%, 0.3% N, P2O5 and K2O.
1 tone of cattle dung can give only 2.95 Kg of N, 1,59 Kg of Phosphoric acid and 2.95
Kg of potash.
Night soil is also called Poudrette.
Soil erosion and conservation:
Soil degradation is defined as the loss in soil productivity due to physical, chemical
and biological deterioration.
Causes are excessive pressure on land to meet the growing demands of population .
They are in the form of over exploitation of natural resources like overgrazing,
excessive deforestation, faulty methods of agricultural practices, shifting cultivation
or Jhuming.
There are 2 types of soil erosion Normal crosion (geological crosion) and Accelerated
erosion.
In normal erosion, rate of soil loss = rate at which soil is formed.
Accelerated crosion is one where rate of soil of loss is far greater than the rate at
which it is formed.
Area affected by soil degradation is 187.9 Mha (57.1%) of the total geographical area.
Deterioration in the form of water erosion (148.9 Mha), Wind erosion (13.5 Mha),
chemical deterioration 13.8 Mha, Physical deterioration like water logging (11.6
Mha) and Biological deterioration.
Water erosion: Erosion by water splash erosion, sheet, rill, gully, stream bank and
landslide erosion.
Splash erosion is the splashing effect of raindrops on soil particles.
Sheet erosion is not clearly recognised but can be seen as muddy run-off.
Rill erosion leads to formation of finger like rills and gully crosion is the severe form
of rill erosion wherein grooves form deep channels called pullies. Land becomes
unfit for cultivation.
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Size of gullies:
Specifications
Symbol Description
G1
Very small Up to 3 m deep and 18m bed width. Side slopes vary
G2
Small
Up to 3m deep and greater than 18m bed width. Side slope
very
G3
Medium
Depth between 3 and 9m. Bed width greater than 18m. Side
slopes uniformly sloping between 8 and 15%
G4
Deep and
(a) 3m-9m deep. Bed width less than 18m. Side slope vary.
Narrow
(b) Depth greater than 9m. Bed width varies. Side slope
vary, mostly steep or even vertical, with intricate and
active branch gullies.
The mechanism of water crosion is detaching effect of raindrops and surface flow of
water carries the detached soil particles to far places.
Wind erosion:
Wind erosion normally occurs in arid and semi-arid regions.
3 types of soil movement are seen in wind crosion : saltation, suspension and surface
creep.
Saltation is the most important process in wind erosion and control of wind erosion is
mainly based on elimination of movement in saltation. Particles of size 0.1 to 0.5mm
are lifted.
Major portion of soil carried by wind is moved in a series of bounces called saltation.
Suspension: Very fine particles less than 0.1mm in diameter are carried into
suspension over long distances. They are kicked up into air by action of particles in
saltation.
Surface creep: Particles larger than 0.5mm but smaller than 1.0mm are pushed and
spread along the surface by impact of particles in saltation to form a surface creep.
The mechanism of wind erosion is Initiation, transportation and deposition.
Factors affecting soil loss:
Universal soil loss (USLE) was given Weischmeir and Smith.
A= RKLSCP where A denotes soil loss in the , R-Rainfall erosivity, K-soil
erodibility, L-slope length, S-slope%, C-crop management factor, P-Soil Management
factor.
Soil loss is calculated by comparing soil loss with an ideal plot of 22m long (72 ft)
and 9% slope.
Rainfall crosion index = Kinetic energy of the storm x Max 30 minute intensity
Intensity of the rainfall is more important than duration and frequency of rainfall in
causing soil loss.
Soil texture, structure, infiltration, permeability, organic matter content etc affects soil
erosion.
Lateritic soils are less erodible than black soils.
Speed and extent of run-off is decided by slope% and length.
Velocity of water flow is proportion to square root of slope% or vertical drop.
Hence if land slope% is increased 4 times then velocity is doubled.
If velocity is doubled, erosive power of How is increased by 4 times i.e. erosive
power is proportional to square of the velocity.
Size of the particles carried by the flow is proportional to the 6th power of the velocity
of flow. If velocity is doubled, size of the particles carried is increased by 64 times.
Quantity of soil transported is proportional to the 5th power of the velocity of flow. If
velocity is doubled, then quantity of soil transported is increased by 32 times.
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So erosion is geometrically increasing with slope%.

Loss of plant nutrients increases with increase in degree of slope.
Soil loss is less when land is left undisturbed under a natural cover and soil loss
increases steeply when vegetation is removed and land is cultivated.
Legumes and grasses are stronger in preventing soil loss.
Monoculture of cereals should be avoided.
Some important e.g. of order of soil loss.
Cultivated
bare fallow
Maize wheat under
Natural grasses
Fallow land
up and down cultivation
Cultivated fallow > Jowar > natural cover
Overgrazed fallow or Maize > Natural fallow
Soil And Water Conservation Measures

The key to soil and water conservation is to follow land capability classification
Land capability classes are based on intensity of hazards and limitations. As class
increases, the intensity of limitations increases.
Class V has no crosion hazard but it is placed in class V only due to the fact that it
limitations are practically difficult to remove.
Class VIII includes Bad Lands rock outcrops, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, river
washes, mine spoils and other nearly barren lands.
The colours for the various classes from I to VIII are Green, yellow, Brown, Pink,
Grey, Orange, Red and Purple.
Sub class indicates dominant limitation and is denoted by e, w, s, c e for erosion, w
for wetness, s for soil limitations and c for climate.
If two limitations are found, the dominant limitations are written first.
The order of priority in case of equal extent of limitations is e, w, s, and c.
Arid lands start with class IV, semi-arid with class III or IV, sub-humid where crop
yield is affected frequently by drought with II or III, Humid climate with occasional
dry spells with II and humid climate with well distributed rainfall with CLASS I.
Soil and water conservation measure are divided into Agronomic and Engineering
measures.
Agronomic measure:
The principles are to intercept raindrops and stop splash effect, to increase intake rate
and to stop overland flow.
1. Contour farming: It is farming across the slopes along the contour bunds within
6% slope, Important examples of soil loss: Maize + cow pea (Contour cultivation) <
maize (up and down cultivation).
Potato (contour cultivation) < Potato (up and down cultivation)
2. Mulching: synthetic and natural.
3. Selection of crops: crops selected should provide maximum cover of soil.
Legumes are very effective particularly cowpea and mung. Crops can be divided into
crosion resistant (Ground Nut) and crosion permitting crops (URAD).
Important e.g. of soil loss: Urad > Maize > Gora paddy > G. Nut.
o Jowar > Black gram > G. Nut.
Biditobacco- fallow > Sun hemp- Biditobacco-fallow> Bajra-fallow> Bajra-Mung.
4. Strip cropping: Alternate strips of erosion resisting and erosion permitting crops.
Wind strip cropping is growing alternate rows of tall and short crops across the
direction of wind.
5. Mixea cropping: Better protection and yield than strip cropping.
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Engineering measures: To increase the opportunity time and to divide the long
slopes into short ones so that the velocity of flow is reduced.
The methods are basin listing using basin leister (excavate some soil to allow rain
water to enter), sub-soiling (to remove the surface hard pans),contour bunds upto 6%
slope, graded bunds in rainfall areas with a vertical interval of 0.3 (s+3) where S is
slope %, Bench terracing (series of benches or platforms, Grassed waterways using
Pannicum repans, Brachaeria mutical or cyanodon.
Gully control measures: Check dams, sodding, Gully plugging with brush woods,
wire meshes, sand bags, boulders, live hedges (Vetiver), bricks masonry items, etc
earthen plugging.
In case of small gullies, diversion check bunds and in case of medium gullies, cheek
dams at vertical interval of 1.2m and terracing the side slopes are done.
Soils of India
1.
2.
3.
Red Soils (Alfisols):

Red colour in red soils due to the presence of various oxides of iron
Light texture, porous structure, deficient in organic matter
Absence of lime and low soluble salts
Slightly acidic to neutral in reaction
pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.5
Rich in Kaolinite (1:1) type of clay minerals
Formed from ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
The parent material for red soils is mostly granite
It covers an area of 117.2 m ha (36 %)
Distribution Areas of Madras and Mysore, part of A.P, M.P, Orissa, Bihar, Santhal
paragana (Bihar) , Mirzapur, Jhansi district of U.P
Red soil in Tamil Nadu occupies the largest area.
Black soils (Vertisols) :
Covers an area of about 74 m ha accounting for 24 % of the total geographical area
Generally rainfed
The soils are dark or dark brown in colour
Developed from Basaltic rock under semi arid condition
The soils are locally known as Regur or black cotton soil, deep black soil, and
medium black soil.
The texture ranges from sandy loam to heavy clay.
One of the characteristics of the swells on wetting during the season and shrinks and
cracks in summer season
The base exchange capacity of deep black soil is quite high
The pH varies from 7.5 to 8.5
The soils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and they are rich in potash and lime
The clay content ranges from 40-69 % and occasionally upto 80 %
Cation exchange capacity is 35-50 meq/100g soil
Rich in montmorillonite and beidelithoc group of clay minerals
Occurrence Maharashtra, Gujarat, M. P, Rajasthan, U.P, A.P and Madras
Alluvial soils (Entisols):
Soils of recent origin
It is grey or greyish- brown in colour and texture of alluvial soils is sandy loam to
clay loam
Most fertile soil
Base exchange capacity is comparatively low and pH varies from 7.0 to 8.0
Occupies the largest area i.e. 75 m ha
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The alluvial soils are found in the areas of Rajasthan, Punjab, U.P, Bihar and West
Bengal
Sufficient in P and K but deficient in Nitrogen and organic matter
4.
Laterite and lateritic soils (Ultisols):

Occupy 25 mha of the total geographic area
Texture of top soil is loamy or clayey.
Associated with undulating topography in region with a relatively high annual rainfall
It is deficient in lime and are slightly to moderately acid in reaction
The pH values from 5.0 to 6.0
They are low in base exchange capacity
Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils
Predominate in Kaolinite type of clay minerals
Deficient in P, K, Ca, Zn, B etc
Shifting cultivation is mainly practised in these areas
5.
Desert soils (Arid soils):

Covers an area of about 29 m ha
Developed in Arid regions. It is mostly sandy
Desert soils contain large amount of soluble salts and varying proportion of lime
They have a high pH and are very poor in fertility constituents
Composed of Quartz but feldspar and horn blend grains also occur with a fair grains
also occur with a fair proportion of calcareous grains
Desert soils are largely found in parts of Rajasthan, South Punjab and in the range of
Kutch.
6.
Saline and Alkaline soils:

Developed in the arid and semi arid regions
Poor drainage is also responsible for their development
Saline are called Alkali soils and are said to cause Boron toxicity. Treated by leaching
Alkali soils are reclaimed by applying Gypsum
Pulses and oilseeds are very sensitive to this soils
Saline soils occupies 7.2 m ha and alkali soils 2.8 m ha
Highest in Uttar Pradesh
pH is greater than 8.5
Difficult to manage
Exchangeable sodium percentage is more than 15
Electrical conductivity is more than 4 mm hos/cm
Occurrence- Indo-gangetic alluvium in the north and the deltic region
7.
Forest and Hill soils:

Estimated to be 75 m ha
Occurrence Himachal Pradesh, J& k, U. P, Uttarakhand, Bihar , Maharashtra, Kerala
and North Eastern Region
Important points to remember:

Soil profile A vertical section of the soil body which shows different layers
Soil texture The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
Soil structure Arrangement of soil particles e.g., granular, columner, compact
Solum A+B horizon
Regolith A+B+C horizon
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A well developed soil have : A, B, C horizon

The most abundant soil found in India is alluvial soil
Anion exchange capacity is found maximum in the case of Kaolinite
Cation exchange capacity is found minimum in the case of Kaolinite
Black soil is the second largest group of Indian soils
Cation exchange capacity is highest in Montmorillonite
Denitrification is more in water logged soils
In no tillage systems, the surface soil layers have high bulk density
Lime is used for reclamation of acidic soils
Maximum absorption of water by roots takes place through the root hairs
Maximum population of microorganisms found in soils are Bacteria
Most resistant mineral present in soil is Quartz
Montmorillonite (2:1), illite and Kaolinite (1:1) are clay minerals
Pedology study of soil development
Gypsum or sulphur is used for reclamation of saline soils
The most abundant mineral present on the earth is Feldspar
pH the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in the soil
Tolerance of soil salinity in crops Barley> wheat > Beans>Upland paddy
Igneous rock- Granite, Basalt; Sedimentary rocks sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite;
Metamorphic Rocks marble, slate
Check basin irrigation method is best suited for undulating topography
Red soils are best suited for irrigated agriculture
Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration of normal soils -10-12:1
The maximum moisture is available to plants at field capacity
The main source of heat for soils is solar radiation
Number of master horizons in soil are -5
Micronutrient defiant in Indian soils Zinc
Fertilizers not produced in India Muriate of Potash
Degree of soil salinity is indicated by its Total soluble salt content
Maximum saline and alkali soils are found in Uttar Pradesh
Alkali soils are generally found in Arid and semi-arid climate
Gravitational water is less available for plant or not available (-0.1 to 0.3 bar)
Capillary water- water held between 0.1-31 bars, most available for plant growth,
capillary water held between 15 bar is easily available to crop production
Hydroscopic water- water is held below permanent wilting point, except few
microbes, all plants fail to absorb hydroscopic water.
Dark colour of soils is due to presence of Titanium and Mn
Total essential nutrients 17. Recently added mineral is Ni.
Ultra micro nutrient Molybdenum
Among the soil fauna, protozoa are the most abundant
Edaphology Study of relationship between plant and soil
Petrology study of Rocks
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13. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Ext. Education is the process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour

