.

email: svol@math.auth.gr
http://anadrasis.math.auth.gr/S.Vologiannidis.htm
http://www
www.teiser.gr/icd/staff/vologian/index.html
html

.
email : svol@math.auth.gr
http ://anadrasis.math.auth.gr/S.Vologiannidis.htm

ii

1.

1.1

1.2

1
1
1

2.

2.1

2.2
Laplace
2.3

2.4
-
2.5

2.6

13
13
24
34
35
43
44

3.

...
3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5
- Nyquist

55
55
55
57
64
66

4.

77

5.

87

6.

89

1
1.1

.
50

,
. ,
, , , , , , ,

, ,
.
.

, ,
.


.
.
, .

.
.

.

1.2
( ) x (t) : R R
t .
v (t)
i (t) .

.. x (t) v (t) .
1.2.1

1. (unit step function) ( 1)

1, t 0
1(t) =
0, t < 0
Unit Step Function
1
0.8

u(t)

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5

5
t

1. .

t=[-5 :0.1 :10];

u=[zeros(1,50),ones(1,101)];
plot(t,u,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2)
title(Unit Step Function)
ylim([-0.1,1.1])
xlabel(t)
ylabel(u(t))
grid(on)

2. Dirac ( 2)

0, t = 0
, t = 0
Dirac

(t)dt = 1, > 0.
(t) =

10

Dirac Function

(t)

0
-5

5
t

2. Dirac.

t=[-5 :0.1 :10];

u=dirac(t);
plot(t,dirac(t),Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2);
ylim([-0.1 1]);
title(Dirac Function);
xlabel(t);
ylabel(\delta(t));
grid(on);
3. ( 3)
r(t) = 1(t)t =

t, t 0
0, t < 0

10

Ramp Function
10
8

r(t)

6
4
2
0
5

10

3. .

t=[-5 :0.1 :10];

u=[zeros(1,50),ones(1,101)];
r=u.*t;
plot(t,r,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2);
ylim([-1 10]);
title(Ramp Function);
xlabel(t);
ylabel(r(t));
grid(on);
4. ( 4)

p (t) = 1(t + ) 1(t ) =

2
2

1, 2 t < 2
0, t < 2 , t 2

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5

10

10

10

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5

Unit Pulse
1

p(t)

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
5

0
t

4. .

t=[-5 :0.1 :10];

u1=[zeros(1,40),ones(1,111)];
u2=[zeros(1,60),ones(1,91)];
p=u1-u2;
subplot(3,1,1), plot(t,u1,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2), ylim([-0.1
1.1]), grid(on);
subplot(3,1,2), plot1 = plot(t,u2,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2), ylim([0.1 1.1]), grid(on);
subplot(3,1,3), plot1 = plot(t,p,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2), ylim([0.1 1.1]), title(Unit Pulse), xlabel(t), ylabel(p(t)), grid(on);

y(t) = p4 (t 2) sin(t)

t=[-5 :0.1 :10];
u1=[zeros(1,50),ones(1,101)];
u2=[zeros(1,90),ones(1,61)];
p=(u1-u2).*sin(pi*t);
subplot(3,1,1), plot(t,u1-u2,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2), ylim([1.1 1.1]), grid(on);
subplot(3,1,2), plot1 = plot(t,sin(3*t),Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2),
ylim([-1.1 1.1]), grid(on);
subplot(3,1,3), plot1 = plot(t,p,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2), ylim([1.1 1.1]), title(Unit Pulse), xlabel(t), ylabel(p(t)), grid(on);
5.

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
5

10

10

10

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
5

Unit Pulse
1

p(t)

0.5
0
0.5
1
5

0
t

5.

gensig.

[u,t]=gensig(square,2,10,0.1);
subplot(3,1,1), plot(t,u,LineWidth,2), ylim([-0.1 1.1]), grid(on),
title(Square wave with period 2, duration 10, sampling every 0.1),
xlabel(t);
[u,t]=gensig(sin,3,10,0.1);
subplot(3,1,2), plot(t,u,LineWidth,2), ylim([-0.1 1.1]), grid(on),
title(Sin wave with period 3, duration 10, sampling every 0.1), xlabel(t);
[u,t]=gensig(pulse,2,10,0.1);
subplot(3,1,3), plot(t,u,LineWidth,2), ylim([-0.1 1.1]), grid(on),
title(Pulse wave with period 2, duration 10, sampling every 0.1), xlabel(t);
6.

Square wave with period 2, duration 10, sampling every 0.1

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

10

t
Sin wave with period 3, duration 10, sampling every 0.1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

10

t
Pulse wave with period 2, duration 10, sampling every 0.1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

6
t

6.

10

10

1 1(t).

y(t)

0
1

-1

7.

y(t)

0
1

-2

8.

(1) "" ,
[0, 1), [1, 2) [2, 3) :
1
3
5
y(t) = r(t)p1 (t ) + p1 (t ) + [1 r(t 2)]p1 (t )
2
2
2
,
T
T
PT (t) = 1(t + ) 1(t )
2
2
:
p1 (t 12 ) = 1(t 12 + 12 ) 1(t 12 12 ) = 1(t) 1(t 1)
p1 (t 32 ) = 1(t

3
2

+ 12 ) 1(t

3
2

12 ) = 1(t 1) 1(t 2)

p1 (t 52 ) = 1(t

5
2

+ 12 ) 1(t

5
2

12 ) = 1(t 2) 1(t 3)

11

:
y(t) = r(t)[1(t) 1(t 1)] + 1(t 1) 1(t 2) + [1 r(t 2)][1(t 2) 1(t 3)]

y(t) = t1(t) t1(t 1) + 1(t 1) 1(t 3) (t 2)1(t 2) + (t 2)1(t 3)

(2) , "" [1, 2) [2, 5)
[5, +) :
3
7
y(t) = 2r(t 1)p1 (t ) + [2 r(t 2)]p3 (t ) 1(t 5)
2
2

p1 (t 32 ) = 1(t 32 + 12 ) 1(t 32 12 ) = 1(t 1) 1(t 2)

p3 (t 72 ) = 1(t 72 + 32 ) 1(t 72 32 ) = 1(t 2) 1(t 5)

y(t) = 2r(t 1)[1(t 1) 1(t 2)] + [2 r(t 2)][1(t 2) 1(t 5)] 1(t 5)

y(t) = 2(t 1)1(t 1) 2(t 1)1(t 2)+

+ 2 1(t 2) 3 1(t 5) (t 2)1(t 2) + (t 2)1(t 5).

2
2.1
, , .
. .

u y. .
(u(t) y(t))
F .

y(t) = F (u(t)) .
u (t) y (t)
. (block diagram)
.

u(t)

y(t)

y(t)

u(t)

9. .

.. v (t)
i (t) t
. ,


.
2 F
u1 (t) u2 (t) a
b, (au1 (t) + bu2 (t)) aF (u1 (t)) + bF (u2 (t))

(2.1)
F (au1 (t) + bu2 (t)) = aF (u1 (t)) + bF (u2 (t)) .
3
2
y(t) = (u(t)) .
.

13

14

u1 (t) u2 (t). u1 u2 .
((2.1))
F (au1 + bu2 ) = (au1 + bu2 )2 = a2 u21 + b2 u22 + 2abu1 u2 .
((2.1))
aF (u1 ) + bF (u2 ) = au21 + bu22 .

. .
.
4

dn
dn1
y(t)
+
a
(t)
y(t) + + a0 (t)y(t) =
n1
dtn
dtn1
dm
dm1
= bm (t) m u(t) + bm1 (t) m1 u(t) + + b0 (t)u(t)
dt
dt
dk

n-
,
a
(t),
b
(t),
i
=
0,
. . . , n y(t)
dt
k
i
i
u(t) .
an (t)

.
, ai (t) = ai .

n

n1

d
d
an dt
n y(t) + an1 dtn1 y(t) + + a0 y(t) =
m
d
dm1
= bm dt
m u(t) + bm1 dtm1 u(t) + + b0 u(t)

(2.2)

d
dt
k n- , ai , bi , i = 0, . . . , n
y(t) u(t) .

.
L M .

