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Physics 11 Notes Significant Digits
Physics 11 Notes Significant Digits
Physics 11 Notes Significant Digits
Significant Digits
1. All digits from 1 to 9 are significant, and 0 may or may not be significant.
2. Zeros between other digits are significant.
Eg. 52.004 has 5 sd and 40.001 has 5 sd; 0.9005 has 4 sd
3. For numbers having a value greater than one, all zeros (written down) to the right
of a decimal point are significant. The degree of accuracy is indicated by these
zeros. They should not be appended (written down) unless they are significant.
Eg. 3.6 has 2 sd, 3.60 has 3 sd, 3.600 has 4 sd, 3.00600 has 6 sd
4. For numbers having a value less than one, all zeros to the right of the decimal
point but preceding a non-zero digit are not significant. All zeros (written down) to
the right of the last non-zero digit are significant.
Eg. 0.0056 has 2 sd, 0.0307 has 3 sd, 0.0020 has 2 sd, 0.00030700 has 5 sd
5. All zeros between the decimal point (if written down) and the first non-zero digit
to the left of the decimal point are significant.
Eg. 67000 has 5 sd, 7020000 has 7 sd
6. If the decimal point is not written, the zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit
are not significant unless otherwise stated.
Eg. 67000 has 2sd, 100 has 1 sd, 600 (2 sd) has 2sd, 600 (3sd) has 3 sd
7. In scientific notation, the quantity is written in the form M x 10 n where 1 M <10
and n is a positive or negative integer. The number of significant digits is
expressed by the value of M.
Eg. 4.4 x 105 has 2 sd, 5 x 102 has 1 sd, 5.0 x 102 has 2 sd
8. Numbers that are exact counts (counted quantities) are considered to be free of
error (perfectly precise), as are defined fractions. Scientific digits do not apply to
them.
Eg. 122 marbles, 115 people= these numbers have an inifinte number of
significant digits (%=0.500 has an infinite number of sd)
9. When measurements are added or subtracted, the result is expressed with the
same precision as the least precise measurement (the measurement with the
SYMBOL
UNIT NAME
ABBREVIATION
Length
metre
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
second
Electric Current
Ampere
Temperature
Kelvin
A derived unit is a unit that can be stated in terms of the base unit.
Eg. Energy is measured in Joules (J).
4.8 joules in calorie J= kg x m2/ s2
Force is measured in Newtons (N).
N= kg x m/s2
Average Speed represents the total distance travelled divided by the total time of travel.
Vav= d/t
Instantaneous Speed represents a speed at a specific moment in time.
Measure Time
Accurate measurements of time can be obtained using stop watches, stroboscopes,
and ticker tape timers. For example, ticker tape timers represent the number of cycles
per second. This type of measurement is known as frequency (f) which is given the
derived unit Hertz (Hz). A typical ticker tape timer in Canada will produce 60 dots per
second. This means the ticker tape gives off a frequency of 60 Hz or 60 cycles/ second.
The period (T) of this ticker tape is the reciprocal of the frequency. This represents the
time intervals between dots.
T= 1/f
Uniform Motion
Uniform motion is the movement of an object at constant speed in a straight line.
However, when studying motion, direction must be considered.
A vector quantity is one that has both magnitude and direction.
Examples of vectors:
Position describes the distance and direction of an object from a reference
point.
i)
ii)
df
di
OR
d 2
Average Velocity
Average velocity is also a vector quantity which represents the rate of change of an
objects position from its origin.
Vav
d t
/
= slope =
d t
/
Velocity-Time Graph: The slope of the line represents acceleration which is zero. The
area under the graph represents displacement.
Relative Motion: The velocity of a body relative to a particular frame of reference is
called relative velocity. Generally, Earth will be the frame of references but it does not
have to be.
Uniform Acceleration
The rate at which an objects velocity increases or decreases is called its acceleration.
Uniform Acceleration occurs when an object changes its velocity (speed and direction)
uniformly over time. In uniform acceleration, the instantaneous acceleration and
average acceleration will be the same.
