modals: ability, obligation, criticism (past) past ability: could, couldn't, was / were able to Could / couldn't are past forms of can / can't. Could not Is used in formal speech and writing. Use could / couldn’t © to describe past ability. We don't knowy haw fast Ancient Grook athletes could run, @ to describe what was allowed oF not allowed, Women couldn't compete or watch the ancient Olympic Games See also Units 22 and 24 for other meanings of could. ‘We can use was / were able to In the place of could / couldn't to describe past ability in general. ‘He tried hard but wasn’t able to win the race We use was/ were able to, not could / couldn't, when we mean that we could do something and we actually did it. ‘One runner fell badly, but fortunately was able to finish the race. past obligation: had to, didn’t have to Had to// didn’t have to / did you have to etc are past forms of have to and must. Use had to © to describe past obligation, for both must and have to, Athletes who cheated in the Olympic Games had to pay fora statue of the god Zeus. (Of course, in ancient times athletes didn't have to take drugs tests Past necessity: needed to, didn’t need to, needn't have Use needed to (regular verb) to describe what was necessary. He needed to stop for a drink, but he kept running Use didn’t meed to to describe what was not necessary. In ancient Greece, winning athletes didn’t need to work again. ‘The question form is did you need to ete. Use needn't have + past participle (a form of modal ver’s need) to explain that someone did something, but what they did was unnecessary. 1 vas worried because I thought that my tickets for the Games wouldn't arrive in time, But I needn't have worried. They arrived this morning! past criticism: should have / shouldn't have, ought to have, ought not to have Use should have / shouldn't have + past participle to criticize a past action. “You started before the gun! You shouldn't have done that.’ ‘But it was an accident!” ‘Well, you should have been more carefull” Use ought to have / ought not to have + past participle in the same way.1 Complete the sentence with could or couldn't. ‘a The sultcase was so heavy | _ couldn’ lift it. b [learned to play the piano when I was ten but | only play one song, © Ehave to go home soon, my parents said 1 stay out late. d We don’t know how, but the ancient Egyptians move huge pieces of stone to bulld the pyramids. @ Frank Sinatra sing really well but he write his own songs. f He do the homework because he lost his book. The Britons make soap before the Romans. 100 years ayo, most people travel abroad because It was too expensive, ‘The class worked hard so they leave carly. When you were younger, you play any musical instruments? 2 Complete the comment on the situation with either didn’t need to or needn't have (done) and ‘the verb in brackets. a I worked fast and finished my project on time, but now our teacher has given the class three more weeks, (work) i needn't have. worked so hard! b Atleast | managed to do it without working at the weekend, (work) the weekend, And althongh | thonght | would have to borrow some books, in the eud tis wasn't necessary. (borrow) any books. But I gave up a lot of my spare time when | didn’t have to! (sive so much of my spare time, I spent a lot of time reading and writing every evening. (spend) reading and writing every evening. £ But 1 managed to do it on my own, and I didn’t ask for any help. ask) any help. g And I didn’t give up playing tennis. (play) tennis h I spent a lot of time using the Internet unnecessarily. (use) so much. 1 But it was quite easy in the end, and 1 did it without thinking too hard! (chink) too hard. j In the end, I worried about it a lot, but this wasn’t necessary! (worry) it so much © modals: ability, obligation, criticism (past)3 Complete the text with had to, didn't have to, could ot couldn't + the verbs in brackets. Life for children in Victorian Britain was very differ, from the hfe children lead today: Firstly, Victorian children a (go) didn’ have. +0 go to school, and in any case poor families b (pay) for lessons because they didnt have enough money: So children ¢ (find) jobs at an early age, starting in the ¢6alffS, for example, atthe age of five. The more fortunate cildren becarne appREHGS, Tearning a trade and working atthe same time. Such children d (work) for fy or sixty hours a week, usually for vety low S88, an e (sign) an agreement which kept them with the same master for a number ol years, The worst jobs were in factories, where many children under the age of nine were etplayed. Children were also employed to clean chimneys, and known as chimney sweeps. These children f (climb) up ‘young chin hinnneys and clean them. They g (be) small, or else they would get sinck in the chimney Using children to do this job was band in 1840, but employes then h (use) special brushes, which were expensive, and so they continued to use children. The employers i (pay) a small fii they were caught. After the Factory Act fof 1833, employers in f€sile factories j (employ) children under the age of nine, though children aged nine to 11 ke (work) cight hours a day: However, nothing changed in coal mines and in other factories, where employers | (put) children to work in dangerous and dirty conditions. It wasn’ until 1847 that employers my (linsit) the working day to ten hours, for both children and aduls, 4 Comment on the situation saying what the person should have done or shouldn’t