Grow more food campaign (1947)
Grow more food enquiry committee (1952)
Etawah pilot project, Etawah dist. of UP, (1948), fore runner of community dev.
Project in India, started by Albert Mayer
Community Dev, project (1952)
National extension service (1952)
Panchayat Raj System (PRS), Balwant Roy Mehta committee, introduced PRS (3
Tier, Dist->, Block->, Village), 2 Tier by Ashok Mehta committee.
First Agricultural University as SAU, G.B.Pant AU. (1960), Uttaranchal
IADP (Intensive Agr. Dev. programme)1960
IAAP (Intensive agri. Area Prog.)----1964
HYVP (High yielding variety prog.) for wheat and paddy---1965-66
SFDA (Small Farmer Dev. Agency) ---1971-72
Rural Credit Review Committee----1960
NDP (National Demonstration project.)---1960
DAAP (1970-71) forth five year plan
Drought prone area programme 1970-71
Command area development programme - 1974
Tribal area development Programme---1972
Training and Village system----1974
KVK(first was in Pondicherry, TNAU) Teaching by doing, 1974
TRYSEM (Training Rural youth for self employment)15th Aug. 1979
IRDP(integrated rural development program me) ---2nd Oct.1980-81
JRY (Jawahar Rojgar Yojana) started by Merging National Rural employment prog
and Rural Landless employment guarantee prog. ---1989
Employment Assurance Scheme.Oct 1993
ICAR started IVLP (Institute village linkage prog.)1995
Forming System Research Extension ---1970
Lab to land Programme and National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) 1979
National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) 1998
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) 2006
Important Projects and Associated Persons
Name of Project
Associated persons
: F.L Brain
Gurgaon project
: Rabindranath Tagore
Shantiniketan
: Daniel Hamilton
Rural Reconstruction
: Spencer Hatch
Marthandom Project
: Mahatma Gandhi
Sewagram
: Albert Mayor(first project)
Etawah pilot project
: S.K Dey
Nilokheri experiment
: S.K Dey
Majdoor Manjil
: S.K Dey
Community Development
: S.N Gupta
Indian village scheme
: Kalwar and Subramaniam
National Demonstration scheme(NDS)
: Deskmukh
Young farmer association
: B.R Mehta
3 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Rajasthan)
:
Ashok Mehta
2 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Karnataka)
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T & V system
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Daniel Benore
14. CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY

Plant tissue culture:
Father of plant tissue culture Haberlandt (German)
Practical demonstration of totipotency by vasil and Hildebrandt (1964)
Micro propagation technique was first devised for Orchids
Morel and martin meristem culture. Apical meristems. Used for production of
disease free plants
Anther culture Maheswari and Guha
Molecular markers:
These are heritable difference in the nucleotide sequence of DNA at particular
position on homologous chromosome
Detected by southern blot reaction and PCR reaction
Southern hybridization developed by E. M southern (1975)
Polymerase chain reaction by KARY MULLIS (1985)
Types:
1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP):
First marker (1980)
Co-dominant in nature
Highly reproducible
2. Sequence Tagged sites (STS)
Robust markers used in human and plant genome mapping
3. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD):
Dominant marker
Non reproducibility
4. Sequence tagged Microsatellite Sites (STMS):
Co-dominant and reproducible
Used for developing a physical map
5. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP):
Co-dominant
6. Single Nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs):
Used for genotyping human population for certain genetic diseases.
Genomics:
First bacterial genome sequenced (1995) Haemophilus influenxae
First multi-cellular organism sequenced Caenorhabditis elegans
First plant sequenced (2000) Arabidopsis thaliana
First crop plant sequenced Rice
Transgenic:
An organism where a foreign gene is involved
First transgenic developed in - Tobacco
First transgenic crop plant Flavr savr tomato for delayed ripening (1994 for
commercial cultivation) by calgene company
Global transgenic covers mainly six crops i.e. soybean, corn, cotton, canola, squash and
papaya
Common traits engineered herbicide, Insect (only cry genes from Bt) and virus
resistance
Transgenic crop cultivated area is highest in USA (59%) followed by Argentina, Canada
and Brazil
Crops having highest transgenic cultivation area is soybean followed by corn and cotton
In India, only transgenic crop cultivated commercially is cotton
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In India, released of transgenic variety is approved by Genetic Engineering Approval

committee (GEAC) under ministry of environment and forest.
Biosafety procedures for transgenics are governed by Environmental Protection Act
(EPA) 1986.
Higher plants whose genome has been sequenced:
Organism
Type
Relevance
Genome Number Organization

size
of genes
predicted
Arabidopsis
Wild
Model plant
120 Mb 25,498
Arabidopsis
thaliana
mustard
Genome
Ecotype:Columbia Thale Cress
Initiative[23]
Oryza sativa ssp
Rice
Crop and
420 Mb 32Beijing
indica
model
50,000
Genomics
organism
Institute,
Zhejiang
University and
the Chinese
Academy of
Sciences
Oryza sativa ssp
Rice
Crop and
466 Mb 46,022Syngenta and
japonica
model
55,615
Myriad
organism
Genetics
Physcomitrella
Bryophyte
Model
500 Mb 39,458
US Department
patens
organism
of Energy
early
Office of
diverging
Science Joint
land plant
Genome
Institute
Populus
Balsam
Carbon
550 Mb 45,555
The
trichocarpa
poplar or
sequestration,
International
Black
model tree,
Poplar Genome
Cottonwood commercial
Consortium
use (timber),
and
comparison
to A. thaliana
Vitis vinifera
Grapevine
Fruit crop
490 Mb 30,434
The FrenchPN40024
Italian Public
Consortium for
Grapevine
Genome
Characterization
Carica papaya
Papaya
Fruit crop
372 Mb 28,629
Hawaii
'SunUp'
Agricultural
Research Center
and others
Cucumis sativus
Cucumber
Vegetable
367 Mb 26,682
Chinese
'Chinese
crop
Academy of
long' inbred
Agricultural
line 9930
Sciences,
Beijing
Glycine max
Soybean
Protein and
1,100
46,430
Purdue
Soyabean
oil crop
Mb
University
Soya
Zea mays ssp
Corn
Cereal crop
2,800
32,000
NSF
mays
(maize)
Mb
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Year of
completion
2000
2002
2002
2008
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2009