Aav
v t
/
Velocity-Time graphs for Non-Uniform Acceleration: The velocity does not change
consistently with time. We can find a instantly using a tangent line at a specified
time.
Solving Uniform Acceleration Problems
1. State the given facts and equations.
2. Substitute for the variable to be eliminated.
3. Simplify the equation to a convenient form.
Refer to pg. 44 Table
Forces in Nature
A force is something that pushes or pulls on an object. There are four fundamental
forces in nature:
1) Gravitational Force which is an attraction between objects because of their
masses (Relative strength 1).
2) Electromagnetic Force is between charges at rest or in motion (Relative strength
1036).
3) Strong Nuclear Force occurs between sub-atomic particles. It holds the protons
and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom (Relative strength 10 38).
4) Weak Nuclear Force is responsible for the interactions between other elementary
particles. This force causes neutrons to become protons and radiation is released
(Relative strength 1025).
Forces We Experience Daily
1) Force of Gravity which pulls objects vertically downwards.
2) Normal Force which is perpendicular to the surfaces of the objects in contact.
N= kg x m/ s2
Drawing Force Diagrams
Free-body Diagrams (FBD) show only the object being analyzed with arrows showing
all of the forces acting on the object. Each force vector is labelled with the symbol
F and subscript. The positive direction is chosen for convenience.
F
= force of gravity
F = normal force
N
F
= applied force
F = friction
F
F
= tension
The First Law of Motion: If the net force acting on an object is zero, the object will
maintain its state of rest or constant velocity.
What it means to us:
1) Objects at rest stay at rest.
2) Objects in motion remain in motion.
3) If
4) If v
is changing (in magnitude or direction), the external forces are unbalanced (
Fnet
0).
Newtons Second Law of Motion
If the net external force on an object is not zero, the object accelerates in the direction
of the net force. The magnitude of the acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of
the net force and is inversely proportional to the objects mass.
To derive an equation for the second law of motion
When mass (m) is kept constant, this tells us that as force increases, so does
acceleration. When net force is kept constant, this tells us that as mass increases (or
decreases), acceleration decreases (or increases). The acceleration is proportional to
force over mass. If the units are in N, m, kg, s, then k=1.
Fnet
=m
action
= - F reaction
This law is equivalent to stating that forces always occur in pairs, or that a single
isolated force cannot exist.
The force that body 1 exerts on body 2 is sometimes called the action force, while the
force of body 2 on body 1 is called the reaction force. Either force can be labelled the
action or reaction force.
Gravitational Force on Earths Surface
A force field is a space around an object in which the object will exert a force on a
second object. The gravitational force between two masses can be considered as a
force field. That is, the two masses interact even though they are not in contact with
each other. An alternative approach in describing the gravitational interaction is to
introduce the concept of a gravitational field strength, g, at every point in space.
The gravitational field strength represents the amount of force per unit of mass on
objects within the gravitational field. It is a vector quantity with direction towards the
centre of the earth (or other large body) and is measured in N/kg (acceleration).
F (force from gravity) = m g (gravitational field strength/ acceleration)
g
Mass and Weight
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object.
Weight takes into account the force field, so it is a measure of the force of gravity on an
object. Weight is measured in N, and mass is kg.
Since an objects weight depends on field strength, we weigh less in space even though
our mass remains constant.
Universal Gravitation
Law of Universal Gravitation states that the force of gravitational attraction between
any two objects is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the objects, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.
F
= Gm1m2/d2
= s x mg
s (Greek letter Mu) represents the coefficient of static friction and has no units.
Kinetic Friction represents the force acting on an object in the opposite direction of
motion of the object.
K = F K / F N
or
F = x F
K
K
N
= K x mg
K represents the coefficient of kinetic friction.