L
x(t)
(t)

Mgsin (t)

10. .

u (t) M
, Mg sin (t)
. y (t)
(t) .
-

15

:
d2 (t)
ML2
+ MgL sin (t) = Lu (t)
(2.3)
dt2
g . sin (t) (2.3)
. (2.3)
y (t) u (t) .
| (t)| (t) sin (t) (t) = y(t)
(2.3)
d2 y (t)
+ M gLy (t) = Lu (t) .
(2.4)
ML2
dt2
,
.
2.1.1

5 () 0
y (t).

u(t) = 0
dn
dn1
an n y(t) + an1 n1 y(t) + + a0 y(t) = 0.
dt
dt
.
an pn + an1 pn1 + + a0
..
(2.5)
an pn + an1 pn1 + + a0 = 0
. .. . .
..
(1) ((2.5)). p
k, + ib ib m.
(2) To



y1 (t) = c1 + c2 t + + ck tk1 ept .
(2.6)
ci .
(3) To



(2.7)
y2 (t) = et (c1 + c2 t + + cm tm1 ) sin(bt) + (c1 + c2 t + + cm tm1 ) cos(bt)

ci , ci .
(4) ..
y(t) = y (t) = y1 (t) + y2 (t).

.

ci ci .
.
6
.

16

m
F=u(t)

y(t)

11. -.

k , M , y(t)
u(t)
. ..
d
d2
M 2 y(t) + b y(t) + ky(t) = u(t)
dt
dt
b .
0 y(0) = 1

y (0) = 2; M = 10, k = 5, b = 2.

10p2 + 2p + 5 = 0

7
7
1
1
p1 = i.
p1 = + i,
10 10
10 10
((2.7))




1
7
7
t
10
t
y(t) = e
c1 sin(bt) + c1 cos(bt) = e
c1 sin( t) + c1 cos( t) .
10
10
solve(10*p2+2*p+5=0)
sol=dsolve(10*D2y+2*Dy+5*y=0)

y(0) = 1

7
7
1
e 10 t c1 sin( 0) + c1 cos( 0) = 1
10
10

c1 = 1.

17

y (0) = 2. y(t)

7
t
7
1 10t
7
7
7
7
10
c1 cos( t) c1 sin( t)
c1 cos( t) + c1 sin( t) + e
y (t) = e
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
t = 0

7
1 c =1 7
1
y (0) = c1 c1 1=
c1
10
10
10
10

y (0) = 2
7
1
c1
=2
10
10

c1 = 3.

7
1
7
10
t
y(t) = y (t) = e
3 sin( t) + cos( t)
10
10
sol=dsolve(10*D2y+2*Dy+5*y=0,y(0)=1,Dy(0)=2)
ezplot(sol,[0,35])
3 exp(1/10 t) sin(7/10 t)+exp(1/10 t) cos(7/10 t)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

12.

2.1.2

()

..
d
dn1
y(0), . . . , dt
y(0), dt
n1 y(0)
y (t).
.
, Laplace.
2.1.3

(yo (t))
.
yo (t) = y (t) + y (t).

18

7 - .
( ) u(t) = 7 sin(3t).
sol=dsolve(10*D2y+2*Dy+5*y=7*sin(3*t),y(0)=1,Dy(0)=2)
ezplot(sol,[0,50])
24339/7261 exp(1/10 t) sin(7/10 t)+...42/7261 cos(3 t)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0

10

20

30

40

50

13.

MATLAB

42
7303 0.1t
595
24339 0.1t
e
e
sin(3t)
cos(3t)
sin(0.7t) +
cos(0.7t) +
7261
 7261
  7261
7261



2.1.4

yo (t)
. y (t)
.
, y(t)
yo (t) = lim y(t)
(2.8)
t

y (t) = y(t) yo (t).

2.1.5

,
n ((2.2)).
.
n-
dn
dn1
an n y(t) + an1 n1 y(t) + + a0 y(t) = u(t)
(2.9)
dt
dt
n

19

d
dt x1 (t)
d
dt x2 (t)

= x2 (t)
= x3 (t)
..
.
d
x
(t)
dt n1 = xn (t)

n1

d
1
ai xi+1 +
dt xn (t) = an
i=0

x1 (t)

d
0
1
0
dt x1 (t)
d

dt x2 (t) 0
0
1

..
..
..
.
..

= .
.
.

d

0

dt xn1 (t) 0
a0
a1
a2
d
x
(t)

dt n
an
an
an


y(t) = 1 0 0

d
dt x

(2.10)
1
an u

= y(t). ((2.10))

0
x1 (t)

x2 (t) 0

.. ..
. + . u

0
xn1 (t) 0
1
an1
xn (t)
an
an

x1 (t)

x (t)

 2

.
0 ..
+ [0] u

xn1 (t)
xn (t)

..
.

0
0
..
.
1

(2.11)

= Ax + bu
y = cx

x1 (t)

x2 (t)

.
x = x(t) = .. A Rn1

xn1 (t)
xn (t)
A Rnn , b Rn1 , c R1n . x = x(t) ,
xi (t) . y(t) u(t)
((2.9)).

((2.9))

a11 a12 a1n

b11 b12 b1r
x1 (t)
u1 (t)
dt x1 (t)

dt x2 (t) a21 a22 a2n x2 (t) b21 b22 b2r u2 (t)

. = .

+
..
..
.. .. ..
.. ..
..
..

. .
.
.
. .
.
.
. . .
. .
d
dt xn (t)

an1 an2 ann

xn (t)

y1 (t)
c11 c12

y2 (t) c21 c22

. = .
..
..
. .
.
. .
.
ym (t)
cm1 cm2

bn1 bn2

c1n
x1 (t)

c2n x2 (t)

.. ..

. .

cmn

xn (t)

bnr

ur (t)

(2.12)

20

d
dt x

= Ax + Bu
y = Cx.
((2.12))

x1 (0)

x2 (0)

x(0) = .
.
..
xn (0)

At

x(t) = e x(0) +

t

eA(t ) Bu( )d

(2.13)

eAt

A2 t2 A3 t3
+
+ .
2!
3!
((2.13))
ui (t)
xi (0).
eAt = I + At +

MATLAB
.
- . M , k
b , t

d2
d
M 2 y(t) + b y(t) + ky(t) = u(t)
(2.14)
dt
dt
y(t) u(t)
. ((2.11))
((2.14))
  
   
x 1
0
1
x1
0
=
+ 1 u
k
b
x 2
x2

M  M
M

 x
1
y= 1 0
.
x2
M = 10, k = 5, b = 2
  
   
x 1
0
1
0
x1
=
+
u
x 2
0.5
0.1
 0.2 x2

 x
1
y= 1 0
.
x2

ma=[0,1;-0.5,-0.2];
mb=[0;0.1];
mc=[1,0];
sys=ss(ma,mb,mc,0);
MATLAB
lsim ,

21

14
t=[0 :0.1 :100];
y0=[1;1.5];
u=zeros(1,1001);
lsim(sys,u,t,y0);

Linear Simulation Results

2.5
2
Amplitude

1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5

20

40
60
Time (sec)

80

100

14.

lsim

= 1.5, .
y(0) = 1 y(0)
,
.

15
y=lsim(sys,u,t,y0);
plot(t,y,Color,[0 0 1], LineWidth,2);
title(Free response of a Mass Spring System), xlabel(t), ylabel(y(t)),
grid(on);
mx=max(abs(y))

22

Free response of a Mass Spring System
2.5
2
1.5

y(t)

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5

20

40

60

80

100

15.

.
initial(sys,y0,100)
( 16).
Response to Initial Conditions
2.5
2

System: sys
Peak amplitude: 2.14
At time (sec): 1.42

Amplitude

1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5

20

40
60
Time (sec)

80

100

16.

Dirac (t)
impulse(sys,100) 100 ( 17)..
.

23

Impulse Response

Amplitude

0.1

System: sys
Peak amplitude: 0.115
At time (sec): 1.98

0.05
System: sys
Settling Time (sec): 39.1
0

0.05
0

20

40
60
Time (sec)

80

100

17.

step(sys)
( 18).
Step Response
0.35

Amplitude

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

20

40
60
Time (sec)

80

100

18.

0 t 100
10.

19
[u,t]=gensig(square,10,100,0.1);
lsim(sys,u,t,[0;0]);

24

Linear Simulation Results

3

Amplitude

2
1
0
1
2
3

20

40
60
Time (sec)

80

100

19.

2.1.6

y (t)
u (t)
.