B73
Brachypodium
distachyon
purple false
brome
Model
monocot
(grass)
272 Mb
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The International
Brachypodium
Initiative
2010
15. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Ozone layer is mainly found in the lower stratospheric layer, more appropriately 25
km height from the ground
Troposphere and stratosphere contain 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere
World agriculture started about 10,000 years back
Indian agriculture started about 6000 years back
First biosphere reserve in India is Nilgiri biosphere reserve
Among different Biogeochemical cycle, only phosphorus does not have any
atmospheric reservoir
Red Data Book related to categories of threatened, endangered, extinct species
Biogas contain 50-60 % methane
Green house gases Co2, CH4, N2O, CFC
Of all the green house gases carbon dioxide contributes for maximum in Global
warming
Green house gas produced in rice field is Methane
Jatropha is used to produce Bio fuel
Itai-Itai and Manimata disease is due to Cadmium and Mercury Toxicity.
Kyoto protocol signed in 1997, adopted in 2005.
1 kg weight fish has 1 80 mg DDT in body what be in ppm - 80ppm
Which chemical is used for preservation benzoic acid
After Bhopal gas tragedy use of which pesticide was banned Aldicarb
Lactose is glucose + glactose
Blue asbestos has a) sodium iron silicate b)sodium aluminium silicate c) silicon
aluminium sulphate d) none
ans a)
In lithosphere which has maximum concentration: Fe/O/Si/Na
(46.6%)>Si (27.72%)>Al (8.13%)>Fe (5%)>Ca (3.63%)>Na (2.83%)>K
(2.59%)>Mg (2.09%) up to 16 Km of earth crust.
Upper 5 Km of earth crust contain 74% i.e. 3/4th Sedimentary rocks(shale 52%+sand
stone 15%+limestone & dolomite 7%), 18% Igneous rocks (granite 15% + basalt
3%) and 8% other rocks are found in whole earth crust contain 95% igneous rocks
and 5% sedimentary rocks (shale 4%, and sandstone 0.75%, limestone 0.025%)
Biodiesel is produced from: trans-esterification of vegitable/animal lipid or oil is a
monoalkyl ester of long chain fatty acid
Ethanol is produced from: fermentation of charbohydrate containing matter eg Corn,
Sugar cane
In India 10% blending is done in gasoline.
Metals have: a) unfilled p orbital, b) unfilled d orbital, c) both a & b, d) none
ans-b
Acid rain has pH: a) 5.6, b) 5.8, c) 5.4, d) 4
ans-a
2
Cattle population per 100 Km is maximum in: a) Bihar, b) Haryana, c) UP, d)
Maharashtra
Ans-b
Orange is resistant to: a) HF, b) NH3, c) NO2, d) SO2
Cd is present in which fertilizer: phosphatic fertilizer
Natural radiation contribute what % of total radiation 83%
Which one is extinct whale: killer whale/ sperm whale/ blue whale/ Indian dolphin
Who said environment can satisfy the need not the greed: a) MS Swaminathan b)
Manmohan Singh c) Mahatma Gandhi
Ans- c
Fecundity means: ability to reproduce
Ability to maintain internal stability is called: Homeostasis
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Agent Orange is the code name for a herbicide and defoliantcontaminated
with TCDD
N2O can be detected by:
a)FID
b)TCD
c) ECD d) All
ans-c
Spectrophotometer is based on principle of: absorption spectrum
Biogas contain: 60% Methane and 40% carbon dioxide
Bird evolves in- Jurassic period (150 millions year ago)
Coca cola contain SnCl2 which is: emulsifier/ antioxidant/ stabilizer
ans-b
Largest source of S is: volcanic eruption
Convert 0.09 ppm to mg/m 3: 1ppm= mg/l = mg/1000cc = mg1000000/1000m3=
1000mg/ m3 ans=90
Convert 9 ppm to %: 1ppm= 1/106 so in % 1 x 100/106 = 10-4 %
Ans= 9 x 10-4
Definition of Niche: functional role of a species in an ecosystem
Cybernetics: science of control or regulation
Vienna convention on protection of ozone layer was held in year: 1985
Highest CEC in which soil: sandy/ clay/ loamy
ans-b
Degradation of pesticide is maximum in which soil : sandy/ clay/ loamy
ans-b
Denitrification occur in which type of soil: water logged/ anaerobic condition
Bioaccumulation occur due to: fat or lipid solubility
Traditional
detergent
contain:
phosphorus/
sulphur/
nitrogen
ans-a
Hg retention time in soil:
Jet stream has sound intensity:
Sulphur contain of diesel is:
Ethanol + petrol = % of O2
What get leaked in ship wreck at Haldia in 1993 soda ash
Radioactive nuclei involved in Delhi health hazard in 2010- Co-60, gamma radiation,
5.25 year half life
Full form of PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls
What is biodiversity index:
A Q I- Air quality Index- 0-500, higher the AQI poor the quality of air
W Q I- water quality index 1-100, higher the WQI better the quality of water,
detrmined by 9 parametrs (pH, BOD, Fecal coliform, nitrate, phosphate, TDS,
temperature change & turbidity)
SQI soil quality indicator
What is bio-concentration factor (BCF) % of bioaccumulative substances in tissue
of aquatic organism in relation to concentration of that substance in to environment
i.e. water whwre organism live = Corg/Cinv X 100, assume accumulation is through
water only
BAF bio accumulation factor assume both organism and their food are equally
exposed
% of water in ocean: 97.5%
Fresh water = 2.5% (2% cryosphere or ice, 0.4% ground water, 1% lake (0.02), soil
(0.005), atmosphere (0.0005), river (0.0001), & biota water
Maximum fresh water trapped in: ice cap
C-14 is emitter of which ray: / /
ans-
Fluoride problem is maximum in which state: Rajasthan
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Sink of Pb is: smelter/coal
Journal of environmental conservation and monitoring published from :
Difference between point source and non point source of pollutants
Point source easily identifiable sewage/industrial/commercial waste
discharge
Non point source diffused not easily identifiable runoff /
agriculture/atmospheric fall
Fog is: liquid (water) in gas/ solid in gas/liquid in liquid
ans- liquid in gas
In photochemical smog which has maximum concentration: ozone/PAN/SO2
ans-a
Recently recognized hot spot in India: NE Himalya
Typhoid is due to: Salmonella typhae
SARS is due to : a) coronavirus b) neumoravirus
Most important process of photoreaction in atmosphere is: photosynthesis
Which parameter is important in methane emission: a) pH b) EC c) ESP
ans-a
Golden langur and Chinkara deer are example of: a) endangered species b) extinct
ans-a
Which state has two biosphere reserve: Assam
Which is not considered in EIA: human interest
In AAS Bears-Lamberts low cannot be directly applied why:
What is commensalism
Commensalism = one benefited(+) & other has no effect(0)
Byssinosis is coused by: cotton
DDT is soluble in: lipid or fat
Pb is: a) chalcophile b) siderophile
ans-a
NOx concentration in atmosphere is: 310ppb
NO2
SO2
Estuaries has which type of water: brackish Water
Vivisection is called a) mass cutting of forest b) ivory trade c) animal for lab
purpose
ans- c
Anthropogenic to natural emission of metal in environment is called:
Atrazene is a: pre-emergence herbicide
Nitrogen fixing plants - LEGUMINOUS
Biofertilizers Azolla
1KWH=3.6MJ
First wind energy farm in India: Mandvi
Energy obtained from wind will be: a) squire of velocity b) cube of velocity
Height of troposphere: 11km
Which is not a physical process for air pollution control: a) wet scrubbing b)
electrostatic precipitator c) bag house
ans a)
Minimum organic matter decomposition occur in which climate: a) cold & wet b) hot
& humid c)cold & dry ans a)
Protozoa found up to what depth in soil: 15 cm
Aldehyde to ethan conversion is done by a) Xymase b) converage c) diesterage
TCME in Japan
Environmental (protection) rule 1998 and act 1986
Denitrification occure in- waterlogged soil
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Abulation is emission of methane from water body as bubble
Pyrolysis take place in absence of oxygen
Maximum erosion is due to a) wheat b) clover C) potato d) sorghum
ans a)
Not naturally managed ecosystem is - a) agriculture b) forest c) marine
ans a)
90 -95% nitrogen in mineral soil are in the form of a) organic matter b)ammonia c)
nitrate
ans-a
Maximum degradation occur by a) physical b)chemical c)water d) air
ans a)
Which do not influence the climate of a place temperature of land & sea/volume of
ice caps/ocean current /shifting of wind belt
ans a)
Tickling filter is used for a) coagulation b) separation
ans a)
Dry habitat vegetation is called xerophytes
Sinc of Pb a) atmosphere b) soil and sediments c) ocean
ans a)
Source of Pb a) smelter b) coal
ans a)
Ecological pyramid is a) tropical structure b) energy flow
ans a)
Crop rotation does not affect a) drainage to toxicity b) pest biological control c)
nutrient build-up ans a)
Soil properties which not change soil texture
What is biome a large area characterized by major vegetation type
What is ecology
Which is not a fumigant a) DDT b) EDB c) ALP
ans a)
SI unit of energy joule
IGFRI is at Jhansi
Minimum Pb concentration in blood that inhibit ALA enzyme 0.3 ppm
Earth day is celebrated on 22 April
What is biotic potential- is the maximum reproductive capacity of a population if
resources are unlimited
Azolla is used in paddy field
Low of minima was given by Liebig
Relation hip between absorbance and transmittance : A= Log 1/T
BOD at 25oC is measerd for how many days 3 days
BOD at 20oC for 5 days
Jet planes release Nox
SI unit of pressure Pascal
pH of sea water 8.2 0.2
mass of nitrogen in dry air 75%
Air pressure will be highest on see level
Silent spring was written by Rachel Carson
Buffering capacity refers to ability to resist change in pH
1987 protocol which called for 50% cut off in CFC by 2000 is called Montreal
protocol
In Scandinavia fish kill was due to acid rain
Which is not given by uranium degradation a)Ba b) Kr c) xe d) neutron
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Year of natural conservation 1980
Process of heating at high temperature without fusiona) smelting b) roasting c)
combustion d) calcinations
Erosion
is
caused
by
deforestration/
agriculture/
all
ans-c
Methane contribution to global warming CO2 (74%) > CH4 (16%) > N2O (9%) >
CFCs (1%)
GWP of nitrous oxide is what times of carbon dioxide 200 , methane(20)
Mega- diversity centre in world 12
India has 3 hot spots of biodiversity Viz. the western ghat, The North eastern region
and the Eastern Himalayas
Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) also called Earth Summit was held in Rio De
Janerio, Brazil in 1992. Came into force in 1993
Biodiversity Act of India, 2002, implemented in 2004
Centre of origin and centre of diversity proposed by N. I Vavilov
Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPVFR)- 2001
National Biodiversity Board located in New Delhi
Indian Institute of Biodiversity (2001-2002) located in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh
Largest and oldest centre of crop diversity China centre
Crop origin centre having highest diversity Hindustan centre
International treaty on Plant genetic Resources for food and agriculture (ITPGRFA)
signed under FAO in Rome in 2001
WTO came into being in 1995; its head quarter is in Switzerland
Plant quarantine order, 2003
Sanitary and Phytosanitary standards under GATT, 1994
UPOV convention held in 1961. Headquarter located in Geneva
Total no of Hot spot of Biodiversity in the world 34
Citrus gene sanctuary located in Garo hills, Meghalaya
Rhododendron and orchids gene sanctuary located in Sikkim
IPGRI located in Rome, Italy
Biodiversity Hot spots term given by Meyer
Examples of In -situ conservation Biosphere reserves, national parks, Sanctuaries,
Sacred groves etc.
Examples of Ex- situ conservation Field gene bank, Botanical gardens, Herbal
gardens, Clonal repositories, Cryo-gene bank etc.
New seed development policy, 1988
PFS order enacted in 1989
Wildlife (protection) Act 1972
Forest (conservation) Act 1980
Institute of Bioresource management and sustainable use located in Manipur
The Cartagena protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000
2010 is declared as the International Year of Biodiversity by FAO
India contributes 7.5% biological diversity in the world.
India contributes 2.5% Global landmass in the world.
33% of sp. In India is endemic.
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16. SEED TECHNOLOGY
Seed is a ripened mature ovule that consists of embryo, seed coat and cotyledons
Smallest seeds Orchid seeds
Largest seeds Double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica)
Types of seeds:
1. Dicotyledonous seeds:
(A) Exalbuminous seeds (Non-endospermic seeds):
Seeds which do not have endosperm at maturity.
Examples Pea, Gram, Bean, Tamarind, Cucurbits, Gourd, Cucumber,
Groundnut, Jute etc.
(B) Albuminous seeds (Endospermic seeds):
Endosperms present until maturity. Cotyledons are thin acting as food
sucking organ
Example : Castor, Papaya, Cotton
2. Monocotydonous seeds:
(A) Albuminous seeds
Examples Maize, Wheat, Rice, Coconut
(B) Exalbuminous seed:
Examples Pothos, Amorphophallus, Alisma etc.
Storage substance:
- Rice Oryzein
- Wheat Glutenin
- Barley Hordein
- Maize Zein
- Pea Legumin
- Soybean Nodulin
- Sunflower Inulin
- Grain legumes Phaseolin
TYPES OF GERMINATION:
1) Epigeal:
Cotyledons emerge above the soil surface by elongation of hypocotyls and
generally became green
Examples Green gram, Black gram, Groundnut, Soybean, Pumpkin, Okra,
Cucumber, Mustard, Cotton, Jute, Castor, Tomato, French bean etc.
2) Hypogeal:
Cotyledons do not emerge above soil surface. The hypocotyl may elongate and
emerge above soil surface but the epocotyl grows first
Examples Rice, Lathyrus, Maize, Wheat, Barley, Coconut, Broad bean, Pea
etc.
SEED TESTING:
- The first seed testing station was founded by Prof. F Nobbe at Germany in 1869
- The International seed testing Association (ISTA) was established in 1924 in
Norway
- Central seed testing Laboratory (CSTL) established at IARI, New Delhi in 1960
now shifted to Varanasi, U.P
GROW OUT TEST:
- Refers to those test in which appropriate samples of seeds are grown to
determine the genetic purity of a given seed lot of released cultivars
TETRAZOLIUM (TZ) TEST:
- Given by Lakon (1942)
- Tetrazolium test is a quick, easy and popular method of testing seed viability
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-
This test utilised the chemical 2, 3, 5 Triphenyl Tetrazolium chloride or

bromide which is a cream or light yellow colour compound.
- This chemical is reduced to an insoluble and stable red colour compound
called Formazen in the presence of Dehydrogenase group enzymes
- This test should not be applied to any sample containing dry germinated seeds.
CLASSES OF IMPROVED SEED:
A) Nucleus seed:
It is the initial seed of an improved variety which is always limited in
quantity
It is produced by the originating plant breeder
Purity It is genetically and physically cent percent pure
Certification exempted from certification by seed certifying agency but
should be certified by the breeder
Use for breeder seed production. It is not meant for general distribution
B) Breeder seed:
It is the progeny of nucleus seed or breeder seed
It is produced under strict supervision of original or sponsoring plant
breeder at the research farm of the concerned crop research institute or
agricultural university
Production produced in isolation from other varieties.
Purity genetically and physically cent percent pure
Certification No certification
Use- For foundation seed production. Not meant for distribution
Tagging Gold coloured tag signed by the breeder.
C) Foundation seed:
It is the progeny by breeder seed
Production produced by National Seeds Corporation under the strict
supervision of research scientists and experts from NSC at Govt. Seed
multiplication farms. It is produced in isolation
Purity genetically 100% pure. Physical purity 98%
Certification undertaken by seed certification agency
Use For production of registered seed or certified seed production. Not
for general distribution
Tagging White Tag signed by the certifying agency
D) Registered seed:
Progeny of either foundation seed or registered seed
In India, registered seed is generally omitted and certified seed is produced
directly from the foundation seed
Production By progressive cultivators at the farms under strict
supervision of NSC.
Purity genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98%
Certification It is done by the SSCA
Use For production of certified or registered seed
Tagging Purple colour
E) Certified seed:
Progeny of either foundation or registered or certified seed
Production produced on the fields of progressive farmers under the
strict supervision of SSCA
Purity - genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98%
Certification Done By SSCA
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Use available for general distribution to the farmers for commercial

production
Tagging Blue colour Tag
IMPORTANT POINTS:
The Indian seed act was enacted in 29th Dec, 1966 and has been in force since oct. 2nd
1969
The Indian seed Act was amended on sept.9, 1972
Indian patent Act -1970
National Seeds Corporation was initiated in 1961. It started functioning in July, 1963
with its headquarters in New Delhi.
National seed project (NSP) established in 1976
New seed bill 2004
Nordic seed bank - Norway
Dockage the impurity percentage of a seed lot
Seed lot certificate colour is orange or green
Seed sample certificate colour is blue
Harvesting index is maximum in carrot
The two most important factors influencing the life span of seeds under storage are
relative humidity and temperature
Headquarters of ISTA- Zurich, Switzerland
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17. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Father of agricultural engineering in India Professor Mason Vaugh