There are several types of kinetic friction:
1. Sliding Friction- sled
2. Rolling Friction wheels
3. Fluid Friction- boats or planes
8. Sound Energy
9. Chemical Potential Energy
Energy Transformation
The energies listed above may change from one form into another. For example,
roasting a turkey in the oven.
Electrical energy Thermal Energy Radiant Energy Thermal Energy
Work
Work is the energy transferred to an object by an applied force over a measured
distance (lifting a dumbbell).
W= F d
Units of Energy and Work
Work is measured in N x m or Joules (J). It is a scalar quantity.
Positive, Negative or Zero Work
If force and displacement are in the same direction, work done is positive. If force and
displacement are in opposite directions, work done is negative. If force and
displacement are perpendicular, zero work is done.
Mechanical Energy
The total mechanical energy of a system is defined as the sum of the kinetic energy
(EK) and potential energy (EP): ET = EK + EP (or EG)
The stored energy of an object, a certain distance from the ground, has the potential to
do work when it is released and is called potential energy; it is an energy associated
with forces of attraction, or repulsion between objects.
Gravitational Potential Energy (EP) represents the energy possessed by an object
because of its position relative to a lower position.
W= F h
W= mg h or EP = mgh
(h=height)
).
v 2
ET = m v 2 + m g h
Law of Conservation of Energy and Efficiency
Law of Conservation of Energy: When energy changes from one form to another, no
energy is lost (Energy cannot be created or destroyed).
Efficiency
The efficiency of a system is a ratio of the useful energy you get out of a device
compared to the amount of energy you put in. It is usually expressed as a %.
Efficiency = energy output/ energy input x 100%
Power
Power (P) is the rate at which work is done. It is determined by dividing the work done
by the time required. If the work is in joules and the time in seconds, the power will be in
Watts (W).
P= W/ t = E/ T
Watt (W) = J/s
The unit of power is the Watt (symbol W). Dont confuse the W for Watt with Work.
Horsepower: The amount of energy a good horse can transfer continuously for a
working day (750 W = 1 hp).
Energy Resources
Energy Resources are raw materials that can be used to do work.
Non-Renewable Energy Resources are not renewed during a normal human lifespan.
1. Fossil Fuels (crude oil, natural gas, and coal; require millions of years to
replenish)
2. Nuclear Fission (large nucleus splits releasing large amounts of energy
<uranium>)
Renewable Energy Resources are renewed during a normal human lifespan (75
years).
Reflection
a) Fixed End Reflection
The speed of the reflected pulse is the same as the speed of the incident pulse. The
wavelength of the reflected pulse is the same as the wavelength of the incident
pulse. The amplitude of the reflected pulse is less than the amplitude of the incident
pulse.
b) Free End Reflection
The reflected pulse has similar characteristics as the fixed end reflection except that
the reflected wave is NOT inverted.
Transmission
When a wave travels to a different medium, a partial reflection occurs. Some of the
energy is transferred to the new medium.
a) Fast to Slow Medium
A wave travelling from a less dense to a more dense medium will be reflected off the
boundary and transmitted across the boundary into the new medium. The reflected
pulse is inverted. The transmitted pulse (in the more dense medium) is travelling
slower than the reflected pulse (in the less dense medium). The transmitted pulse (in
the more dense medium) has a smaller wavelength than the reflected pulse (in the
less dense medium). The speed and the wavelength of the reflected pulse are the
same as the speed and the wavelength of the incident pulse.
b) Slow to Fast Medium
A wave travelling from a more dense to a less dense medium will be reflected off the
boundary and transmitted across the boundary into the new medium. There is no
inversion.
Transmitted Pulse vs. Reflected Pulse
- The transmitted pulse (less dense medium) travels faster than the reflected pulse
(more dense medium).
- The transmitted pulse (less dense medium) has larger wavelength than reflected pulse
(more dense medium).
- The speed and wavelength of the reflected pulse are the same as the speed and the
wavelength of the incident pulse.
Constructive Interference occurs when 2 crests (or 2 troughs) meet, which results in
the medium having a larger amplitude.