1s .

dn
dn1
y (t) + an1 n1 y (t) + ... + a0 y (t) = b0 u(t)
n
dt
dt
.

n
dn
dt
n y (t) .
..
dn
dn1
y
(t)
=
a
y (t) ... a0 y (t) + b0 u(t)
n1
dtn
dtn1
dn1
an1 dt
n1 y (t) ... a0 y (t) + b0 u(t).

y (t) + 3y (t) + 5y(t) = 7u(t)

:

2.2 Laplace
2.2.1

Laplace

8 f(t) t t 0.

 Laplace

25

u(t)
7

y''(t)

y'(t)

1
s

Gain2

Integrator

y(t)

1
s
Integrator1

-3
Gain
-5
Gain1

20.

L (f(t)) = F (s) =

f(t)est dt

(2.15)

s = + j, j
Laplace f (t).

Laplace f(t) F (s).

9 F (s) Laplace f (t) t 0.

c+j

1
1
F (s)est ds
(2.16)
L (F (s)) = f (t) =
2j
cj

Laplace.

, ((2.16)).

2.2.2

Laplace.

Laplace
Laplace

26

f(t)

Laplace

(t)
1(t)
t
tn
eat
sin(t)
cos(t)
eat sin(t)

eat cos(t)

1
1
s
1
s2
n!
sn+1
1
s+a

s2 +2
s
s2 +2

(s+a)2 +2
s+a
(s+a)2 +2

(1) Laplace
L (a1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)) = L (a1 f1 (t)) + L (a2 f2 (t)) = a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s).
(2) Laplace
L1 (a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s)) = a1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t).
(3)
n

d
L
f (t) = sn F (s) sn1 f (0) sn2 f (0) f (n1) (0).
dtn

d
d2
y(t) + y(t) + y(t) = sin(3t)
2
dt
dt
d
dt
y(0) = 4 y(0) = 5
2

d
d
L
y(t)
+
L
y(t)
+ L (y(t)) = L (sin(3t))
dt2
dt
 



s2 y(s) s21 y(0) s22 y (0) + sy(s) s11 y(0) + (y(s)) = 2

s +9
3

s2 y(s) 5s 4 + sy(s) 5 + y(s) = 2

s +9
5s3 + 9s2 + 45s + 84
y(s) = 2
.
(s + s + 1)(s2 + 9)
(4) f(t) Laplace F (s)
f (0) = lim sF (s).
s

(5) f (t)
Laplace F (s)
f () = lim sF (s).
s0

(6)

(7)

t
L f ( ) = aF (as).
a

 s 
L1 F ( ) = af(at).
a
(8)
L (f(t T )) = esT F (s)
T > 0 f(t T ) = 0 t T.

 Laplace

27

(9)


L eat f (t) = F (s + a).
(10) / t
dn
L (tn f (t)) = (1)n n F (s).
ds

d
d2
y(t) + y(t) + y(t) = sin(3t)
2
dt
dt
d
dt
y(0) = 4 y(0) = 5

d
d
y(t)
+ L (y(t)) = L (sin(3t))
L
y(t)
+
L
dt2
dt

 


3
s2 y(s) s21 y(0) s22 y (0) + sy(s) s11 y(0) + (y(s)) = 2

s +9
3

s2 y(s) 5s 4 + sy(s) 5 + y(s) = 2

s +9
3
2
5s + 9s + 45s + 84
.
y(s) = 2
(s + s + 1)(s2 + 9)

2.2.3 Laplace

, Laplace

N (s)
X(s) =
D(s)

N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + + b1 s + b0

D(s) = an sn + an1 sn1 + + a1 s + a0
an = 1 m n. L1 (X(s)) .
(1) D(s). n1 p1 , n2
p2 ,..., nr pr ,
r

n
ni = n. D(s)
i=1

D(s) =

r

(s + pi )ni

(2.17)

i=1

(2) X(s) ((2.17))

bm sm + bm1 sm1 + + b1 s + b0
N(s)
=
X(s) =
.
r

D(s)
(s + pi )ni
i=1

X(s)
ni
r 

cik
X(s) = bn +
(s + pi )k
i=1

(2.18)

k=1

bn = 0 m = n. cik
dni k
1
cik =
[(s + pi )ni X(s)]
(ni k)! dsni k
s=pi

(2.19)

28

(3) Laplace
ni
r 

L1 (X(s)) = bn (t) +
i=1 k=1

cik
tk1 epi t .
(k 1)!

(2.20)

10 Laplace X(s) = s35s1

3s2 .
1 / 2 2 / 1.

p1 = 1, n1 = 2
p2 = 2, n2 = 1.

X(s) = 0 +
c11 , c12 , c21 .

2 
ni


i=1 k=1

c12
c11
c21
cik
+
=
+
(s + pi )k
(s + 1) (s + 1)2 (s 2)

!
"
1
d
5s 1

(s + 1)2
(2 1)! ds
(s + 1)2 (s 2) s=1

!
"

d 5s 1
(5s 1) (s 2) (s 2) (5s 1)
=
=
ds s 2 s=1
(s 2)2

(2.21)

c11 =

c11

c11 =

c12 =

5(s 2) (5s 1)
(s 2)2

s=1

5s 1
1
(s + 1)2
(2 2)!
(s + 1)2 (s 2)

9
(s 2)2
=

s=1

s=1

5s 1
(s 2)

s=1

= 1
=2
s=1

c21 = 1.
((2.21))
2
1
1
+
+
(s + 1) (s + 1)2 (s 2)
((2.20)) Laplace

1
2
1
1
+
L
+ L1
L1 (X(s)) = L1
(s + 1)
(s + 1)2
(s 2)

L1 (X(s)) = et + 2tet + e2t .
X(s) =

Laplace .

11
s+3
s+3
=
+ 3s + 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
Laplace Y (s).

Y (s) :
s+3
c1
c2
=
+
(s + 1)(s + 2)
s+1 s+2
c1 , c2 Y (s) =

s2

 Laplace

29

:
c1 (s + 2) + c2 (s + 1)
s+3
s(c1 + c2 ) + 2c1 + c2
s+3
=

=
.
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)

,


c1 + c2 = 1
2c1 + c2 = 3

c1 = 2
c2 = 1
Y (s)
2
1
Y (s) =

s+1 s+2
Laplace

$
#
1
L eat =
s+a

y(t) = 2et e2t .

.
.

12

s1
.
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)
Laplace Y (s).

Y (s) :
c3
s1
c1
c2
+
=
+
2
2
(s + 1) (s + 2)
s + 1 (s + 1)
s+2

(c1 + c3 ) s2 + (3c1 + c2 + 2c3 ) s + (2c1 + 2c2 + c3 )

s1
=
2
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)
(s + 1) (s + 2)

c1 + c3 = 0

3c1 + c2 + 2c3 = 1

2c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 1

c1 = 3
c2 = 2

c3 = 3

3
3
2
Y (s) =

s + 1 (s + 1)2 s + 2
Laplace,
y (t) = 3et 2tet + 3e2t
Y (s) =

30

13 , 1
c1
c2
(s+1)
"" s+1
2 .
c1
c2
c3
s+1 (s+1)2 (s+1)3 .
Laplace
j,

(s j)(s + j) = s2 2s + (2 + 2 ).
.

14 Laplace
1
Y (s) = 2
.
(s + 2s + 2)s
Y (s) s2 + 2s + 2
1 i :
c10 + c11 s
c2
1
= 2
+
(2.22)
2
(s + 2s + 2)s
s + 2s + 2
s
. c10 , c11 , c2 , :
((2.22)) (s2 + 2s + 2),
1
c2
= c10 + c11 s + (s2 + 2s + 2) .
s
s
s = 1 + j s = 1 j ,

1
c10 = 1, c11 = .
2
((2.22)) s,
c10 + c11 s
1
=s 2
+ c2 .
(s2 + 2s + 2)
s + 2s + 2
s = 0 ,
1
c2 = .
2

1 12 s
1 12 s
1/2
1/2
+
=
+
2
2
s + 2s + 2
s
(s + 1) + 1
s
:
1
L{sin t} =
2
s +1
s
L{cos t} =
s2 + 1
L{eat x(t)} = X(s a)
:
1
L{et sin t} =
(s + 1)2 + 1
s+1
L{et cos t} =
(s + 1)2 + 1
Y (s) =

1 12 s
s2 +2s+2 ,

 Laplace

31

.
1 12 s
1
s+1
1
1
=

s2 + 2s + 2
2 (s + 1)2 + 1 2 (s + 1)2 + 1

1
1
s+1
1
11
Y (s) =

+
2
2
2 (s + 1) + 1 2 (s + 1) + 1 2 s

1
1
1
y(t) = et sin t et cos t + u(t).
2
2
2

X(s) =

N (s)
D(s)

N (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + + b1 s + b0

D(s) = an sn + an1 sn1 + + a1 s + a0
an = 1 m > n, .
Q (s) , R (s) N (s) D (s)
N (s) = D (s) Q (s) + R (s)
(2.23)

deg Q (s) = m n
deg R (s) < n.