First bachelors degree course in agricultural engineering in India Allhabad
agricultural Institute ,Allahabad (1942-43)
Indian society of agricultural engineers (ISAE) 1960 at IIT Kahargpur and presently
its headquarter is at New Delhi
ISAE publications: 1) Journal Of Agaricultural Engineering (JAE)
2) Agricultural Engineering Today (ATE)
1960- 61 atractor manuufacturing started in india by first manufacture m/s eicher
good earth
Average man can develop maxium power of about 0.1hp (74.6 watts) for doing farm
work
Power developed by an average pair bullocks is about 1hp (746 wants) for usual farm
work
The averge force a draft animal can exert is nearly one tenth of its body weight
Unit power availavle for crop production (india) is about 1.35 kw/ha but for desirable
level of agricultural production power requirment could about 2.15 kw/ha
Thermal efficiency for diesel engine 32 to 38%
Thermal efficiency for petrol engine 25 to 32%
Of the total energy produced in india the share of thermal power is about 56%,hydro
electrical
Power (36%) ,nuclear power(16%) and rest comes from deisel and gas based power.
The farm holding in india are classified as (a) marginal(<1ha),(b) small(1-2 ha) , (c)
semi medium (2-4ha) ,(d) medium (4-10),(e) large(>10 ha)
At present agricultural machinery population is estimated at about 150 million which
includes about 3 million tractor .(2.5 lakh tractor/year ,10000 power tiller /year)
The most popular tractor is found in 31-40 hp segment , which accounts for 60% of
the total sales in the country
Biogas
Biomass: mixture of methane (45-70%) and carbon dioxide(30-35%)
Cattle dung : water ratio for biogas slurry : 4:5or 1:1
Buffaloes : 15 kg dunr/day, bullocks or cows : 10 kg dung /day and calves : 5kg
dung/day
Suitable condition for biogas production ph(7-8), temperature(35 c)
Biogas calorific value -4500 kcal/m^3
Wind energy
The speed required for operation of wind mill 10 to 15 km/hr
Two types of wind mill (horizontal axis and vertical axis rotr)
1. Horizontal axis rotor axis of rotion is parallel to the direction of wind
i . Multi blade
ii. Propeller most commonaly used
iii. Sail type
2. Vertical axis rotor axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of wind
Components of wind mill :- tower ,head ,roto ,transmission gear ,pump,generator
Power available wind mill depends upon (1) wind speed (2) cross section of wind
swept by rotor
(3) Overall conversion efficiency of rotor , transmission system,generator
Solar energy
Temperature of sun 5777 k
Radition range from sun ,0.4 um maximum available range,
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<0.4 um ultraviolet radiation (8% of radition),
0.4-0.7 um visible radiation (46%)
>0.7 um infrared radiation (46%)
Solar constant : solar radiation received per second by surface of unit area held
normal to the direction of sun rays at mean earth sun distance. Its value 1350 w/m2
or 1.94 cal/s/m2
Radiation measurement
o Pyrheliometer : beam radiation (direct radiation)
o Pyranometer : total radiation (global radiation)- accurate
o Solarimeter : total radiation (global radiation )- inaccurate
o Pyrometer: very high temp measurement
Collection of solar radiation (three ways)
1 By flat plate collector : temp range 40 centigrade to 100 centigrade
2 Focussing or concentrating colletore (>100 c)
3 Photovoltaic cell (soller cell) : directly convert solar energy in to electricity made
of Silicon separated by thin brrier with conversion efficiency is about 10%
Portable water contained <550 ppm of salt ,sea water contained 30000-40000 ppm of
salt ,groundwater contained<2000-3000 ppm of salt
Solar still device converts saline water in to portable water.
Green house is structure made of polythene/rain forced fibre to provide controlled
condition for crop production
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18. AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS

SUN AND THE EARTH SYSTEM
The sun is a star and is a part of the Milky Way Galaxy. Sun rotates in an anticlockwise direction i. e. from west to east. The temperature at the surface of the sun
is around 6000C.
The earth is at a mean distance of 150 million km from the sun. The mean surface
temperature of the earth is 15 C.
the shortest distance between the sun and the earth is called perihelion (147 million
km) occurring on 3rd January and the longest distance is called Aphelion (152 million
km) occurring on 4th July.
Solar constant is defined as the total amount of solar radiation received per unit area
per init time in the absence of atmosphere, the radiation being perpendicular and the
earth at its mean distance from the sun. its value is 1.94 cal/cm2/min or 1.94
Langley/min.
There are four seasons in a year namely winter solistice (2nd Dec), Spring equinox (21
March), summer solistice (Jun 21st) and autumn equinox (23rd September).
During equinox, the sun is at the equator during solistices, the sun is at either tropic of
cancer (summer solistice) or Capricorm (winter solistice).
ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPOSITION
The vast expanse of air , which envelops the earth all around, is called the
atmosphere.
It can be broadly divided into four layers namely troposphere (upto 18 km in the
equator and 8 km in the poles), stratosphere (8 or 18 km 50 km), mesosphere
(50km- 80km) and thermosphere (80km- 400km).
Pure dry air constitutes mainly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%). Co2
(0.03%), hydrogen, helium, water vapor, ozone, dust particles, smoke, salts and other
impurities.
Like a green house, it allows short wave radiation to enter into it and reach the earths
surface but is nearly opaque to long wave terrestrial radiation from the sun (Green
House Effect)
Some of the important Green house gases are CO2 CFC1s- Chlorofluorocarbons, CH$
Nitrous oxide, etc.,
The atmosphere protects the earth from the harmful radiation of the sun with the help
of the Ozone (O3) layer
METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY (WEATHER AND CLIMATE)
The study of envelope of air surrounding the planet and of the phenomena associated
with the atmosphere is called Meteorology.
A component of Meteorology is the study of weather. Weather is the present
condition of the atmosphere at a particular. It is mainly concerned with its day-today effects on life and human activities.
Climatology is the study of long-term manifestations of the weather represented by a
statistical collection of weather conditions over a specific length of period usually at
least a few decades.
The use of science of Meteorology for agriculture is called Agricultural Meteorology.
The various elements that combinedly express weather are air pressure and wind,
temperature. Relative Humidity, precipitation (rainfall, snow, fog, hails, etc),
visibility.
The climate is controlled by four factors called Climatic controls Astronomical
factors, Geomorphological factors, solar factors and Anthropogenic factors.
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The Nine Climatic controls are latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, land and sea
distribution, semi-permanent pressure system, storm tracks, occan currents, mountain
barriers and air masses.
WEATHER ELEMENTS
Pressure:
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time.
It is measured by means of an instrument called (Aneroid) Barometer. It is measured
as force per unit area. The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called
millibars (mb). One millibars force of one gram on a sq. cm. A pressure 1000mb =
weight of 1.053 kg. Sq. cm. Normal pressure at sea level is 76 cm (1013.25 mb).
An Isobar is an imaginary line joining places of equal atmospheric pressure reduced
to sea level.
On the earths surface there are seven pressure belts. They are equatorial low (the
doldrums) the sub-tropical high (horse latitudes) the sub-polar low and the polar high.
Except the equatorial low, all others have matching pairs in the Northern and the
Southern Hemisphere.
Wind:
Horizontal movement of air is called wind. The vertical movement of air is called air
current
Lines joining places of equal wind speed are called Isotachs
Winds of high speed are called Squalls.
Due to horizontal differences in air pressure. air flows from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure.
Wing direction is determined with the help of a wind vane and the speed or velocity
of the wind by Robinsons Cup Anemometer. In a wind vane. The head denotes the
direction from which the air is blowing and the tail denotes the direction to which the
air blowing.
The two most well understood and significant winds for climate and human activities
are the trade winds and the westerly winds.
Winds which blow throughout the year from one latitude to other in response to the
latitudinal differences in air pressure are called prevailing winds or planetary winds
(e.g. Trade Winds)
The winds blowing from sub-tropical high-pressure areas (30 N and S latitude)
towards the equatorial low-pressure belts are the extremely steady winds known as the
trade winds. They blow from west to east.
Near the equator, the trade, winds clash with each other and on the line of
convergence, they rise and cause heavy rainfall.
The Westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts
towards the polar low-pressure belts. They blow from southwest to northeast in the
Northern Hemisphere and from northwest to southeast in the southern Hemisphere.
The westerlies are best developed between 40 and 60 latitudes. These latitudes are
called roaring forties, furious fifties and shrieking sixties.
Periodic winds:
The winds that reverse their direction periodically with season are called periodic
winds. The monsoons are the best example of large-scale modifications of the
planetary wind systems.
The word monsoon is derived form the Arabic word Mausim which means season.
The monsoon winds thus refer to wind systems that have a pronounced reversal of
direction.
In India, 80-90% of the rainfall is obtained from two monsoons namely southwest
Monsoon and North East or Retreating monsoon.
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Normally, the southwest monsoon reaches the Kerala Coast by the end of May,
advances along the Konkan coast in early June and extends over the entire country by
the end of July. The rains continue up to the end of September, when the southwest
monsoon recedes.
In November and December, Northeast monsoon is the main contributor of rain over
the southeastern part of the peninsular region especially Tamil Nadu.
The monsoon depressions can be said to be the single factor that controls the
distribution of rainfall over the whole of India. These low-pressure systems. Which
originate near the head Bay of Bengal and travel across the country in a west and
northwesterly direction.
Heavy rainfall mainly occurs to the south of the tracks of these depressions. 3 to 4
depressions are found in a month during these monsoons.
When they take a normal Northwesterly track, there is flood in the Northern India
and drought in the peninsula. When they follow an abnormal track across central
India, there is flood in the Peninsular parts and drought in the Northern part of India.
These depressions terminate in Gujarat and Rajasthan. When a depression reaches
these states. They get abundant rains; otherwise they are subject to a prolonged
drought.
Occasionally there are one or two monsoon breaks during the monsoon seasons.
These types of breaks normally bring floods in the rivers of Northern Bengal and
Bihar.
Thunderstorms and Hails:
Nimbostratus clouds indicate thunderstorms.
Sudden change in the weather of particular place with heavy downpour is called
thunderstorms and hail is rain in the form of ice crystals. Thunderstorms and hail are
predominant weather phenomenon before and after monsoon seasons. Important ones
are Kalbaisakis in Bengal and Andhis over North West India.
Cyclonic storms:
Caused due to the creation of low-pressure zones. They cause severe damage to the
coastal zoos on an average 2-3 storms may be expected in a year.
They are associated with the high wind speeds and tidal winds
Western Disturbances
Series of disturbances in the form of cloudy weather and light rainfall in the plains
and snow fall in the hills.
These disturbances affect the Rabi crops.
Rainfall:
Line joining places of equal rainfall are called Isohyets.
Most of the rainfall of India is obtained from the Southwest and North East Monsoon
seasons.
The constancy by which a place receives rainfall is studied with the help of Coefficient of variation (CV). High CV means very little or scanty rainfall. In parts of
Saurashtra and Kutch, the CV of rainfall is 40-50% whereas in western Rajasthan it is
80-90%.
Rainfall measuring device ordinary and automatic/self-recording rain gauge.
Drought:
Below 75% of the normal rainfall and severe drought when it is below 50%.
In Indian history the year 1987 was recorded as the worst drought affected year
followed by 2000.
Palmers drought Index is calculated with data on rainfall, ET and soil moisture.
Evapo-transpiration and Water balance:
Evapo-transpiration = Evaporation from the soil surface + transpiration from plants.
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The extent to which the water needs of a crop are met in a locality depends on the
rainfall input the losses due to run off and the evapo-transpiration.
In India areas of high annual PET are extreme west of Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and
extreme south of Tamil Nadu (Tuticorin).
Evaporation is determined using USWB Class A Open pan Evaporimeter.
ET is measured using Lysimeters.
Temperature:
Temperature is the degree of hotness of a substance.
Lines joining places of equal temperature are called Isotherms.
Sunshine is not a limiting factor in crop production any where in India.
High humidity and warm temperatures are conducive to most plant pest and diseases.
Weather modification:
Cloud seeding technique- Silver Iodide is used for cold clouds and sodium chloride is
used for warm clouds.
General Points:
Crop yield formulation is done using Regression Techniques.
India has been divided into 15 Agro-climatic Zones.
Institutions Involved:
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune, Maharashtra.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
International Crop Research Institute for semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad,
AP.
National Centre for Medium Range weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), New Delhi.
93/122
19. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN INDIA

1871
1877-78
1881
1892
1899-1900
1901
1903
1901-05
1905
1919
1928
: Dept. of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce (DRAC) (chief function:

collection of statistics (revenue) and not agril. research) during the tenure of
Lord Mayo.
: India faced severe famine and GOI resolved to set up a Central Dept. of
Agriculture controlled by imperial Secretariat.
: Dept. of Agriculture were set up in provinces
: Agriculture chemist and an Assistant Chemist were appointed to look after
research and teaching.
: Famine
: Inspector general of Agriculture and an imperial mycologist were appointed
to advice to imperial and provincial govts. On agricultural matters.
: An Entomologist was employed.
: Agricultural colleges were established at Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur,
Lyallapur and Coimbatore.
: Agricultural Research institute was established at pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon.
The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was
Named as PUSA.
: Constitutional reforms made agriculture as state subject.
: Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord Linlithgow recommended
setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and
coordinate agricultural research throughout India.
THE COMMODITY COMMITTEES:

Ministry of Food and Agriculture started several committees concerned with research
and development activities related to specific crops. Some had their own research
stations and some are self financed.
Year
Committee
Research station/ Institute
1921
Cotton committee
Technological laboratory now CTRL Matunga)
1931
Lac cess committee
Indian lac Research institute, Namkum (1936),