Destructive Interference occurs when a crest meets a trough. If both crest and through
have the same amplitude and wavelength, then they will cancel each other out resulting
in the formation of a node. When a crest meets a crest (or trough meets a trough), a
supercrest is formed (or a supertrough).
Principle of Superposition: At any point, the resulting amplitude of the two interfering
waves is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves.
Mechanical Resonance
All objects have a natural frequency at which they will vibrate. The transfer of energy
from one object to another having the same natural frequency is known as resonance
or mechanical resonance.
When an object vibrates in resonance with another, it is called sympathetic vibration.
For example, if both tuning forks have the same resonance frequencies and one is
struck with a rubber mallet, the other tuning fork will vibrate soon after. This is an
example of sympathetic vibration.
Standing Waves
A standing wave pattern is a vibration pattern created within a medium when the
vibration frequency of the source causes reflected waves from one end of the medium
to interfere with incident waves from the source in such a manner that specific points
along the medium appear to be standing still.
Sound
A sound wave is a mechanical wave which results from the longitudinal motion of the
particles of the medium through which the sound wave is moving. If the sound wave is
moving through air, then as one air particle is displaced from its equilibrium position, it
exerts a push or pull on its nearest neighbours causing them to be displaced from their
equilibrium position. This particle interaction continues throughout the entire medium,
with each particle interaction causing a disturbance of its nearest neighbours.
A mechanical wave is a wave that requires a medium for which energy is transported
through.
Because of the longitudinal motion of the air particles, there are regions in the air where
the air particles are compressed together and other regions where the air particles are
spread apart. These regions are known as compressions and rarefactions
respectively.
The wavelength of a wave is merely the distance which a disturbance travels along the
medium in one complete wave cycle.
The normal human hearing can detect sounds in the range of 20 to 20000 Hz.
Sound requires a medium to travel through. Otto Von Guericke (1602-86) showed that
as air is removed from a jar, the intensity of the sound decreases. Once all the air was
removed from the jar, no sound can be heard. He also discovered that sound can be
transmitted clearly through other mediums such as water or through solids.
Note: Particles of air only vibrate locally; they do not move from the source to the
receiver.
Since a sound wave consists of repeating pattern of high pressure and low pressure
regions moving through a medium, it is sometimes referred to as a pressure wave.
The Speed of Sound
The speed of any wave depends upon the properties of the medium through which the
wave is travelling. There are two essential types of properties which affect wave speedinertial properties and elastic properties.
1. Density of a medium is an example of an inertial property. The greater the
density of the individual particles of the medium, the slower the wave. If all other
factors are equal (and seldom is it that simple), a sound wave will travel faster in
a less dense material than a more dense material.
So then why does sound travel faster through solids?
2. Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency of a material to
either maintain its shape and not deform whenever a force or stress is applied to
it.
Rigid materials such as steel are considered to have a high elasticity. The phase of
matter has a tremendous impact upon the elastic properties of the medium. In general,
solids have the strongest interactions between particles, followed by liquids and then
gases. For this reason, longitudinal sound waves travel faster in solids than they do in
liquids than they do in gases.
The speed of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties of the air, namely the
temperature and the pressure. The pressure of air (like any gas) will affect the mass
density of the air (an inertial property) and the temperature will affect the strength of the
particle interactions (an elastic property). At normal atmospheric pressure and 0C, the
speed of sound increases by 0.59 m/s per 1C temperature change.
The Doppler Effect can be observed to occur with all types of waves- most notably
water waves, sound waves, and light waves. Because of this shift in frequency,
scientists use the Doppler Effect to detect the speed of stars, radar devices, and
infrared detectors.
F2 = f1(vsound/Vsound Vsource)
Where f2 = shifted frequency of source
F1 = frequency of the source
Vsound = speed of sound in the medium
Vsource = speed of the source through the medium
Supersonic Travel
When objects travel at speeds greater than the speed of sound, then they are travelling
at supersonic speed. This speed is given a Mach number which represents the ratio of
the speed of an object to the speed of sound in air;
Mach number = speed of object/ speed of sound
When an object exceeds the speed of sound, you hear a sonic boom (crack or
explosion).