have done. Use the verb in brackets. a The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle said that a heavy object alway’ falls faster than a light object, but he didn’t conduct an experiment to prove it, and in fact he was wrong. (conduct) He should have conducted an experinent. b ‘The English scientist Francis Bacon wanted to find out whether snow would preserve a dead chicken. He spent a tong time in the cold doing this, and then dled of a chill. (wear) Scientists often test things on themselves or their students, lr the case of vou Liebig, a German chemist, he dropped acid onto the arms of his students to see what would happen. Unfortunately the acid burned their skin very badly. (esp) d_ Other scientists Injure themselves by accident. Plerre Cure carried radioactive substances in his trouser pockets. This burned holes in his pockets and injured his legs. (7) (carry)© Another problem is that of fame. In some cases, scientists have their work done for them by others. The astronomer William Herschel made many Important discoveries, but he was helped a lot by his sister Caroline. Unfortunately, he didn’t mention this to other scientists. (told people) f Other scientists get Into political trouble, The oxygen is used in burning, and in rusting, However, the French revolutionary authorities arrested him because he was also a tax collector, atid in 1794 he was executed. (execute) snch chemist Lavoisier discovered how 5 complete the text with could, couldn't, had to, didn’t have to, didn’t need to, needn't have, should have or shouldn't have and the verbs in brackets, Not all are used in the text. History contains alot of stories about people who a (be). Should have, been a litle bit more carefl 1m 1576 the explorer Sir Martin Frobisher sailed to the north of Canada trying to find a way to Asia, Unfortunately. he b (find) tt, but during the voyage, his men landed on Baffin Island as they c (look for) food! and SHEHER. Here he discovered some rocks which he thought comiained gold. When he returned to England he showed the piece of rock to people who agreed that it was gold, and Frobisher retumed to the island with a larger ship. It was a dificult joumey. asthe ship 4 (avoid) huge ig€baF#S. On the island there were polar bears which e (kill) aman quite easily. And Frobisher was worried that someone else would get to the gold first Perhaps he fel so many people about his discovery, he thought. But he g (worry) that’s why about his secret. He found the place again, and is men they call it (work) inthe {FRSA weather to dig Fool's gold for the gold. They returned to England again, and this ime - hei (top) Ins discovery from becoming generally known, More and more people wanted to go to Baffin Island, and the nest year the ships came back with hundreds of tones of gold. Unfortunately thus is where things went wrong. When Frobisher tned to sell the gold, le discovere! that perhaps hej (Show) it to mote people in the First place. ‘The people he had showed it o had been wrong, They k (cell) the difference between gold onl iron pit, « coRApAHIAA of ion ane sulphur Everyone laughed at Sir Martin and his men, and he (admit) that he had made a mistake. RCE Cn R ad Think about your first school. Make a list of thing you had to do, or didn’t have to do, Make a list of things that famous people in the past should or shouldn't have done. ‘Need more practice? Go to the Review on page 192. © modals: ability, obligation, criticism (past)Unit 20 the passive and its uses Complete the text with the passive form of the verbs in brackets. Hundreds of movies a (produce) are produced aM over the world every year-The most successful ones b (make) In America, because they « (direct) by famous people and lots of ‘money dl (spend) ‘on advertizing them. Hollywood films © (watch) all over the world, but many countries have their own directors and stars. Bollywood flms, which f (make) in India are becoming very popular in other countries. Beautiful costumes, music, singing and dancing (love) bby moviegoers everywhere, and that’s why 50 many Bollywood films h (show) allover the world.According to many fl critics, che best film ever made Is Citizen Kane, which { (direct) by Orson Welles in 1941.The story j (base) on the life of a very powerful business man,and the studio that made the film k (threaten) by legal action. Luckily, the film | (release) and m (enjoy) by audiences ever since. a Unit 23 modals: ability, obligation, criticism (past) Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word or words in capitals. Leave out any unnecessary words, a Itwas Impossible for anclent sailors to travel far because they usually followed the coastline. COULDN'T Ancient Sailors couldn't travel far because they usually Followed the coastline. b Early ships were very suall, but they were forced to carry a lot of frest food and water. HAD Small sailing ships found it impossible to survive heavy storms and very bad weather. WERE There was no radio, so it was only possible for them to send messages home if they snet other ships. couLD © ‘they didn’t have accurate maps, so it was necessary for them to guess their exact position HAD f They didn’t have radar, so it was necessary for them to keep a close look-out for dangerous rocks. NEEDED 4g. It was necessary for them to sce the Sun or the stars in order to navigate, HAD hy There were no rescue organizations, so if they got into trouble, it was necessary for them te look after themselves, HAD