Bihar
1936
Jute Committee
Jute Agricultural; Research institute,

Barrakpore Jute Technological Research
Laboratory, Calcutta, West bengal (Continues
at Page 41)
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES
C.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, is the first
Agricultural University established in the year 1960.
Central agricultural University, Shillong, is the latest established Agricultural
University
There are 30 State Agricultural Universities.
Maximum 4 Universities in Maharastra
Project Directorates:
94/122
Name
Rice
Oilseeds
Poultry
Pulses
Wheat
Biological Control
Water management
Cropping Systems Research
Cattle
Vegetable Research
Place
Hyderabad
Hyderabad
Hyderabad
Kannpur
Karnal
Bangalore
Rahuri
Modhipuram
Meerut
Varanasi
National Research Centers (NRCs) :

Integrated Pest Management
Groundnut
Sorghum
Soybean
Cashew
Citrus
Mushroom Research and Training
Spices
Agro-forestry
Weed Science
Camel
Equines
Meat
Methuen
Yak
Cold Water Fisheries
Orchids
Mustard
Plant Biotechnology
New Delhi (IARI)

Junagarh
Hyderabad
Indore
Puttur
Nagpur
Solan
Calicut
Jhansi
Japalpur
Bikaner
Hisar
Izatnagar
Jharnapani
Dirang
Haldwani
Gangtok
Bharatpur
New Delhi (IARI)
National Bureaus (6):

NBPGR
: National bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, IARI
NBAGR
: National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources, Karnal, Haryana
NBAGR
: National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Allahabad (UP).
NBSSLUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur.
NBAIM
: National Bureau of Agricultural Important Microorganism, Mau (UP)
NBAII
: National Bureau of Agricultural Important Insects, Bangalore (Karnatka)
Other Institutes:
Under Ministry of Rural Development:
NIRD: National Institute for Rural Development. Hyderabad. Gauhati.
Under Ministry of Foods and Agriculture and Cooperation :
o MANAGE: National institute for Agriculture Extension Management.
Hyderabad.
o NAARM: National Academy for Agricultural Research Management.
Organization: Streams of Extension in India:
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1. The ICAR extension system, comprising mainly Research Institutes and

Agricultural Universities.
2. Extension System of Ministry of Agriculture and the State Departments of
Agricultural.
3. Extension System of the Ministry of Rural Development and State Development
Departments, and
4. Development work by the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Business
houses etc.
Front-line Transfer of Technology Programmes of ICAR:
1964
1974
1974
1979
1944
National Demonstrations
Operational Research Project
Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Lab to Land Program
Sugarcane committee
1945
Coconut Committee
1945
Tobacco Committee
1947
Oil Seeds committee
1949
1958
Arecanut Committee
Spices and Cashewnut Committee
The central commodity committees were later abolished (beginning in 1965) and the
research institutes under their control were transferred to ICAR.
1965: Project for intensification of regional Research on cotton, Oilseeds and millets
(PIRPCOM) First coordinated research work on regional basis was initiated in
1956 as a joint effort by ICAR and Indian Central Committees on oilseeds and
Cotton. Seventeen centres were established throughout the country
Place
Coimbatore
Bellary, Dhadesagur,
Dharwad, Silakere
Rajendranagar
Amaravati, Mohol
Junagarh, Surat
Gwalior,
Hosangabad
Ajmer
Kanpur
Patiala
Sirsa
IARI
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore

Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research,
Lucknow
Central Coconut Research Stations.
Kanyagulam and Kasargod
Central Tobacco Research institute,
Rajahmundry
Financed research Schemes, head quarters
at Hyderabad.
Arecanut Research Station, Vittal
Financed Research schemes
State
Tamil Nadu
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh
Maharashtra
Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh
Research work on
Cotton, Jowar, Groundnut
Cotton, Jowar, Kharif Jowar,
Ragi, Groundnut
Castir, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar
Rabi Jowar
Jowar, Groundnut cotton, Jowar
Kharif Jowar, Linseed
Rajasthan
Uttar Pradesh
Punjab
Haryana
New Delhi
Jowar, Bajra
Indian Mustard, Bajra
Toria, taramaria
Cotton
Cotton, Jowar, Bajra, linseed
AII India coordinated Research Project:
96/122
1957: All India coordinated research project on maize was established with aid from
Rockfellar foundation.
1965: ACRIPs were started on other crops as well as in other areas of Research.
Crops
Place
Maize
Jowar
Barley
Millets
Forage crops
National seeds project
Sugarcane
Sugar beet
Cotton
Jute and allied fibres
Soybean
Tobacco
Cotton Project (WB assisted)
Fruits
Citrus
Tuber crops
Potato
Vegetables
Medicinal and Aromatic plants
Spices and Cashewnut
Coconut and Arecanut
Under utilized and under exploited
plants
New Delhi
Hyderabad
Karnal
Pune
Jhansi
New Delhi
Lucknow
Pantnagar
Coimbatore
Barrackpore
Indore
Anand
Nagpur
Bangalore
Bangalore
Dholi (Bihar)
Simla
New Delhi
New Delhi
Kasargod
Kasargod
New Delhi
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH:

1928: Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord linlithgow recommended
setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and
coordinate agricultural research throughout India.
rd
23 May, 1929 : Imperial Council for Agricultural Research was established
President
: Mohammed Habibullah
Vice-President: Vijaya Raghavacharya
Secretary
: Mr. S.A. Hydari
Governing body has 16 members.
March, 1946 : The name Imperial council of Agricultural Research Institute was
changed to Indian council of agricultural research by then president Sir Jogendra
Singh.
Reorganization or ICAR:
In 1963, the Agricultural review Team headed by Dr. Marion W. Parker of USDA
was appointed. Based on its recommendations ICAR was made a fully automonous
organization in 1966.
IARI, New Delhi, NDRI, Karnal and IVRI, Izathnagar were made national Institutes.
97/122
A policy was mad to appoint an agricultural scientist as the Chief Executive of ICAR,
with the designation of Director General, Dr. B. P. Pal became first DG of ICAR in
1965.
Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE):
In June 1972 Gajendragadkar committee was established to review the recruitment
and personal policies of ICAR and its institutes, which submitted its report in 1973.
Department of Agricultural research and Education was created in 1973 in the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture.
An Agricultural research service was initiated in 1973 for the recruitment of Scientific
personnel under Agricultural Scientists recruitment Board.
Entire country was divided into 8 agroecological zones and 15 agro ecological zones
and 15 agroclimatic zones.
Research Stations:
CARI
: Central Agricultural research institute
Port Blair
CARI
: Central Avian Research Institute
Izatnagar
Port Bihar
CARIANGI
: Central Agricultural research
Institute for Andaman and Nicobar Groups of
Islands
CAZRI
: Central Aril Zone research Institute
Jodhpur
CLAE, IISS
: Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Bhopal
CIBA
: Central Institute for Barkishwater Aquaculture
Chennai
CICFRI
: Central Inland capture Fisheries
Barrackpore
CIFA
: Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture
Bhubaneshwar
CICR
: Central Institute of Cotton Research
Nagpur
CIFT
: Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
Cochin
CIHNP
: Central Institute of Horticulture of Northern
Lucknow
Plains
Ludhiana
CIPET
: Central Institute of Post-harvest Engineering
and Technology
CIRCOT
: Central Research Institute for research on
Bombay
Cotton Technology
Hisar
CIRB
: Central Research Institute for Research on
Buffaloes
CIRG
: Central Institute for Research on Goats
Makhdoom
CMFRI
: Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
Cochin
CPCRI
: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute
Kasargod
CPRI
: Central Potato Research Institute
Kufri, Simla,
CRIAF
: Central Research Institute for Arid Fruits
Bikaner
CRIDA
: Central Research Institute for Dry land
Hyderabad
Agriculture
CRIJAF
: Central Research Institute for jute and Allied
Barrackpore
Fibres
CRITF
: Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits
Srinagar
CRITF
: Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits
Lucknow
CRRI
: Central Rice Research Institute
Cuttack
CSSRI
: Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
Karnal
CSWCRTI
: Central Soil and water Conservation Research
Dehradun
and Training Institute
Avikanagar
CSWRI
: Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute
CTCRI
: Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Trivandrum
98/122
CTRI
CTRL
IASRI
ICARRCG
ICARRCNEHR
IGFRI
IIHR
Central Tobacco Research Institute

Central Technological Research Laboratory
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute
ICAR Research Complex for Goa
ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Hill
Region
: ICAR Research complex for North Eastern
Region
: Indian Grassland and fodder Research Institute
: Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
IIPR
IISR
IISS
ILRI
:
:
:
:
JTRL
NAARM
: Jute Technological Research Laboratory

: National Academy of Agricultural Research and
Management
: National Centre for Agricultural Economics and
Policy Research
: National Institute of Animal Genetics
: Sugarcane Breeding Institute
: Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandan Shala
: Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region
ICARRCNER
NCAEPR
NIAG
SBI
VPKAS
WTCER
:
:
:
:
:
Indian Institute of Pulse Research

Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research
Indian Institute of Soil Science
Indian Lac Research Institute
99/122
Rajahmundry
Matunga
New Delhi
Goa
Barapani
Shillong
Jhansi
Hassergatta,
Bangalore
Kanpur
Lucknow
Bhopal
Namkum,
Ranchi
Calcutta
Hyderabad
New Delhi
Karnal
Coimbatore
Almora
Bhubaneswar
Deemed Universities
CIFE
IARI
IVRI
NDRI
NIASM
NAARM
:
:
:
:
:
:
Central Institute of Fisheries Education

Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
National Dairy Research Institute
National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management
National Academy of Agricultural Research and Management
Bombay
New Delhi
Izatnagar
Karnal
Maharastra
Hyderabad
Indian Agricultural Research Institute:

1905
1911
1923
1934
1936
1936
1946
1947
1958
: Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon.

The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was named as
PUSA. The Phipps laboratory in division of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, IARI is named after him.
: Renamed as Imperial Agricultural Research Institute.
: Institute started offering Diploma of Associateship.
: Major Earth quake damaged the buildings at pusa.
: Shifted to New Delhi.
: B. Vishwanath became the first Indian Director of the Institute.
: The Diploma of Associate ship was Recognised equivalent to M. Sc.
: Name has been changed from Imperial Agricultural Research Institute to Indian
Agricultural Research Institute.
: Recognized as Deemed University under UGC Act at 1956, PG School was
established.
NON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES

EEI, Anand, Gujarat
EEI, Jorhat, Assam
EEI, Hyderabad, AP
EEI, Nilokhen, Haryana
International Institutes of crop Improvement:
CGIAR
: Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research. Was established
in 1971 by the joint efforts of Food and Agricultural Organisation world
baulk and United Nations Development Programme.
CIAT
: Centro International de Agriculture Tropical (International Centre for
Tropical Agriculture), Palmira, columbia.
CIMMYT : Centro International de Majoramiento de Maizy Trigo (International Centre
for Maize and Wheat Improvement) el Baton, Mexico.
CIP
: Centro International de Papa (International Centre for Potato), Lima, Peru,
IBPGR
: International Board for Plant Genetics Resources Rome, Italy.
ICARDA : International centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Alleppo, Syria.
ICGES
: International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Triesta,
Italy and New Delhi, India.
ICRISAT : International Centre for Research in Semi-Arid Tropies, Patancherru,
Hyderabad, India.
IFRI
: International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, USA.
IIAS
: International Institute for Applied System Analysis, Luxemburg, Vienna.
IITA
: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria.
INSFFER : International Network on Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Evaluation on Rice,
New Delhi, India.
ILRAD
: International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
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ILCA
IRRI
ISNAR
:
:
:
WARDA
International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa.