(2.24)

R (s)
N (s)
= Q (s) +
.
(2.25)
D (s)
D (s)
Laplace X (s)
Laplace Q (s)
R(s)
D(s) . Laplace Q (s)

dn
L1 {sn } = n (t) , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
dt
R(s)
Laplace D(s)

((2.24)), .
X (s) =

Laplace,
.

15 :
y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = u (t) u(t)

(2.26)

(1) y(0 ) = 1, y (0 ) = 0.
(2) u(t) = 1(t).
(3)
1) 2).
(4) u(t) = et .

(1) ,

32

u(t) = 0. :
y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 0
Laplace
s2 Y (s) sy(0) y (0) + 3sY (s) 3y(0) + 2Y (s) = 0

Y (s)(s2 + 3s + 2) = y(0)(s + 3) + y (0)

s+3
s+3
(2.27)
Y (s) = 2
=
s + 3s + 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
, Laplace Y (s). :
s+3
c1
c2
(2.28)
=
+
(s + 1)(s + 2)
s+1 s+2
c1 , c2
:
c1 (s + 2) + c2 (s + 1)
s+3
s(c1 + c2 ) + 2c1 + c2
s+3
=

=
.
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)

,


c1 + c2 = 1
2c1 + c2 = 3

c1 = 2
c2 = 1

2
1
Y (s) =

s+1 s+2
Laplace,
y(t) = y (t) = 2et e2t .
(2)
, . y(0) = 0, y (0) = 0 u(0) = 0. Laplace

1
X(s) = L{u(t)} =
s
Laplace ((2.26)) (
) :
s2 Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) = sX(s) X(s)

s1
(2.29)
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)s
((4.49)) :
c1
c2
c3
s1
=
+
+
(s + 1)(s + 2)s
s+1 s+2
s
c1 , c2 , c3 , .

s1
(c1 + c2 + c3 ) s2 + (2c1 + c2 + 3c3 ) s + 2c3
=
.
(s + 1)(s + 2)s
(s + 1)(s + 2)s

 Laplace

33

c1 + c2 + c3 = 0
2c1 + c2 + 3c3 = 1

2c3 = 1

c1 = 2
c2 = 32

c3 = 12

3/2
1/2
2

s+1 s+2
s
Laplace,
3
1
y(t) = y (t) = 2et e2t u(t)
2
2
(3) 1) 2)
.
y(t) = y (t) + y (t) =
3
1
= 2et e2t + 2et e2t u(t) =
2
2
5
1
= 4et e2t u(t)
2
2
(4) 2),
Laplace
1
X(s) = L{et } =
s+1
Laplace (??) (
) :
s2 Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) = sX(s) X(s)

s1
(2.30)
Y (s) =
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)
((2.30)) :
c1
c2
c3
s1
=
+
+
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)
s + 1 (s + 1)2 s + 2

s1
(c1 + c3 ) s2 + (3c1 + c2 + 2c3 ) s + (2c1 + 2c2 + c3 )
=
2
(s + 1) (s + 2)
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)

c1 + c3 = 0

3c1 + c2 + 2c3 = 1

2c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 1

c1 = 3

c2 = 2

c3 = 3

3
2
3
Y (s) =

s + 1 (s + 1)2 s + 2
Y (s) =

34

Laplace,
y (t) = 3et 2tet + 3e2t

2.3
2.3.1

,
1 ((2.2))
n

n1

d
d
an dt
n y(t) + an1 dtn1 y(t) + + a0 y(t) =
(2.31)
m
d
dm1
= bm dt
m u(t) + bm1 dtm1 u(t) + + b0 u(t).
Laplace




an sn + an1 sn1 + + a0 Y (s) = bm sm + bm1 sm1 + + b0 U(s)
Laplace
bm sm + bm1 sm1 + + b0
Y (s) =
U (s)
an sn + an1 sn1 + + a0

16 ((2.31)) Laplace y(t) Laplace u(t)

.
bm sm + bm1 sm1 + + b0
Y (s)
=
.
(2.32)
T1 (s) =
U (s)
an sn + an1 sn1 + + a0
T1 (s) 1 ,
Laplace
Y (s) = T1 (s)U (s).

17 X(s) = N(s)
D(s) . s
X(s) 0
|X(s)| = 0
.
18 X(s) = N(s)
D(s) . s
X(s) |X(s)| , .
(s1)
s1
= (s+1)
19 X(s) = s3 3s2
2 (s2) . X(s)
s = 1 s = 1 (/ 2) s = 2.

20 T (s) ((2.32)).
s |P (s)| = 0 .
21 T (s) ((2.32)).
s |P (s)| .

35

22
d
d
d3
y(t) 3 y(t) 2y(t) = u(t) u(t)
3
dt
dt
dt
. .

, ((2.32)).
s1
.
T (s) = 3
s 3s 2
s1

s3 3s2
s = 1 s = 1 (/ 2) s = 2.
MATLAB
zero pole .
( 21)
sys=tf([1 -1],[1 0 -3 -2])
zero(sys)
pole(sys)
pzmap(sys), sgrid

PoleZero Map
1

Imaginary Axis

0.5

0.5

1
1.5

0.5

0.5
Real Axis

1.5

2.5

21. - .

21 pzmap -
. (x)
(o).

2.4 -

36

.
. .

y
x

x+y

u
u

u


.
1 2 .
(1) . 1 2
T1 (s) T2 (s)
.

u1

y1
1

u2

y2

22.

u(s) = u1 (s)
u2 (s) = y1 (s)

y(s) = y2 (s).

y1 (s) = T1 (s)u1 (s)
y2 (s) = T2 (s)u2 (s)

y(s) = T2 (s)u2 (s) = T2 (s)y1 (s) = T2 (s)T1 (s)u1 (s) = T2 (s)T1 (s)u(s).

37

y(s)
= T2 (s)T1 (s)
T (s) =
u(s)
22
u

(2.33)

y
T(s)

sys1=tf([1],[1 2 -1])
sys2=tf([1],[3 -1])
sys=sys2*sys1
sys=series(sys1,sys2)
.

y1

+
u
2

y2

23.

y1 (s) = T1 (s)u(s)
y2 (s) = T2 (s)u(s)

y(s) = y1 (s) + y2 (s)

y(s) = (T1 (s) + T2 (s)) u(s).

y(s)
= T1 (s) + T2 (s).
T (s) =
u(s)
sys1=tf([1],[1 2 -1])
sys2=tf([1],[3 -1])
sys=sys2+sys1
sys=parallel(sys1,sys2)

(2.34)

38

1 , 2 , .

subplot(3,1,1), pzmap(sys1), title(Pole - Zero Map of sys1),axis([-6

1 -1 1]);
subplot(3,1,2), pzmap(sys2), title(Pole - Zero Map of sys2),axis([-6
1 -1 1]);
subplot(3,1,3), pzmap(sys), title(Pole - Zero Map of sys3), axis([-6
1 -1 1]);

Pole Zero Map of 1

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6

System: sys1
Pole : 2.41
Damping: 1
Overshoot (%): 0
3
2
1 (rad/sec):
0 2.41 1
Frequency
Real Axis
Pole Zero Map of 2

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6

3
2
Real Axis

Pole Zero Map of

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6

3
2
Real Axis

24.

39

u1

+
-

y2
2

y1

y1

25.

y1 (s) = y(s)
y1 (s) = T1 (s)u1 (s)
y2 (s) = T2 (s)y1 (s)
u1 (s) = u(s) y2 (s).
((2.35))
y1 (s) = y(s) = T1 (s) (u(s) y2 (s)) = T1 (s) (u(s) T2 (s)y(s))

y(s) (1 + T1 (s)T2 (s)) = T1 (s)u(s)
T (s) =

T1 (s)
y(s)
=
u(s)
1 + T1 (s)T2 (s)

(2.35)

(2.36)

sys1=tf([1],[1 2 -1])
sys2=tf([1],[3 -1])
sys=feedback(sys1,sys2)
1 , 2 ,
.