Interference of Sound Waves and Beat Frequency
Interference between identical sounds waves produces lines of constructive and
destructive interference (antinodes and nodes). This interference between nearly
identical sound waves produces beats.
Beats are periodic changes in the sound intensity. Beat frequency can be calculated by
subtracting the lower frequency from the higher frequency.
Beat frequency = number of beats/ total time = |f 1 f2|
Music
Whats the difference between music or noise?
Noise is a random mix of constantly changing frequencies. On an oscilloscope, there is
no pattern.
Music is a combination of notes or pure tones. There is a pattern to the display of an
oscilloscope.
The three main characteristics of musical sound are pitch, loudness, and quality. All of
these are subjective characteristics.
A pure tone is where only one frequency is heard. Musical notes have several single
sounds. These sounds are harmonious if their frequencies differ by a simpler ratio. Such
a note would be said to have a high consonance. Sounds that do not sound right
together have a high dissonance.
An octave is a frequency ratio of 2:1. For example, one octave higher than A at 440
Hz is also an A, but at 880 Hz.
A musical scale is a set of notes that are attained by simple ratios of their frequencies
(high consonance).
Vibrating Strings
The frequency of a vibrating string is determined by 4 variables.
Length: the frequency it emits varies inversely to the length of a string. The longer the
string, the lower the note.
F1 / f2 = l2 / l1
Tension: the frequency a string emits varies proportionally to the square root of the
force of tension acting on it. The higher the tension, the higher the note.
F1 / f2 =
f1/
f2
D2 /
D1
If more than one antinode is produced, which is the case with all musical instruments,
the resulting modes of vibration are called overtones. These various frequencies are
called harmonics where only one antinode would be the first harmonic etc.
The fundamental frequency is the first harmonic and the second harmonic is the first
overtone. The frequency of the first overtone is twice that of the fundamental frequency.
The quality of a music note depends on the number and relative intensity of the
overtones along with the fundamental frequency.
F0 = fundamental frequency (1st harmonic)
Resonance in Air Columns
Closed Air Columns
When a tuning fork is struck, the sound waves are allowed to go down a hollow tube.
They reflect off the closed end forming a node there. If the tube is adjusted to the right
length, a loud sound will emerge from the opening, and this is called resonance.
Resonance occurs when the tube length is the wavelength of the sound because
maximum constructive interference occurs at of the wavelength, or times 2 (to the
bottom and back). This occurs at every successive wavelength after (i.e. , 5/4).
Open Air Columns
This works the same way as closed air columns, however, since there is no reflection off
the bottom, the resonance occurs where the length of the tube is wavelength of the
sound wave and every wavelength after (1, 3/2, 2, etc.).
amount of bending depends on the indices of refraction of the two media and is
described quantitatively by Snells Law. The light incident upon a surface will be partially
reflected and partially transmitted as a refracted ray. Fast medium has a smaller index
of refraction.
As the speed of light is reduced in the slower medium, the wavelength is shortened
proportionally. The frequency is unchanged; it is a characteristic of the source of the
light and unaffected by medium changes.
Index of Refraction
The index of refraction (n) is defined as the speed of light in a vacuum ( c ) divided by
the speed of light in the medium (v).
n = c/v
c is constant; c=3.00 x 108 m/s
The indices of refraction of some common substances are given below.
Vacuum = 1.000
Air = 1.000277
glycerine = 1.473
Water = 1.33
ice = 1.31
polystyrene = 1.59
Diamond 2.417
Law of Refraction
Snells Law relates the indices of refraction (n) of the two media to the directions of
propagation in terms of the angles to the normal.
The sine of the angle of refraction varies directly with the sine of the angle of incidence.
The ratio of sin i to sin R is a constant.