International Rice Research Institute, Los Bonas, Philippines.
International Service for national Agricultural Research. The Hague,
Netherlands.
West African Rice Development Association, Monrovia, Liberia.
Agricultural and Rural Development Programmes:

The evaluation of Agricultural and Rural Development can be grouped into five
stages.
Stage I
: Pre Independence era
1903
: Model villages by Daniel Hamilton
1908
: Tagore Started Youth organisation in the villages in the Kaligram Pargana
1921
: Rural Reconstruction Institute, shantiniketan
1921
: Marathandam Project by Spencer Hatch
1921
: Gurgaon Experiment by F. L. Brayne
1921
: Sevagram Project by Mahatma Gandhi.
Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri (Gwalior) by Col. Shitole
1932
: Rural reconstruction Movement by V. T. Krishnamachari in Barod
1945
: Indian Village service by A. T. Mosher and B. N. Gupta, D. Tharugad
1946
: Firka development Scheme by T. Prakasha, D. Tharugad
1947
: Mazdoor Manzil at Nilokheri by S. K. Dey
Stage II
: Post Independence era
1948
: Grow more food campaign
1948
: Etawah Pilot Project by Albert mayer.
1952
: Grow more food campaign enquiry committee.
Stage III
: Community Development era
1952
: Community Development Project was started in 55 blocks, under the
dynamic leadership of S. K. Day.
1953
: National Extension service.
1954
: NES Programme
1957
: Balwantraj Mehta committee on community.
Development Project recommended Democratic decentralization
(Panchayatiraj).
1958
: Rajasthan became first state to adopt Panchayati Raj followed by Andhra
Pradesh.
Stage IV : Intensive Agriculture development era
1960
: IADP
Intensive Agriculture district Programme also called as Package
Program in seven districts, later extended to nine more districts.
1964
: IAAP
Intensive Agricultural Area Programme.
1964
: ICDP
Intensive Cattle Development Project
1966
: HYVP
High Yielding Varieties Programme.
1966
: MCP
Multiple Cropping Programme.
1971
: MKP
Minikit Programme for Rice was started and later extended to
wheat, maize and other millets etc.
Stage V : Developmental Programmes with social Justice
1970
: SFDA
Small farmers Development Agency
1970
: MFAL
Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Iaborers Programme.
1970
: DPAP
Drought Prone Area Programme.
1974
: FWP
Food for Work Programme.
1974
: MNP
Minimum Needs Programme.
1974
: T&V
Training and Visit system formulated by Daniel bonor and Baxtor
of Israel. Turkey was the first started in Rajasthan Canal area in
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1974
: KVK
1974
1979
1979
1980
1980
1982
1982
1983
1983
1986
1989
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
CAD
IRDP
TRYSEM
NREP
NARP
DWCRA
CAPART
NAEP
RLEGP
TMO
JRY
1993
1994
1994
1994
1995
1999
1999
1999
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
EAS
IVLP
MSY
PMRY
NSAS
NATP
JGSY
SGSY
Rajasthan and Chambal area in Madhya Pradesh.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mohan singh Mehta committee
recommended KVKs. First KVK was established by TNAU at
Pondichery.
Command Area Development Programme.
Integrated rural Development Programme.
Training Rural youth for Self-Employment.
National Rural Employment programme
National Agricultural research Project.
Development of Women and Children-in Rural Areas.
Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and rural Technology.
National Agricultural Extension Project.
Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme.
Technology Mission on Oilseeds.
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, formed after merger of (NREP and
RLEGP).
Employment Assurance scheme
Institute village Linkage programme.
Mahila Samrudhi Yojana.
Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana.
National social assistance scheme.
National Agricultural Technology Project
Jawahar Gram Samuridhi Yojana (JRY).
Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (IRDP, TRYSEM,
DWCRA, SITRA merged into SGSY).
VARIETIES OF IMPORTANT CROPS:

Rice TN-1 : (First introduced drawf variety into India), IR-8, Jaya (Blast Resistant),
Padma, Mashuri, Kakatiya, Pusa Basumati, Pusa Jaldidan, Lunisree, Ratna,
TKM-6 (Stem borer resistant), Kataribogh (Tungro resistant), ADT-27 (indica
x japonica), Santchousong (High protein content), Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen, Bala
(Drought resistant), IR-20 (Resistant to Blast, BLB, stemborer, leafhopper).
Wheat : Introduction from Mexico: Lerma Rojo and sonara-64.
Single gene dwarf varieties: Safed lerma, Sharbati sonara, pusa Lerma, Chotu
lerma.
Double gene dwarf varieties: Shera, Arjun, Janak.
Triple gene dwarf varieties: Heera, Moti.
HD series, Kundan, C-306 (drought resistant).
Chickpea: Pusa 256 PBG-1 203, Pusa 209: Gaurav ICCC-32, Ajay.
Pigeonpea: UPAS-120 9short duration), ICPH-8 (First Hybrid), (Arhar) Pusa 33.
Pusa Agati, ICPL 37. Hira, Mukta, Bahar, Prabat. SBH-8.
Sugarcane: Noble Canes: CO-419, Co-997
Soybean: Bragg, Lee Clark-63, Shilajeet, Pusa 16, 20, 24, PK-327
Tomato: Pusa Sheetal, Pusa-120, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Margologe, Sioux,
Pusa Gauray, Best of All.
Mango: Malika (neelam x dasheri)
Amrapali (dasheri x neelam)
Ratna (neelam x alphonso)
Bannana:
Poovan (larplur, Chakrakeli), Basrai, Champa
Hill Bananas: Sirumali, virupakshi
Culinary varieties: Monthan, Gross Mitchell, Mindoli Robusta Rasthali
102/122
Rose: Chitra, Dr. B. P. Pal, Priyadarshini, Nehru Ceremony, Jawhar, Abisarika,

Banjara, Randhawa.
Califlower:
Pusa Deepali, Pusa synthetic, Pusa Katki, Early Snowball, Kanwari ,
Early, Patna, Patna Main crop, Snowball-16, Suttons Snowball Japanese improved,
Dania, Aghani, Poosi.
OIL PERCENTAGE:
Crop
Sesamum
Groundnut
Castor
Safflower
Rape seed and mustard
Soybean
Niger
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Percenatge
46-52%
44-50%
35-58%
24-36%
33%
20%
37-43%
103/122
20. AGRICULTURAL POINT

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
U.P has highest total fertilizer consumption
Crop under highest irrigation is 1st wheat, 2nd rice.
Irrigated area to Net sown area highest in Sugarcane followed by Wheat
Largest imported fertilizer is potash.
26 % of Indian population are under below poverty line
The parameter to group under BPL is
In urban area less than 2100 cal/day
In rural area less than 2400 cal/day
HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
Coconut: Area: kerala>Karnataka>TN
Production: Kerala>TN>Karnataka
Cashew: Area: Kerala>MH>TN
Production:MH>Kerala>AP
Tractors: India in 4th position (highest in UP)
For India standard ratio for fertilizers has been assumed to be 4: 2: 1.
At present only urea constituting more than 60% of the total fertilizer consumption.
State having maximum area under irrigation Punjab
Major source of irrigation in India canal
Maximum area under fruit crops mango
Maximum production under fruit crops Banana
First agricultural census in India conducted in 1970
As per National forest policy, for ecological balance, the forests cover should be on
1/3rd area (i.e. 33 %) of the country
Contribution of Agricultural Research in total productivity growth has been as high as
48 %
Nobel Peace Prize (1970) for Green Revolution awarded to U.S scientist Nobel
Laureate Dr. N. E Borlaug (Norman Earnest Borlaug)
In India, the NPK nutrients ratio being used = 6.5: 2.5:1 as recommended ratio of 4: 2:
1
Animal husbandry output constitutes about 30% of the countrys agricultural output
11 March- Water Resource Day
21 March- World Forest Day
22 March- World Water Day
22 April- World Earth Day
5 June- World Environment Day
1 July- National Agricultural Day
16 July- ICAR Day
16 Oct.- World Food Day
23 Dec.- National Farmers Day
SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMES:
Command Area Development and Water Management
1974 -05
National Horticultural Mission
2005 May
Marine Fishing Policy
2004
National Commission on Farmers
2004
(Head MS Swaminathan)
Bharath Nirman
2005-06
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
2006
Kisan Credit Card Scheme
1998-99
104/122
National Agriculture Insurance Scheme

1999-2000
Vishesha Krishi Upaj Yojana (Objective Promote agricultural exports in fruits
vegetables and flowers
National Agricultural Innovation Project July 2006(world bank aided Objective
:To boost research and development in agriculture and to create skilled scientific
human resource )
National Food Security Mission-2006-07(target for wheat, rice, and pulses to increase
the production by 10, 8 and 2 Mt respectively)
ABOUT F.A.O. AND W.T.O.
FAO Established on Oct 16 1945 head quarter located at Rome (Italy)
DG of FAO Jacques Diouf
Oct 16 is called as world food day
WTO Established on Jan 1 1995
Head quarter of WTO- Geneva Its DG
India is founder member of WTO
Russia is not the member of WTO
WTO is not a wing of UNO
WTO is the result of Uruguay round
Hot topic in WTO ministerial conference(2008-09)-reduction in agricultural subsidies
by developed countries
Kyoto protocol Aims at cutting global emissions of green house gases (global
warming) this agreement came in to force on Feb, 16, 2005. Till now America
hasnt accepted the Kyoto protocol.
REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE
Revolution
Green Revolution (1966-67)

White Revolution
Yellow Revolution
Grey Revolution
Blue Revolution
Red Revolution
Round Revolution
Silver Revolution
Pink revolution
Golden Revolution
Brown Revolution
Black Revolution
Rainbow Revolution
Food chain Revolution
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Prabhani Revolution
FIRST IN AGRICULTURE
Hybrid Pigeon Pea
Hybrid sunflower
Hybrid cotton
Semi-dwarf variety of basmati rice
Aromatic Rice Hybrid
Sorghum hybrid
Related to
Food grain production
Milk production
Oilseeds production
Manures and Fertilizers
Fish production
Meat/tomato production
Potato production
Egg production/ poultry
Prawn production
Fruit production(apple)
Non- conventional energy source
Bio fuel (Jatropha) production
Agriculture
Reduction in wastage of food
grains, fruits and vegetables
Okra
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ICPH-8 (ICRISAT, Hyderabad)

BSH-1 (Pro- Agro)
H 4 (Surat Farm, Gujarat)
Pusa Basmati 1 (IARI)
Pusa RH 10 (IARI)
CSH 1 and CSH 2 (IARI)
105/122
Public sector hybrid of forage Sorghum

Mango hybrid for commercial cultivation
Public sector insect resistant multicut forage
Viral disease
Plant Parasitic Nematode
Plant Parasitic Bacteria
Sorghum high yielding variety
Rice variety introduced in India
Developed dwarf variety of rice
Rice hybrid variety of India
Hybrid of Mustard
Hybrid variety of Bajra
Hybrid developed by using local male parent
Man made cereal
Rice resistant variety developed for yellow
stem Borer
Organophosphate compound
Napier Bajra (NB) hybrid
Hormone
Maize hybrid
High productive early duration hybrid
released by DRR (rice)
Country to adopt hybrid rice
Hybrid rice released in India
Egyptian variety of cotton
Super rice variety for saline/alkaline
conditions
Country to introduce zero tillage
Sugarcane variety
Scented basmati rice for normal and sodic
soils
Interspecific variety of cotton
Tobacco hybrid
Safflower hybrid
Crop to have its genome decoded
Single cross maize hybrid
Pathogenic resistant gene
Systemic fungicide
Organic fungicide
Fungicide
Person to record plant diseases
Plant to have its genome decoded
Autopolyploid
variety
released
commercial cultivation in India
Organochlorine compound
Carbamate compound
Laureate of the world food prize
Director general of ICAR
President of ICAR
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Pusa Chari Hybrid 106

Mallika (NeelamDasheri)
PCH 106
Leaf curl of Tobacco
Anguina tritici
Fire Blight of apple
CSV-1
IR- 8
TN 1
Jaya
Pusa Jai Kisan
HB 1
Hare Chhole no- 1
Triticale
IR- 20 (TN-1 TKM- 6)
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Parathion
Pusa Giant
Secretin
Ganga 101 (1961)
DRR H 2
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China
APHR-1 and APHR-2
Sujata
Lunishree
: USA
: Co- 205
: Yamini (CSR 30)
Varalaxmi
GTH 1
DSH- 129
Rice
Paras
HM 1
Carboxin
Dithiocarbamate
Bordeaux mixture (inorganic in
nature)
: Theophrastus
: Arabidopsis thaliana
for : Pusa Giant Berseem
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DDT
Sevin/ carbaryl
Dr. M.S Swaminathan
Dr. B.P Pal
Mohammad Habibullah
106/122
Indian scientist who collected and identified : K.R Kirtikar

the fungus
: G.B university of Agriculture and
Agricultural University
technology, pantnagar (1960)
: J.F Dastur
Plant pathologist of India
: T.J Burill
Plant parasitic bacteria was reported by
: Needham
Plant parasitic nematode was reported by
: Do et al and Ishiit et al.
Mycoplasma disease reported by
: Iwanowsky
Virus was first discovered by
: Micheli
Scientist to study fungi and their species
: Tobacco and tomato
Transgenic plant
: Bt. Cotton
Biotechnological crop introduced in India
Hormone artificially produced by culturing : Insulin
bacteria
: Sporeine
Commercial bio insecticide
: Ganga- 2
Maize hybrid developed in India
: PGSH- 51
00 or canola type/ variety of Gobhi sarson
: PPH 4
Short duration pigeon pea hybrid
: Fateh LHH- 144
Leaf curl resistant cotton hybrid
: Sudan Chari no 1
Sorghum Sudan grass hybrid
: Sulphur (powdery mildew of vine)
Fungicide used
: Paris Green
Insecticide used
: Bollguard (cry1 Ac gene used )
First Bt cotton variety
: Hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
Fumigant used
: Pusa Meghdoot (bottle gourd)
First hybrid in India
: SSP
Commercial fertilizers
: Calcium nitrate
First fertilizers used
FATHERS OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES
Fathers of
Agronomy
Agricultural chemistry
Antibiotics
ATP cycle
Biology
Botany
Bacteriology
Biochemistry
Cytology
Cytoplasmic Inheritance
Cooperative movement in India
DNA finger printing technique
Economic Ecology
Ecology
Extension Education
Experimental Genetics
Forest pathology
Fermentation
Field plot experimentation
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Name
Pietro Decrescenzi
Justus von Liebig
Alexander Flemming
Lipmann
Aristotle
Theophrastus
Leuwenhoek
Justus von Liebig
Robert Hooke
Carl Correns
F. Nicholson
Alec Jeffrey
Dr. M.S Swaminathan
Reiter
A.
Seaman/ Leagnes
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Robert Haring
Louis Pasteur
Jean Baptiste Boussingault
107/122
Fruits and vegetables preservation