40

Pole Zero Map of sys1

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6

3
2
Real Axis

Pole Zero Map of sys2

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6

3
2
Real Axis

Pole Zero Map of sys3

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6

3
2
Real Axis

26.

41

u1

+
+

y2
2

y1

y1

27.

T1 (s)
y(s)
=
T (s) =
u(s)
1 T1 (s)T2 (s)

(2.37)

sys1=tf([1],[1 2 -1])
sys2=tf([1],[3 -1])
sys=feedback(sys1,sys2,+1)

. .

23 .

+
-

G1(s)

G3(s)

+
G2(s)

G4(s)

G1 G2 G1
.
((2.37)) 1G
1 G2
.

+
-

G1
1-G 1 G2

G3(s)

G4(s)

G3 G1
1G
.
1 G2

G1
1G1 G2

G3

42

G 3G 1
1-G 1 G 2

G4(s)

G(s) =

G3 G1
1G1 G2
G3 G1
+ 1G
G4
1 G2

G3 G1
.
1 G1 G2 + G3 G1 G4

G1G 3
1-G1G 2 G 3G1G 4

, :

24 .
G1(s)

+
+

u(s)

y(s)

+
G2(s)

G3(s)

. . :
u(s)

G1(s)u(s)
G1(s)

u(s)

u1(s)

G2(s)

G2(s)u(s)

G3(s)y(s)

y(s)
G3(s)

y(s) = G1 (s)u(s) + G2 (s)u1 (s)
u1 (s) = u(s) G3 (s)y(s)

y(s)

43

y(s) = G1 (s)u(s) + G2 (s) (u(s) G3 (s)y(s))

G(s) =
G(s) =

y(s)
u(s)

y(s)
G1 (s) + G2 (s)
=
.
u(s)
G2 (s)G3 (s) + 1

2.5
, .

. ,
. ,

( 28).

28. .

.

.
( )
( )
.
G(s) H(s) = 1.

44

Y(s)

E(s)

u(s)

G(s)

(s)

G(s)
Y (s)
=
u(s)
1 + G(s)

G(s)
u(s)
Y (s) =
1 + G(s)

1
G(s)
u(s).
u(s) =
E(s) = u(s) Y (s) = 1
1 + G(s)
1 + G(s)

1 + G(s)
s. H(s) = 1
1
u(s).
E(s) =
1 + G(s)H(s)

2.6
25 h(t)
Dirac (t).
h(t) .

26 h(t) Laplace .
27 ()
t .
.

28
, .
.

29
.
.
.
,

45

T (s) = N(s)
D(s)
.
D(s) = 0
. Routh.
D(s) = an sn + an1 sn1 + + a0 . Routh.

sn
sn1
sn2
sn3
..
.
s0

an
an1
bn1
cn1
..
.
d0

an2
an3
bn3
cn3

bn1 =

an
1
an1 an1

an2
an
1
, bn3 =
an1 an1
an3

an4
an5

(2.38)

1 an1 an3
1 an1 an5
(2.39)
, cn3 =
bn1 bn1 bn3
bn1 bn1 bn5
. D(s)
( ).
cn1 =

30 Routh. pi
a(s) (Re(pi ) < 0) :
(1) ai > 0
(2) Routh .

Routh .

31 Routh
.

32
u

+
-

u1

y2
2

y1

y1

1 G1 (s) = s3 +s21+s+5 2 G2 (s) = 5.

.
((2.36))
G(s) = s3 +s21+s+5 . Routh -

46

.
1
s3 1
2
1
10
s
1
s
9 0
1
s
10 0
((2.38)) ((2.39)).
Routh ,
9 > 0. .
33 G1 (s) =
Routh
s5
s4
s3
s2
s1
s1

1
2
b1

3
6

s23 3
s5 +2s4 +3s3 +6s2 +2s+1 .

2
1

1 3
= 0.
2 6
, . b1 = , 0.
b1 = 12

s5 1
s4 2
s3
s2 63

2
s1 189
126
s1 1
0
5

1
3
s
4
s
2
6
3
s3 0
2
s2 1
0
s1 96
1
s
1
2
2 .

3
6

2
1
0

3
2

1
0

2
1
0

0.

34
u

+
-

u1

y2
2

y1

y1

47

1
d
d
d2
y(t) 3 y(t) + 2y(t) = u(t) + u(t)
dt
dt
dt
2
y(t) = ku(t)
k . (1 ) . k ;
s+1
2 G2 (s) = k.
1 G1 (s) = s2 3s+2
1
(3). ((2.36))
s+1
. Routh.
G(s) = s2 +(k3)s+(k+2)
s2 1
k2
1
s
k3 0
s1 k + 2 0
Routh

k3>0
(2.40)
k+2>0
Routh


k3>0
(2.41)
k+2>0
((2.40)) ((2.41)) k > 3. k > 3
1 .

k = 4, 5, 6, 7.

for k = 4 :7
sys(k-3)=tf([1 1],[1 k-3 k+2]);
end
impulse(sys(1),r, sys(2),g, sys(3),b, sys(4),k)

48

Impulse Response
1
k=4
k=5
k=6
k=7

0.8

Amplitude

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6

6
Time (sec)

10

12

29.

lim h(t) = 0 k.
t
. . k = 7
"" k = 4. k = 2, 3

for k = 2 :3
sys(k-1)=tf([1 1],[1 k-3 k+2]);
end
impulse(sys(1),r, sys(2),g)

Impulse Response
40
k=2
k=3

30

Amplitude

20

10

10

20

3
4
Time (sec)

k = 2 k = 3
.

49

, Routh 2
1 .

35

m,I

F
M

30. .

0.5kg

0.2kg

0.1N/m/sec

0.3m

F (t)

0.006kg m2

x(t)

(2.42)

(t)
.
INTECO (www.inteco.com.pl).

F u(t) = F (t)

50

y(t) = (t),
ml
q s
T (s) =
2
b(I+ml ) 2
3
s +
s (M+m)mgl
s bmgl
q
q
q

q (M + m)(I + ml2 ) (ml)2 .

"". (2.42)
4.545s
.
T (s) = 3
s + 0.1818s2 31.18s 4.455
M = .5;
m = 0.2;
b = 0.1;
i = 0.006;
g = 9.8;
l = 0.3;
q = (M+m)*(i+m*l2)-(m*l)2;
num = [m*l/q 0];
den = [1 b*(i+m*l2)/q -(M+m)*m*g*l/q -b*m*g*l/q];
pend=tf(num,den)
pzmap(pend)
.
PoleZero Map
1

Imaginary Axis

0.5

0.5

1
6

0
Real Axis

s1 = 5.5651. s3 + 0.1818s2
31.18s 4.455 = 0
s1 = 5.5651
s2 = 5.6041
s3 = 0.1428.

.
t=0 :0.01 :1;
impulse(pend,t)

51

Impulse Response
120

Amplitude

100
80
60
40
System: pend
Time (sec): 0.256
Amplitude: 1.57

20
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Time (sec)

0.8

. L((t)) = 1
y(s) = T (s)u(s) = T (s)
y(t) = L1 (T (s))

y(t) = 0.417579e5.60391t + 0.0208296e0.142855t + 0.39675e5.56496t
.

900 = 2 rad = 1.57rad
.
.

3s + 1
C1 (s) =
.
s

contr=tf([3 1],[1 0]);

syscl=feedback(pend,contr);
subplot(2,1,2), impulse(syscl,t), axis([0 1 0 100])
subplot(2,1,1), impulse(pend,t), axis([0 1 0 100])
( ) .

52

Open loopImpulse Response

100

Amplitude

80
60
40
20
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Time (sec)

0.8

0.8

Impulse Response
Closed loop
100

Amplitude

80
60
40
20
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Time (sec)

.

s1 = 0
s2 = 4.2832
s3 = 4.0962
s4 = 0.0052.

s2 + 100s + 1
C2 (s) =
s

4.545s
P (s) = 3
s + 4.727s2 + 423.4s + 0.09091

s1 = 2.3635 + 20.4396i
s2 = 2.3635 20.4396i
s3 = 0.0002.
contr1=tf([1 100 1],[1 0]);
syscl=feedback(pend,contr1);
impulse(syscl,t)

((t))

53

.
Impulse Response
0.2
0.15

Amplitude

0.1
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15

0.5

1.5

2
2.5
Time (sec)

3.5

4.5

.