The incident ray and the refracted ray are on opposite sides of the normal at the point of
incidence, and all three are in the same plane.
n1sin1 = n2sin2
Total Internal Refraction
When light travels from an optically dense medium into less dense medium, the
reflected ray becomes stronger at higher incident angles.
At a critical angle (c), the angle of refraction reaches 90. Beyond this, all light gets
reflected and no light gets refracted. This is known as Total Internal Reflection. The
critical angle is the minimum angle at which total internal reflection occurs.
Images Formed In Lenses
PA (Principal Axis): a horizontal line down through the optical centre
C or 2F (Center of Curvature)
O (Optical Centre): the geometric centre of all lenses
OA (Optical Axis): the vertical line through the optical centre
F (Principal Focus): the point on the principal axis through which a group of rays parallel
to the principal axis is refracted
FI (Secondary Focus)
Images Formed By Converging Lenses
1. Rays travelling parallel to the PA refract through the principal focus.
2. Rays that travel through the secondary focus refract parallel to the principal axis.
3. Rays that travel through the optical centre do not refract.
Note: Only 2 of these rules (rays) need to be used to locate an image point.
Magnification: larger, smaller, or same
Attitude: upright or inverted as object
Location: side of lens, less than F, between F + 2F, or beyond 2F
Type: real or virtual
Sign Conventions
1. Object and image distance are measured to the centre of the lens (from O).
2. Object distance is positive if it is a converging lens (positive if its on the side of
the lens from which the light is coming).
3. The image distance is positive for real images and negative for virtual images.
M = h i / ho
or
M = -di / do
Hi = image height
Ho = object height
Di = image distance
Do = object distance
4. Object and image heights are positive if measured above the principal axis and
negative if below the PA.
4
A converging lens has a real principal focus and therefore, a positive focal
length.
A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus and therefore, a negative focal
length.
Farsightedness (Hyperopia)
The farsighted eye focuses the light rays of nearly objects behind the retina. The image
is formed behind the retina. Hyperopia can be corrected with converging lenses.
Direct current (DC) is a current supplied from dry cells that does not change in
magnitude or direction.
Alternating current (AC) is a current from a wall receptacle which changes in both its
magnitude and direction.
An ammeter must be placed in series so that the current will pass through it, also it must
have a low resistance so that it does not affect the circuit.
Potential Difference
In order to get charges moving, a push must be applied to them. Work must be done on
them which gives them kinetic energy- this is done by the voltage source.
The change then follows a circuit and energy is lost at a resistor, or other devices that
may use energy.
The source itself determines how much energy is given to the charge passing through it,
and therefore how much push is applied to the charge.
The Electrical Potential Difference is the potential difference V B VA equals the work per
unit charge that an external agent must perform to move a test charge from A to B
without a change in kinetic energy.
Voltage = work or energy / charge = W/Q = E/ Q = (VB VA) / Q
Since potential difference is a measure of energy per unit charge, the SI unit of potential
energy is joules per coulomb, defined to be equal to a unit called the volt (V).
Volt = Joule/ coulomb = J/C
E = VQ and Q = I t and E= VI t
A voltmeter measures potential difference between two points in a circuit. It must be
arranged in parallel, not in series.
Ohms Law
Charges experience a resistance to their flow as they pass through a device (loss of
electrical potential).
From Ohms experiment, it can be seen that
1. When voltage increases, the current increases proportionally.
2. V vs. I graph the slope is constant
Ohms Law
= V/A
V = IR
Series
Parallel
Current (I)
I0 = I1 = I2 , etc.
I0 = I1 + I2 + I3
Voltage (V)
V0 = V1 + V2
Resistance ( R )
R 0 = R1 + R2
V0 = V 1 = V 2 = V 3
In all cases, current only flowed when magnetic field was changing.
Law of Electromagnetic Induction
An electric current can be induced in a conductor when the magnetic field around the
conductor changes.
Factors that affect the magnitude of the induced current:
1