Genetics
Genetic engineering
Green Revolution
Golden revolution in India
Golden rice
Hybrid Rice
Hybrid cotton
Indian phytopathology
Indian Rust
Indian Mycology
Indian Ecology
Indian plant breeding
Immunology
Indian Green Revolution
Microbiology
Mycology
Medicinal Bacteriology
Modern Genetics
Mutation Theory
Modern Botany
Modern Cytology
Nematology
Nitrogen Fixation
Ornamental Gardening
Plant Pathology
Plant Physiology
Pedology
Parasitology
Plant Tissue culture
Plant Anatomy
Polygenic Inheritance
Pure culture technique
Sociology
Statistics
Soil Microbiology
Soil testing Technique
Super Rice
Taxonomy
Tillage
Virology
Weeds
White Revolution
Zoology
Hybrid rice in India
FAMOUS NAME OF CROPS

Famous Name
King of cereals
Queen of cereals
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M. Nicolas Apart
Gregor Johann Mendel
Paul Berg
Dr. N.E Borlaug
Dr. K.L Chadha
Dr. Ingo Potrykus
Yuan Long Ping
C.T Patel
E.J Butler
Dr. K.C Mehta
E.J Butler
R. Mishra
Dr. B.P Pal
Edward Jenner
Dr. M.S Swaminathan
A.V Leuwenhoek
Pler A. Micheli
Robert Koch
T.H Morgan
Hugo de vries
Linnaeus/ Bauchin
Swanson
N. A Cobb
Winogradsky
M.S Randhawa
Anton De Bary
Stephen Hales
VV Dokuchaev
F. Platter
G. Haberlandt
Grew
Kolreuter
Oscar Brefeld
Auguste compte
R.A Fisher
S. N Winogradsky
M.L Troug
Dr. G.S Khush
Carolus Linnaeus
Jethro Tull
W.M Stanley
Jethro Tull
Dr. Varghese Kurien
Aristotle
E. A Siddiqe
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Crops
Wheat
Maize
108/122
King of fruits
Queen of fruits
King of temperate fruits
King of spices
Queen of spices
Queen of vegetables
Poor mans meat
Wonder crop
Famine reserves
Camel of crops
Queen of oilseeds
King of oilseeds
Queen of fodder crops
King of fodder crops
Poor mans fruit
Vegetable meat
Poor mans substitute for ghee
Poor mans friend
Poor mans food
King of arid and semi fruits
King of weeds
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National fruit of India
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Glory of East
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Autumn queen
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Wonder tree
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Queen of night
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Egg plant
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Bio energy plant
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Queen of flowers
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Brown gold
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Apple of paradise
Poor mans orange(India) and love of :
apple (England)
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Drosophila of crop plants
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Adams fig
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Butter fruit
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Queen of beverage crop
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Chinas miracle fruit
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Food of god
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Small holders irrigated crop
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Oldest cultivated tropical fruits
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Tree of heaven
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King of coarse cereals
TERMS AND ASSOCIATED CROPS

Terms
Curing
Stripping
Nipping
Mango
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Pineapple
Apple
Black Pepper
Cardamom
Potato
Soybean
Soybean
Millets
Sorghum
Sesame
Mustard
Lucerne
Berseem
Jackfruit, Ber
Cowpea
Sesamum
Potato
Pearl millet
Ber
Congress grass (Parthenium
hysterophorus)
Mango
Chrysanthemum
Chrysanthemum
Neem
Cestrum nocturnum
Brinjal
Jatropha
Rose
Dead pupae of silkworm
Banana
Tomato
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Maize
Banana
Avocardo
Tea
Kiwi fruit
Cocoa
Oil palm
Banana
Coconut
Sorghum
Crops
Tobacco, Tea
Jute
Cotton
109/122
Wrapping
Propping
Trashing
Dapog seedling
De-suckering
De-tasseling
Pegging
Retting
Ginning
Tapping
Staking
Arrowing
Rationing
Tipping
CONCEPT AND RELATED PERSONS

Concepts
Super rice
Hybrid rice
Golden rice
Super wheat
Crop ideotype
Green Revolution
Green revolution in India
White Revolution
Evergreen revolution in India
Rainbow Revolution
Golden Revolution
Bt. Cotton in India
Green Revolution Term
Noblization of sugarcane
Hybrid cotton
PURA concept
TOXINS PRODUCED IN PLANTS
Toxins
Gossypol
Neurotoxin
Erucic acid
Goitrogen
Saponin and plant estrogens
Aflatoxin
Coumarin
CN glucocides
Steroidal alkaloids
Alkaloids
Resins
Antivitamin E Factor
Polyphenolics
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Sugarcane
Banana, sugarcane
Sugarcane
Rice seedling
Tobacco, Banana
Maize
Groundnut
Jute
Cotton
Gram
Tomato
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Tea
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Related Personality
G.S Khush
Yuan Long Ping
Ingo Potrykus
S. Nagarajan
Donald
N.E Borlaug
M.S Swaminathan
Varghese Kurien
M.S Swaminathan
Nitish Kumar
K.L Chadha
C.D Mayee
William Gadd
T.S Venkatraman
C.T Patel
A.P.J Abdul Kalam
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Related Plants
Cotton
Lathyrus
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Rapeseed and mustard

Soybean
Alfalfa
Groundnut
Sweet cloven
Sorghum
Potato
Yam
Mango
Field pea
Safflower
110/122
Tripsin Inhibitor
Haemaggutinins
Lathryrogenes
Glucocides
Eicosenoic acid
Polyphenolics
Cucurbitacins
CN glucocides
PARTS USED IN FRUIT CROPS:
Name of fruits
Citrus
Banana
Coconut
Guava
Apple
Grapes
Mango
Litchi
Pomegranate
Pear
Almond
Walnut
Fig
Pineapple
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Pigeon pea, French bean &

soybean
French bean
Lathyrus sativus
White clover
Rapeseed and mustard
Sunflower
Cucurbits
Cassava
Parts used
Juicy placental hairs
Mesocarp and endocarp
Endosperm
Thalamus and pericarp
Fleshy thalamus
Pericarp and placenta
Mesocarp
Aril
Juicy covering of seed
Stalk of fruit and thalamus
Seed
Cotyledon
Fleshy receptacle and thalamus
Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth &
seed
Cotyledon
Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth &
seed
Fleshy layer of pericarp
Pericarp and thalamus
Cashew
Jackfruit
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Jamun
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CLIMATERIC: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota

NON CLIMATERIC: Litchi, Lemon, Citrus sp, Grape, Pineapple
Minimum support price of Agriculture products (Rs/Quintal)

(Based on marketing year, given for 24 major crops by CACP)
Crops
MSP for 2007-08 MSP for 2008-09
1000
1080
Wheat
650
650
Barley
1600
1600
Gram
1800
1800
Rapeseed/Mustard
1650
2215
Sunflower
2030
2500
Cotton(long staple)
560
840
Bajra
600
840
Jowar-Hybrid
745
930
Paddy-common
775
880
Paddy-grade A
1590
2000
Arhar
111/122
MSP for 2009-10

1100
750
1760
2500
1000
2300
Critical stages of Irrigation:

Name of Crops
Sorghum
Maize
Rice
Wheat
Pearl millet
Gram
Soybean
Groundnut
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Sunflower
Cotton
Sugarcane
NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES IN PLANTS

Symptoms/diseases
Whip tail in cauliflower
Browning in cauliflower
Downward cupping in radish
Scald of leaves
Yellow spot in citrus
Drying black tips of shoots
Grey speck of oats
Speckled yellows of sugar beet
Marsh spots of peas
Pahala blight of sugarcane
Frenching of Tung trees
Die back of shoots in citrus
Little leaf in citrus
Rough bark and cracking in apple
Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower
Heart rot of sugar beet and Marigold
Top sickness of tobacco
Snake heads in walnuts
Internal necrosis in mango
Hen and chicken disorder of grape fruit
Corking and pitting of fruits in tomatoes
Internal necrosis in aonla
Brown heart of turnip
Fruit
cracking
of
tomato
and
pomegranate
Crown choking in coconut
White bud of maize
Khaira disease of rice
Critical growth stages

Primordial initiation, flag leaf,
flowering and grain development
Tasseling, silking and grain
development
Tillering, panicle initiation, milk
stage
Crown root initiation, tillering,
boot leaf stage, dough stage
Tillering, flowering
Branching, Pod development
Flowering, Grain development
Branching, peg penetration, pod
development
Seedling, Bud initiation,
flowering
Square formation, ball formation,
ball development
Seedling, tillering, ground
growth
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Caused due to
Molybdenum deficiency
Potassium deficiency
Manganese deficiency
Copper deficiency
Copper deficiency
Copper deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency
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Boron deficiency
Zinc deficiency
Zinc deficiency
112/122
Apple (bitter pit)

Leaf bronzing in litchi
Little leaf in mango, litchi, cashew
Leaf scorch in mango
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Buttoning in cauliflower
Tip burn of rice
Jonathan spot of apple
Bitter pit of apple
Interveinal chlorosis in apple and citrus
Black heart of potato
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Zinc deficiency
Zinc deficiency
Zinc deficiency
Excess of cl ions in water/ or
excess of MOP
Nitrogen deficiency
O2 deficiency and excess of zinc
Water deficiency
Calcium
Magnesium deficiency
Oxygen deficiency
MINERAL NUTRIENTS AND THEIR AVAILABLE FORMS:

Nutrients
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
magnesium
Sulphur
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Copper
Molybdenum
Boron
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Plant part first affected

Older leaves
Older leaves
Older leaves
Young leaves
Older leaves
First in new leaves
New leaves
Older leaves
Small yellow new leaves
New leaves
Older / younger leaves
New leaves
PROBLEM SOILS:
Parameter
pH
EC
ESP
Saline soils
< 8.5
>4
< 15
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Available forms
NO3-, NH4+ ions
H2Po42-, Po43- ions
K+ ions
Ca+ ions
Mg2+
So42-, So2 from air
Fe2+, Fe 3+, FeSo4 with EDTA
Mn4+, Mn3+, and Mn2+
Zn2+, ZnSo4 with EDTA
Cu2+ or Cu+, CuSo4 with EDTA
Mo3+, Molybdate ions
Bo33-, H2Bo3-, HBo32-
Sodic soils
< 8.5
>4
> 15
Alkali soils
> 8.5
<4
> 15
CROP PRODUCTION UPDATES

RICE (Oryza sativa):
Chromosome no. 2n = 24
Origin South- East Asia
Rice is the staple diet of 2.7 billion people in the world
It occupies 150 m ha, producing about 573 Mt with average productivity of
3.83 t/ha
India is the largest growing country in the world (44.6 m ha)
China is the largest producer of rice
There are 21 species in Genus Oryza, of these 2 are cultivated species: O.
Sativa (ASIA) and O. glaberrima (AFRICA)
O. sativa have 3 varietal group : Indica (tropical), Japonica (temperate),
Javanica (Intermediate)
India has richest rice germplasm collection in the world
The process of tillering start in Rice 10 DAP
Rice grain is a caryopsis type of fruit
113/122
Rice inflorescence is called panicle