.

3 ...
3.1
. ""

.
.
.



.

.
.
.
.
, , Bode, Nyquist
Nichols.

, .
.
.
. , ,
, Bode, Nyquist Nichols.

3.2
, , .
29 (k = 4, 5, 6, 7) .
.
(overshoot)


y
y
.( : 100 maxyoo )

(Delay Time)
55

56

...
50% .
(Rise Time)
10% 90%
.
(Settling Time)

( 2%).

36 - .

1
T (s) =
.
10s2 + 2s + 5
MATLAB

sys=tf([1], [10 2 5])
step(sys)
"Characteristics"
.

Step Response

0.35

System: sys
Peak amplitude: 0.328
Overshoot (%): 63.8
At time (sec): 4.53

0.3

Amplitude

0.25

0.2

System: sys
Rise Time (sec): 1.63

0.15

System: sys
Final Value: 0.2

System: sys
Settling Time (sec): 37

0.1

0.05

10

20

30
Time (sec)

40

50

60

31.

63.2%, 1.63sec,
37sec 0.2m.
-

57

k = 1,
1
.
T (s) =
10s2 + 2s + 1
.

Step Response

1.4
System: sys
Peak amplitude: 1.35
Overshoot (%): 35.1
At time (sec): 10.5

1.2

System: sys
Settling Time (sec): 35.4

Amplitude

System: sys
Final Value: 1
System: sys
Rise Time (sec): 4.27

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

10

20

30
Time (sec)

40

50

60

32.

3.3
A .
+
K

G(s)

G(s) = N(s)
D(s) K .
K .

KN (s)
G
=
T (s) =
1 + GK
D(s) + N(s)K
K .
D(s) + N(s)K = 0.
K. K 0
G(s). K

58

...
, .

K .

37
+
K
-

G(s)

1
G(s) = s(s+1)
.
K 0.

K
H(s) = 2
.
s +s+K
H(s)

1 1 4K
s1,2 =
.
2
.
) 1 4K 0 K < 14 . . K 0
0 1. K = 14
12 .
) 1 4K < 0. 12
K .

Root Locus
0.8
0.6

Imaginary Axis

0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

0.8

0.6
0.4
Real Axis

0.2

.
np nz
G(s).
... max{np , nz }
K 0
.

KG(s)
.
...
.

59

( )

...,
( ) ...
...
Root Locus
2.5
2

Imaginary Axis

1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
7

4
3
Real Axis

G(s) =

s+4
(s+2)(s+1)

Root Locus
2
1.5

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
3.5

2.5

G(s) =

1.5
1
Real Axis

0.5

0.5

s +3s+4
(s+2)(s2 +1)

38 2s22s+1
+4s+8 .

2s+1
2s + 1
2s2 +4s+8
T (s) =
= 2
2s
+
s(4
+
2K) + (K + 8)
1 + 2s22s+1
K
+4s+8
2
2s + s(4 + 2K) + (K + 8) = 0,

(4+2K)+i (4+2K)2 4(K+8)2

= 12 K 1 + 12 K 2 + 2K 12
p1 =
4

(4+2K)i (4+2K)2 4(K+8)2

p2 =
= 12 K 1 12 K 2 + 2K 12
4
K = 0

p1 = 1 + 12 12i = 1.0 + 1.7321i

p2 = 1 12 12i = 1.0 1.7321i

60

...

K = 1
p1 = 1.5 + 1.5i
p2 = 1.5 1.5i

K = 2

p1 = 2 + 1i
p2 = 2 1i

K = 3

p1 = 1.634
p2 = 3.366
K
p1 = 12

MATLAB rlocus

sys=tf([2 1],[2 4 8]);

rlocus(sys)

Root Locus
2
1.5

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
4.5

3.5

2.5 2
Real Axis

1.5

0.5

33. .

K (Gain)
. 1.0 + 1.7321i K = 0, "" 12 K .
( ) 1.0 1.7321i K = 0 K .

61
System: sys
Root Locus Gain: 1
Pole: 1.5 + 1.49i
Damping: 0.708
Overshoot (%): 4.27
Frequency (rad/sec): 2.12

System: sys
Gain: 0
Pole: 1 + 1.73i
Damping: 0.5
Overshoot (%): 16.3
Frequency (rad/sec): 2

1.5

Imaginary Axis

1
System: sys
Gain: 2
Pole: 2 + 0.995i
Damping: 0.895
Overshoot (%): 0.181
Frequency (rad/sec): 2.23

0.5

System: sys
System: sys
Gain: 3
Gain: Inf
Pole: 1.64
Pole: 0.5
Damping: 1
Damping: 1
Overshoot (%): 0
Overshoot (%): 0
Frequency (rad/sec): 1.64
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.5

0.5

1.5

2
4.5

3.5

System: sys
2.5
2
1.5Gain: 01
Pole: 1 1.73i
Real Axis
Damping: 0.5
Overshoot (%): 16.3

0.5

( )
.
, (
) .
. .. ,
, k .
.
.
MATLAB
sisotool.
sisotool .

39 G(s) =
2s+1
2s3 +4s2 8s+1 . C(s) = K
+
K

G(s)

7.
sys=tf([2 1],[2 4 -8 1])
sisotool(sys)
sisotool .

62

...

r , y , G (plant), C
F, H , 1 .

, C(s) = 1
3.08 0.54 0.183j (View>Closed Loop Poles). "Analysis->Response to Step Command" .

C(s) 7

63

1.65 0.175 1.55j
22.5 sec.
C(s),
. "" C(s) = 19 6.22 sec.

7 sisotool

64

...

, "Design Constraints->New...". "Settling Time"<7. .

MATLAB . C(s) = 19
.

3.4
, Routh
.

"" .

. .
G(s) = n(s)
d(s) , n(s), d(s)
deg(d(s)) = n, deg(n(s)) n.
. C(s) = x(s)
y(s)
.
u(s)

y(s)
C(s)

G(s)

34.

x(s) y(s) H(s)

p1 , p2 ....

65

q(s) = (sp1 )(sp2 )....

n(s) x(s)
G(s)C(s)
n(s)x(s)
d(s) y(s)
=
.
H(s) =
=
(3.43)
n(s)
x(s)
1 + G(s)C(s)
n(s)x(s) + d(s)y(s)
1+
d(s) y(s)

x(s) y(s)
n(s)x(s) + d(s)y(s) = q(s).
(3.44)
.

40 n(s) = nm sm + nm1 sm1 + ... + n0 d(s) = dn sn +

dn1 sn1 + ... + d0 m n .dn = 0. Sylvester
(n + m) (n + m)

0
0
0
dn dn1 dn2 d1 d0

0
dn1 d2 d1
d0
0
0
dn

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

0
0
0
0 dn dn1 dn2 d0

S(n(s), d(s)) =

nm nm1 nm2 n0 0
0
0
0

0
nm
nm1 n1 n0
0
0
0

.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
0
0
0 nm nm1 nm2
n0
41 n(s) d(s) ( )
-
det S(n(s), d(s)) = 0.
42 n(s) d(s) deg(d(s)) = n, deg(n(s)) =
m n. q(s) = qn+m1 sn+m1 + ... + q0 n + m 1.
x(s) y(s)
(3.45)
n(s)x(s) + d(s)y(s) = q(s)
deg x(s) = n 1 deg y(s) = m 1

 

1
ym1 y0 xn1 x0 = qn+m1 q0 [S(n(s), d(s))] .
s2
. C(s) = x(s)
43 G(s) = s(s1)
y(s)
34 1 2.

n(s) = s 2
d(s) = s(s 1) = s2 s
q(s) = (s + 1)(s + 2) = s2 + 3s + 2
n = 2, m = 1. ((3.45)) n(s) d(s)
, . 3 3 Sylvester

1 1 0
d2 d1 d0

S(n(s), d(s)) = n1 n0 0 = 1 2 0 .

0 1 2
0 n1 n0
Sylvester 2 =
 0

66

...

.

y0

x1

x0


= q2

1
 1 1 0

q0 1 2 0 =
0 1 2

q1


 2

1 3 2 1

1
0



1
0 = 6 5 1 .
1
12 12
2
1 2. C(s) =
5s1
= 56 s 16 .
6
n(s)x(s) + d(s)y(s).


n(s)x(s) + d(s)y(s) = (s 2) (5s 1) + s2 s 6 = s2 + 3s + 2
q(s).

u(s)

y(s)
G(s)

C(s)

H(s) =

n(s)
d(s)
n(s) x(s)
d(s) y(s)

G(s)
=
1 + G(s)C(s)
1+

n(s)y(s)
n(s)x(s) + d(s)y(s)

( ) ((3.43)).