Optimum temperature for rice is 20-35C
Rice is a short day plant
Three system of rice cultivation
1. Dry cultivation Rainfed
2. Semi dry cultivation After 45-60 days treated as wet crop
3. Wet cultivation 3-5 cm standing water
45 % of rice grown is under irrigated condition
There are 3 type of nursery
1. Wet nursery: 25-30 days (age of seedlings)
2. Dry nursery: 20-25 days
3. Dapog nursery: 14 day (30 m2 for 1 ha, 1 kg/m2). Introduced from
Philippines
10 % yield loss caused by weeds in rice
Punjab, Haryana, and western U.P are traditional basmati area in the country
Pusa Basmati is world first high yielding, semi-dwarf Basmati variety
Rice hybrid technology based on 3 line breeding (A line, B line & R line)
Paddy harvested at 20 % moisture and stored at 14 %
Zn deficiency cause Khaira disease in rice (control : 25 kg znso4/ha)
Blast disease is major problem in rainfed upland, rainfed lowland and hill area
Neck blast damage is severe in Basmati varieties
Chlorophyll meter method and leaf colour chart used for leaf N status
determination (crude method)
Maximum rice exporter Thailand
3 types of rice cultivation in India:
1. Aus/Autumn: August-September.
2. Aman/Kharif/Winter:
3. Boro/Summer: April-May
Highest productivity Japan
Rice protein is called Oryzein
Wheat (Triticum aestivum):
Chromosome no 2n = 42
Origin Asia minor
It is second important food crop in the country
Four species: Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat), T. Durum (Durum or macaroni
wheat), T. diccocum (Emmer wheat), T. spherococcum
Wheat revolution in 1967, due to variety HD 2329
India is second in terms of area and production
Before green revolution all varieties in India were tall type
Seed rate = 100 kg/ha
Variety HD 2009, Up 262 and HD 2189 shows rust resistance
In wheat, crown root initiation (CRI) is critical stage
Phalaris minor is major weed in wheat fields
Zinc and sulphur deficiency reported in Punjab, part of Haryana, west U.P and
Delhi
Mn deficiency reported in Punjab
Wheat diseases: three type of rust
114/122
1. Leaf/Brown: Puccinia recondita

2. Stripe / yellow: P. striiformis
3. Stem / black: P. graminis tritici
Wheat grains stored well in less than 10 % moisture content
Wheat protein is called Glutenin
Barley (Hordeum vulgare):
Lugri is a fermented drink developed from Hull less barley grains
pearl barley is suited for Kidney disorders
Seed rate 75-80 kg/ha
Critical stage in barley is active tillering stage (30-35 DAS)
Resistance variety: RD 2052 Molya disease
Alfa 93, RD 2503, Rekha malting quality
Maize (Zea mays):
Quality protein maize (QPM) varieties released by using opaque 2 genes.
Varieties Shaktiman 1 & 2, HQPM 1, Sakti 1
Hybrid varieties Ganga 1, Deccan 107, 109
Composites Parbhat, pratap, Pusa comp.2, Pusa comp1
Seed rate -20 kg/ha
Maize grain contains 8-10 % protein & 4-5% oil
Sweet maize variety African tall
Sweet corn variety Composite madhuri and priya
Pop corn variety Amber, V L Amber, Pearl popcorn
Baby corn VL 42, Prakash
Maize protein is called Zein
Critical stages Tasseling, milking stage
MILLETS:
Millets belongs to C4 group of plants
Higher productivity among the millet- Finger millet
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor):
2n = 20
Seed rate = 18 kg / ha
Hybrids : CSH 1 to 6, CSH 9,10, 11, 13, 16, 17,18
Major pest: Shoot fly, stem borer, midge, ear head bug
HCN (Dhurin) present in early stage (40-50 days)
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum):
2n = 14
Seed rate = 5 kg/ ha
80 % phosphorus in grain stored in the form of phytate
Productivity high in UP>Gujarat> Haryana
Others:
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), 2n = 36
Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), 2n = 40
Fox tail millet (Setaria italia), 2n = 18
Proso millet (Panicum millaceum), 2n = 36
Little millet (Panicum sumatranse), 2n = 36
115/122
The inflorescence of sugarcane is called Arrow

PULSES:
It is important dietary protein
Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), 2n = 16
Pigeon pea (Cajunus cajan), 2n = 22, highly sensitive to frost
Green gram (Vigna radiata), 2n = 22. Very sensitive to water logging
Black gram (Vigna mungo), 2n = 22
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), 2n = 22
Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), 2n = 22
Lentil (Lens culinaris)
Field pea (Pisum sativum)
Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus)
WEEDS:
The term weed was firstly used by Jethro Tull
Weed is plant out of place
Relative weed e.g. rice in wheat field
Absolute weed e.g. Cyperus rotundus
Mimicry weed e.g. Phalaris in wheat field and wild rice in the field
Noxious weeds e.g. Parthenium
National research centre for weed science located at Jabalpur (1988)
Selective herbicide Simazine, Atrazine, 2, 4- D, MCPA, Butachlor,
Pendimethalin, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin
Non-selective herbicide Diquat, Paraquat
Systemic herbicide propanil, 2,4-d, Atrazine, Simazine
Contact herbicide Paraquat, Diquat
2,4-D used for broad leaved weeds
IRRIGATION:
Measured by Tensiometer
Drip irrigation discovered in Israel
Egypt has 100 % cultivate area under irrigation
Sprinkler method of irrigation can provide protection against frost
The method of irrigation suitable for row crops is Furrow method
Check basin method is the most common method among the surface methods
of irrigation
USA has the highest area under drip irrigation
Maharashtra has the highest area under drip irrigation
Haryana has the highest area under sprinkler irrigation
AGROFORESTRY
Agro forestry is a form of multiple cropping
The systemic research in agro-forestry is taken by ICRAF
ICRAF = International Centre for Research In agro-forestry
National Research Centre for Agro-forestry Jhansi (1988)
The most important agro-forestry practice is known from the kangeyan tract of Tamil
nadu (Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus)
Agri-silviculture = trees + crops
Alley cropping =perennial hedges + crops
116/122
Agri-horticulture = fruit trees + crops

Agri Silvi horticulture = trees + fruit trees + crops
Agri-silviculture = trees + crops + pasture or animals
Silvi- olericulture = trees + vegetables
Horti pasture = fruit trees + pasture/animals
Silvi pasture = trees + pasture/animals
Horti-apiculture = fruit trees + honeybees
Aqua forestry = trees + fishes
Taungya originated from Myanmar; it means hill cultivation
Alnus nepalensis is non-leguminous nitrogen fixing tree
Allelopathy refers to inhibition of growth of one plant by chemical compounds
from the neighbouring plants.
Agro-forestry tree species having allelopathic effect on crop:
Tree species
Effect on:
1. Alnus nepalensis
Glycine max
2. Casuarina equisetifolia
Cowpea, sorghum, sunflower
3. Eucalyptus tereticornis
Cowpea, Sorghum, sunflower, potato
4. Gliricidia sepium
Maize, rice, tropical grasses
5. Leucaena leucocephala
Maize, rice, cowpea, sorghum, sunflower
Entomology updates
The pesticide consumption is maximum in Andhra Pradesh and Pondicherry (union

territories )
Per ha. Consumption is maximum in Punjab
Lowest pesticide consumption state - Mizoram
Monocrotophos is the highest consumed pesticide in India followed by Endosulfan
Examples of Polyphagous pest Termite, Helicoverpa armigera, Locust, White grub
Cotton consume highest pesticide (54%)
In Fruits, Apple consumed highest pesticide and in vegetables, Cauliflower consumes
the highest pesticide
DIPA (Destructive Insect and pest act) passed in 1914
Insecticide act 1968
International pest/ pandemic pest Locust (Schistocera gregaria )
NRC, IPM located in New Delhi, IARI
Directorate of Biological control Bengaluru, Karnataka
Directorate of plant protection, quarantine and storage (DPPQS) Faridabad, Haryana
Central plant protection training institute Hyderabad
Central vector control research institute - Pondicherry
Entomopathogenic virus NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus), GV (Granulosis virus)
Entomopathogenic bacteria Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) for Lepidoptera
Entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae
Entomopathogenic nematode DD 136 (Nesaplettana carpocapsae)
Insects which attack at night cutworm, Armyworm, wheat stem borer (Sesamia
inferens)
The word larval equivalent is associated with Virus
Crop for attracting insects Trap crop
117/122
Examples of systemic insecticides Rogor (Dimethoate), Metasystox, Phosphamidon,

Monocrotophos, Phorate
Examples of contact insecticides Malathion, Parathion, chloropyriphos
Soil insecticide Carbofuran 3G, Phorate 10G
INSECT VECTORS OF PLANT DISEASES

1.) Aphids :
Tobacco mosaic Aphis gossypii
Cucumber mosaic - Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae
Crucifer mosaic A. brassicae
Papaya mosaic Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii
Groundnut rosette virus - Aphis craccivora
Cowpea mosaic - Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii
Sugar beet yellow mosaic Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)
Potato leaf roll and crinkle disease - Myzus persicae
Potato virus x - Myzus persicae
Bean mosaic and potato mosaic - Myzus persicae
Katte disease of cardamom Pentalonia nigronervosa
Foorkey disease of cardamom - Pentalonia nigronervosa
Banana mosaic - Pentalonia nigronervosa
Banana bunchy top - Pentalonia nigronervosa
Chilli mosaic - Aphis gossypii
2.) Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
Cotton mosaic
Cotton leaf curl
Tapioca mosaic
Chilli mosaic
Tobacco leaf curl
Papaya leaf curl
Vein clearing disease (okra)
Tobacco spotted wilt Thrips tabaci and whitefly
Bhendi yellow mosaic
Pulse yellow mosaic
3.) Green leaf hopper (Nephottetix virescens):
Rice grassy stunt
Rice transitory yellowing
Rice Tungro - Nephottetix virescens and Recilia dorsalis
Rice yellow dwarf
4.) Zig- Zag leaf hopper (Recilia dorsalis):
Rice dwarf
Rice orange leaf
5.) Thrips (Thrips tabaci):
Tomato spotted wilt
Soybean spotted wilt Frankliniella scultzei
Chilli leaf curl Scirtothrips dorsalis
6.) Eriophyid mite:
Red gram sterility mosaic Aceria cajani
Sugarcane steak mosaic Aceria sacchari
Wheat streak mosaic Aceria tulipae
Mango bud mite Aceria mangiferae
7.) Mealy bug:
118/122

Sugarcane Saccharcoccus sacchari
Pineapple Dysmicoccus brivipes
Citrus greening Psyllid (Diaphorina citri)
8.) Mycoplasma disease:
Sandal spike disease Jassus indicus (Hopper)
Sesamum Phyllody Leaf hopper (Orosius albicinctus)
Rice yellow dwarf Green leaf hopper
Little leaf of brinjal Hopper (Cestius phycitis)
NEMATODES:
1.) Wheat:
Cereal cyst nematode Heterodera avenae (Molya disease)
Seed gall / ear cockle nematode Anguina tritici
2.) Paddy:
White tip nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi
Rice stem nematode Ditylenchus angustus (Ufra disease)
Rice cyst nematode Heterodera oryzicola
Rice knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola
3.) Citrus:
Citrus nematode Tylenchulus semipenetrans
Lesion nematode Pratylenchus coffeae
4.) Banana:
Burrowing nematode Radopholus similus
5.) Potato:
Golden cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida
Tuber rot nematode Ditylenchus destructor
6.) Tobacco:
Root knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica
Things to remember:
Potato cyst nematode is a quarantine objective
Biological control Pseudomonas is antagonistic to the nematodes
Tagetes is a trap crop for many nematodes
Nematodes cannot be grown on artificial media to obtain material for inoculation
Endoparasitic nematode Meloidogyne
Maximum number of plant parasitic nematode belongs to - Tylenchida order
119/122

General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS

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General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS

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2010-11

(Based on Authorized and Current information)

Indian Agricultural Research Institute

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Indian Agriculture: At A Glance

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture,

Handbook of Agriculture (New entry-2010):

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

General Agriculture (New, ICAR wbsites):

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Cereals 409.9 gm/day

World Green Revolution:

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

CROP PRODUCTION 2009-10 (Based on Advance Estimate)

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION & AREA OF CROPS:2008-09

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97

RECENT INSECTICIDE DATA (Updated up to Nov, 2009)

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use - 27

RECENT HORTICULTURE DATA (2009-10)

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Total cropped area occupied by food grains- 76%

WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

6. Pusa Gaurav Processing

: Normal: 300-350 gm/ha, and (Hybrid: 70-90 gm/ ha)

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

9. Single seeded nuts

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Mechanism of action of enzymes:

Vitamins mainly act as cofactors for enzymatic activity.

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

o X-rays (5000-1,30,000 rads)

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

The only 5 C compound in TCA cycle is - Ketoglutaric acid

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

It occurs in C3 plants and temperate plants

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

o Only present in plants as K+ not bound to any components

Deficiency symptoms of Elements:

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Short day plants soybean, potato, sugarcane, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tobacco,

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com