3.5 - Nyquist
G(s) = n(s)
d(s) . .
G(s) s = + wj , w s Re(G(s))
s
Im(G(s)) G(s). .. G(s) = s+2
s = 1 + j

Im

G(1 + j) = 1+j
3+j =
.

(1+j)(3j)
(3+j)(3j)

2
5

+ 15 j .

1.5

1.5

G(s)

(1+j)

0.5

0.5

(2/5+1/5j)

0.5

1
Re

1.5

0.5

1
Re

1.5

 - Nyquist

67

C
2
1.5
1

Im

0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2

1.5

0.5

0
Re

0.5

1.5

35. C
G(s) =
:

s
s+2 .

C -

(i) s = 1 + wj, w [1, 1] .

(ii) s = 1 + wj, w [1, 1] .
(iii) s = w + j, w [1, 1] .
(iv) s = w j, w [1, 1] .
s G(s)
(1+wj)(1wj)
1+wj
1+wj
1+wj+2 = 1+wj = (1+wj)(1wj)
2
2w
(ii) G(1 + wj) = 3+w
9+w2 + 9+w2 j
2
w +2w+1
2
(iii) G(w + j) = (w+2)
2 +1 + (w+2)2 +1 j
2
w +2w+1
2
(iv) G(w j) = (w+2)
2 +1 (w+2)2 +1 j.

(i) G(1 + wj) =

1+w2
1+w2

2w
1+w2 j

s
C G(s) = s+2

68

...

0.5

-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

-0.5

-1

36.

. G w
.
A = (0.2, 0.5) 0.2 + 0.5j G(s).
1 A
.
A N (A).
G(s) =
G(s) .

(s0.5)(s+0.5)(s0.2)
.
s4 +6s+14

C 35

0.2

0.1

-0.1

0.1

0.2

-0.1

-0.2

37.

N (A) = 2
N (B) = 3
N () = 0.

0.3

0.4

 - Nyquist

69

G(s) = n(s)
d(s) .



A cos t, t 0
u(t) =
0, t < 0
A R = 2k R ( rad/sec)
k = T1 T .
((2.8))
yo (t) = A |G (j)| cos [t + ()] .
:

(A |G (j)|)
() .

() = arg G (j) .
G (j) ,
R C. R, G (j) Re G (j)
Im G (j) , G (j)
G (j) = Re G (j) + jIm G (j)
  
  
X()

|G (j)| G (j)

|G (j)| =

Y ()

%
[X ()]2 + [Y ()]2

() = arg G (j) = arctan

Y ()
X ()

G (j) .
G (j)
G (j) = |G (j)| cos () + j |G (j)| sin ()
= |G (j)| [cos () + j sin ()]
= |G (j)| ej()
G (j)
yo (t) |G (j)|
() G (j). |G (j)|
arg G (j) u (t) = A cos t
[0, ) (frequency
responce curves).
|G (j)| decibel |G (j)|dB
|G (j)|dB = 20 log10 |G (j)|
|G (j)| < 1, log10 |G (j)| < 0 |G (j)|dB := 20 log10 |G (j)| <
0.
|G (j)| = 1, log10 |G (j)| = 0 |G (j)|dB := 20 log10 |G (j)| = 0.
|G (j)| > 1, log10 |G (j)| > 0 |G (j)|dB = 20 log10 |G (j)| > 0.

70

...

|G (j)|dB
|G (j)|dB
|G (j)|dB

< 0dB |G (j)| < 1

= 0dB |G (j)| = 1
> 0dB |G (j)| > 1

,
|G (j)|dB < 0 dB, A u (t) = A cos (t)
|G (j)| ,
|G (j)|dB = 0 dB, A u (t) ,
|G (j)|dB > 0 dB, A |G (j)|.
|G (j)|dB arg G (j) ,
Bode .
G(s) =

30
s2 +s+100 .

Bode .

Bode Diagram

Magnitude (dB)

20

20

40

60
0

Phase (deg)

45
90
135
180
0

10

10
Frequency (rad/sec)

38. Bode G(s) =

10

30
s2 +s+100

= 6 |G (j)|dB < 0
. = 6 T =
1
2
2
=
= 6 . u(t) = cos(6t).
2
( )
.
u(t) = cos(9t)

44 G (j) G (j) [0, +) G (s).

45 j, (, +) G (j) -

 - Nyquist

71

Linear Simulation Results

1
0.8
0.6

Amplitude

0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

39. G(s) =

6
Time (sec)

30
s2 +s+100

10

12

u(t) = cos(6t)

Linear Simulation Results

2

1.5

Amplitude

0.5

0.5

1.5

40. G(s) =

5
Time (sec)

30
s2 +s+100

10

u(t) = cos(9t)

72

...

Nyquist G (s).
Nyquist
.

46 H (s) =
.
0

0.2

0.4

2
s+2

0.6

0.8

H (j) =

2
j+2

0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5

.
47 Nyquist H (s) =

2
s+2

= 2

0.4
0.2

0 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

-0.2
-0.4

.

.

48 C G(s) = n(s)
d(s) .
G(s). N (0)
(0, 0) G(s)
N (0) = Z P
Z G(s) C P
G(s) C.

G(s) = (s0.5)(s+0.5)(s0.2)
, C 35 36
s4 +6s+14

 - Nyquist

73

z1 = 0.5
z2 = 0.5
z3 = 0.2

p1 = 1.39518 + 1.73829j
p2 = 1.39518 1.73829j
p3 = 1.39518 + 0.933488j
p4 = 1.39518 0.933488j.
Z = 3 ( C ) P = 0 (
C ). C G(s)
N (0) = Z P = 3 (0, 0), 37.
C .

41. .

R
. R
.
Nyquist ..

49 G(s) Nyquist 0 N (0) = Z Z G(s)

.
50 (Nyquist)

+
_

y
G(s)

42.

74

...

- C 41
1
, 0) G(s), P , P
( K
.

1
. 51 G(s) = (s+1)(s+2)(s+3)
K 42
Nyquist G(s)
Nyquist Diagram

1/10

Imaginary Axis

0.1

0.05

1/6

1/60 0

0.05

0.1

1/10
0

0.05
Real Axis

0.1

0.15

Nyquist MATLAB "nyquist".

s=tf(s)
sys=1/((s+1)*(s+2)*(s+3))
nyquist(sys)
Nyquist Nyquist
1
, 0) G(s), P = 0 , P
( K
.
1
1
1 K>0
<
= 1 < K 0 < K < 60
K
60
60

1
1 K>0
1
> = 1 > K 0 < K < 6.
K
6
6
K 6 < K < 60
K = 0.
Routh.

K
G(s)K
= 3
.
H(s) =
2
1 + G(s)K
s + 6s + 11s + (6 + k)
Routh
s3
s2
s1
s0

1
6
60K
6

6+K

11
6+k
0
0

Routh s3 + 6s2 + 11s + (6 + k)

 - Nyquist

75

Nyquist Diagram
2.5
2
1.5

Imaginary Axis

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1.5

0.5

0
0.5
Real Axis

1.5

43.

Routh.

(6 + K) > 0
60K
>0
6

6+K >0

6 < K < 60.
2

52 .. G(s) = s4 +3ss3 +s+1

+2s2 +s+1 . K > 0
42 Nyquist
G(s)

Nyquist Nyquist
1
, 0) G(s), P = 0. P
( K
G(s) Routh ().
s4
1 2 1
3
s
3 1
5
2
s
1
3
s
45
1
1
Routh
, P = 2.
1
0.5 < < 0
K

K > 2.

4
53 :
y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = u (t) u(t)

(4.46)

(1) y(0 ) = 1, y (0 ) = 0.
(2) u(t) = 1(t).
(3)
1) 2).
(4) u(t) = et .

(1) ,
u(t) = 0. :
y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 0
Laplace
s2 Y (s) sy(0) y (0) + 3sY (s) 3y(0) + 2Y (s) = 0

Y (s)(s2 + 3s + 2) = y(0)(s + 3) + y (0)

s+3
s+3
Y (s) = 2
(4.47)
=
s + 3s + 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
, Laplace Y (s). ((4.47))
:
s+3
c1
c2
=
+
(4.48)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
s+1 s+2
c1 , c2
:
c1 (s + 2) + c2 (s + 1)
s+3
s(c1 + c2 ) + 2c1 + c2
s+3
=

=
.
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
(s + 1)(s + 2)

,


c1 + c2 = 1
2c1 + c2 = 3

c1 = 2
c2 = 1

2
1
Y (s) =

s+1 s+2
Laplace,
y(t) = y (t) = 2et e2t .
(2)
, . y(0) = 0, y (0) = 0 u(0) = 0. Laplace

1
X(s) = L{u(t)} =
s
77

78

Laplace ((4.46)) (
) :
s2 Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) = sX(s) X(s)

s1
Y (s) =
(4.49)
(s + 1)(s + 2)s
((4.49)) :
c1
c2
c3
s1
=
+
+
(s + 1)(s + 2)s
s+1 s+2
s
c1 , c2 , c3 , .

(c1 + c2 + c3 ) s2 + (2c1 + c2 + 3c3 ) s + 2c3
s1
=
.
(s + 1)(s + 2)s
(s + 1)(s + 2)s

,

c1 + c2 + c3 = 0
2c1 + c2 + 3c3 = 1

2c3 = 1

c1 = 2
c2 = 32

c3 = 12

3/2
1/2
2

Y (s) =
s+1 s+2
s
Laplace,
3
1
y(t) = y (t) = 2et e2t u(t)
2
2
(3) 1) 2)
.
y(t) = y (t) + y (t) =
3
1
= 2et e2t + 2et e2t u(t) =
2
2
5
1
= 4et e2t u(t)
2
2
(4) 2), Laplace
1
X(s) = L{et } =
s+1
Laplace (??) ( ) :
s2 Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) = sX(s) X(s)

s1
Y (s) =
(4.50)
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)
((4.50)) :
c3
s1
c1
c2
+
=
+
2
2
(s + 1) (s + 2)
s + 1 (s + 1)
s+2

79

(c1 + c3 ) s2 + (3c1 + c2 + 2c3 ) s + (2c1 + 2c2 + c3 )

s1
=
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)
(s + 1)2 (s + 2)

c1 + c3 = 0

3c1 + c2 + 2c3 = 1

2c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 1

c1 = 3

c2 = 2

c3 = 3

3
3
2
Y (s) =

s + 1 (s + 1)2 s + 2
Laplace,
y (t) = 3et 2tet + 3e2t

54 Hurwitz
( ).

a(s) = s5 + s4 + 3s3 + 2s2 + s + 1

a(s) = s4 + 10s3 + 35s2 + 50s + 24

,
. Routh

s5
1 3 1
s4
1 2 1
s3
b1 b2
s2
c1 c2
s
d1
e1
1
b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , d1 , e1
b1

1
1

1 3
1 2

= 1, b2 =

1
1

1 1
1 1

=0

c1

1
1

1 2
1 0

= 2, c2 =

1
1

1 1
1 0

=1

d1

1
2

1 0
2 1

e1

1
1/2

1
2

2
1
1/2 0

=1

80

Routh :

s5
s4
s3
s2
s
1

1
1
1
2
1/2
1

3 1
2 1
0
1

( 12 ),
.
a(s) = s4 + 10s3 + 35s2 + 50s + 24
.
Routh :
s4
1 35 24
s3
10 50
s2
b1 b2
s
c1
1
d1
:

b1

1
10

1 35
10 50

= 30, b2 =

c1

1
30

10 50
30 24

= 42

30 24
42 0
Routh
=

d1

1
42

1
10

1 24
10 0

= 24

= 24

s4
1 35 24
3
s
10 50
s2
30 24
s
42
1
24
.
55
s2 + s + 1
G(s) = 4
s + 3s3 + 2s2 + s + 1
;
k R,

x(s) +

y(s)

G(s)

81

a(s) = s4 + 3s3 +
2s2 + s + 1 , .
Routh :
s4
1 2 1
s3
3 1
5
2
s
1
3
4
s
5
1
1
()
.
,
k(s2 + s + 1)
kG(s)
= 4
H(s) =
3
1 + kG(s)
s + 3s + 2s2 + s + 1 + k(s2 + s + 1)

k(s2 + s + 1)
H(s) = 4
3
s + 3s + (k + 2)s2 + (k + 1)s + (k + 1)

ac (s) = s4 + 3s3 + (k + 2)s2 + (k + 1)s + (k + 1)
Hurwitz (. ).
, ,
.
k+2 > 0
k+1 > 0

k > 1
Routh

1
k+2 k+1
s4
3
3
k+1
s
2k+5
k+1
s2
3
2(k2 k2)
s
2k+5
1
k+1
Routh , :

2k+5
>0

2(k2 k2)
2k+5

>0
k+1>0

k > 52
k (, 1) (2, +)

k > 1

k>2

82

k > 2.

56
1
.
G(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)
N k R,
,

x(s) +

y(s)

G(s)

C(s)

C(s) =

ks
.
s2 + 1

C(s)G(s)
H(s) =
1 + C(s)G(s)

ks
H(s) = 4
s + 3s3 + 3s2 + (k + 3)s + 2

ac (s) = s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + (k + 3)s + 2
(. ). , ,
.
k + 3 > 0 k > 3.
Routh

s4
1
3
2
s3
3
k+3
s2
2
k6
3
k(k3)
s
k6
2
1
Routh , :
k6

> 0
3
k(k 3)
> 0
k6

k < 6
0 < k < 3.

0 < k < 3.
0 < k < 3.

83
1
57 G(s) = s2 2s+2
.
G(s); ;

+

G(s)

K . K .. ?
.
K , C(s) = n(s)
d(s)
.
MATLAB sisotool C(s) = n(s)
d(s)

5 sec.

G(s)
. ,
1+i, 1i.
.
Routh.

1
K s2 2s+2
KG(s)
K
=
.
H(s) =
= 2
1
1 + KG(s)
s 2s + (K + 2)
1 + K s2 2s+2
K .. s2 2s + (K + 2) . Routh ,
. K
. ...
.
Pole-Zero Map
1.5

Imaginary Axis

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Real Axis

K () . Routh K ..
""
. . -

84

... MATLAB rlocus.
Root Locus
1.5

Imaginary Axis

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Real Axis

...

, .
"" .
1 + i, 1 i, C(s) = K(s2 + 2s + 2). ...
Root Locus
2

1.5

Imaginary Axis

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Real Axis

K .
K Routh.
K(s2 +2s+2)

C(s)G(s)
s2 2s+2
=
H(s) =
2 +2s+2)
1 + C(s)G(s)
1 + K(s
s2 2s+2
K(s2 + 2s + 2)
(K +
+ (2K 2) s + (2K + 2)

K + 1 > 0 K > 1
2K 2 > 0 K > 1

2K + 2 > 0 K > 1.

K > 1.
H(s) =

1) s2

(4.51)

85
Routh

s2
. s
1

K + 1 2K + 2
2K 2
0
a

1
(2K + 2)(2K 2) = (2K + 2).
2K 2
((4.51))
2K + 2 > 0

K > 1.
(4.52)
((4.51)) ((4.52)) K > 1.
C(s) = K(s2 + 2s + 2), K > 1
.
a=

sisotool.

s=tf(s);
g=(1)/((s2-2s+2));
sisotool(g)
, 3. "design constraint" ( ...)
5.

C(s) = 18 1+s+(0.71s)
= 9.073 8s2 + 18s + 18. 1

86

Step Response
1.06

1.04

1.02

Amplitude

0.98

0.96
0.94
System: Closed Loop: r to y
I/O: r to y
Settling Time (sec): 4.98

0.92

0.9
0.88
0

4
Time (sec)

4.98sec.

5
Distefano J., Stubberud A., Williams I., , Schaum,
, 2000.
Dorf R.C.,Bishop R.H., , , 2003.
, ,
, .
., , , , , 2001.
., , , , 2001.
., Matlab 6 , . , 2002.

87

6
, 17
, 15
Dirac, 2
, 18
, 34
, 2
, 3
, 18
, 17
, 34
, 1
, 1
, 1
, 14
, 4
, 58
, 13
, 15
, 44
, 44
, 34
, 55
, 56
, 56
, 55
, 35
, 37
, 38
, 40
, 36
, 27
Laplace, , 24
Nyquist, , 72
Routh
, 45
, 45

89