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Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients
Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients
Desai, Park - 2005 - Recent Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients
UP]
On: 24 April 2012, At: 09:04
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,
UK
Drying Technology: An
International Journal
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ldrt20
Recent Developments in
Microencapsulation of Food
Ingredients
a
To cite this article: Kashappa Goud H. Desai & Hyun Jin Park (2005): Recent
Developments in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients, Drying Technology: An
International Journal, 23:7, 1361-1394
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/DRT-200063478
INTRODUCTION
Microencapsulation is defined as a technology of packaging solids,
liquids, or gaseous materials in miniature, sealed capsules that can release
Correspondence: Hyun Jin Park, Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea
University, 1, 5-Ka, Anam-Dong, Sungbuk-ku, Seoul 136701, South Korea;
Tel.: 82-2-3290-3450; Fax: 82-2-953-5892; E-mail: hjpark@korea.ac.kr
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1363
1364
1365
No
Microencapsulation technique
Spray-drying
Spray-cooling
Spray-chilling
Fluidized-bed coating
Extrusion
Centrifugal extrusion
Lyophilization
Coacervation
Centrifugal suspension
separation
10
Cocrystallization
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Table 1. (Continued)
No
Microencapsulation technique
11
Liposome entrapment
12
Inclusion complexation
3. Nonreactivity with the material to be encapsulated both during processing and on prolonged storage.
4. The ability to seal and hold the active material within its structure
during processing or storage.
5. The ability to completely release the solvent or other materials used
during the process of encapsulation under drying or other desolventization conditions.
6. The ability to provide maximum protection to the active material
against environmental conditions (e.g., oxygen, heat, light, humidity).
7. Solubility in solvents acceptable in the food industry (e.g., water,
ethanol).
8. Chemical nonreactivity with the active core materials.
9. Inexpensive, food-grade status.
Because no single coating material can meet all of the criteria listed
above, in practice either coating materials are employed in combinations
or modifiers such as oxygen scavengers, antioxidants, chelating agents,
and surfactants are added. Some commonly used biocompatible and
food-grade coating materials are listed in Table 2. However, chemical
modifications of the existing coating materials to manipulate their
properties are also being considered. Those modified coating materials
exhibit better physical and mechanical properties when compared to individual coating materials.
Spray-Drying
Spray-drying encapsulation has been used in the food industry since the
late 1950s to provide flavor oils with some protection against degradation=oxidation and to convert liquids to powders. Spray-drying is the
most widely used microencapsulation technique in the food industry
and is typically used for the preparation of dry, stable food additives
and flavors. The process is economical; flexible, in that it offers substantial variation in microencapsulation matrix; adaptable to commonly used
processing equipment; and produces particles of good quality. In fact,
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Category
Coating materials
Carbohydrate Starch,maltodextrins,
chitosan,
corn syrup solids,
dextran, modified
starch, cyclodextrins
Cellulose
Gum
Lipids
Protein
Widely used
methods
Spray- and
freeze-drying,
extrusion,
coacervation,
inclusion
complexation
Coacervation,
spray-drying,
and edible films
Carboxymethylcellulose,
methyl cellulose,
ethylcellulose,
celluloseacetate-phthalate,
celluloseacetatebutylate-phthalate
Gum acacia, agar, sodium Spray-drying, syringe
alginate, carrageenan
method (gel beads)
Wax, paraffin, beeswax,
Emulsion, liposomes,
diacylglyerols, oils, fats
film formation
Gluten, casein, gelatin,
Emulsion, spray-drying
albumin, peptides
References
2024
2526
27
2829
30
spray-drying production costs are lower than those associated with most
other methods of encapsulation. One limitation of the spray-drying technology is the limited number of shell materials available. Since almost all
spray-drying processes in the food industry are carried out from aqueous
feed formulations, the shell material must be soluble in water at an
acceptable level. Typical shell materials include gum acacia, maltodextrins, hydrophobically modified starch, and mixtures thereof. Other polysaccharides (alginate, carboxymethylcellulose, guar gum) and proteins
(whey proteins, soy proteins, sodium caseinate) can be used as the wall
material in spray-drying, but their usage becomes very tedious and
expensive because of their low solubility in water: the amount of water
in the feed to be evaporated is much larger due to the lower dry matter
content and the amount of active ingredient in the feed must be reduced
accordingly. In this method, the material for encapsulation is homogenized with the carrier material at a different ratio. The mixture is then
fed into a spray dryer and atomized with a nozzle or spinning wheel.
Water is evaporated by the hot air contacting the atomized material.
The microcapsules are then collected after they fall to the bottom of
the drier.[31]
Rosenberg and Sheu demonstrated the use of whey protein isolate as
a wall material for encapsulation of volatiles.[32] They encapsulated ethyl
butyrate and ethyl caprylate in whey protein isolate and 1:1 mixture of
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where R is the retention of flavors during release, t is time, n is a parameter representing the release mechanism, and k is the release rate constant. Eq. (1) was originally developed the crystal growth of polymers,
and has been recently used to represent the time-dependent protein
inactivation in amorphous sugar matrices.[34] In Eq. (1), n 1 represents
the first-order reaction, and n 0.54 represents the diffusion-limiting
reaction kinetics.[35] Taking a logarithm of both sides of Eq. (1) twice
yields Eq. (2):
lnln R n ln k n ln t
From Eq. (2) one can find the parameter n as a slope by plotting ln(ln
R) vs. ln t, and the release rate constant k from the interception at ln t 0.
It is important to protect the flavor loss during drying, because
high-temperature air is commonly used in spray-drying. Generally, the
retention of flavor in microcapsules is manipulated by varying the
spray-drying conditions and compositions of wall material. Recently,
Liu et al. adopted new technique where they used emulsified liquid flavor
for spray-drying.[36] Nearly 100% of d-limonene was retained during
spray-drying, independent of the composition of the feed liquid. However, the stability of emulsion droplets markedly affected the retention
of flavors. d-Limonene emulsion was quite stable independent of the
emulsifier, while the emulsion of ethyl butyrate was unstable with gum
arabic as the emulsifier. The use of a mixture of gum arabic and soluble
soybean polysaccharide as the emulsifier improved oiliness, and adjusting
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Chitosan is a hydrophilic, biocompatible, and biodegradable, polysaccharide of low toxicity. In recent years, it has been used for development of oral controlled drug delivery systems. It is also a well-known
dietary food additive. Therefore, our research team demonstrated the
cross-linked chitosan as a wall material for the encapsulation of vitamin
C by a spray-drying technique. Vitamin C, a representative water-soluble
vitamin, has a variety of biological, pharmaceutical, and dermatological
functions. Vitamin C is widely used in various types of foods as a vitamin
supplement and as an antioxidant. Hence, in previous studies, sustainedrelease carriers of vitamin C have been prepared by using cross-linked
chitosan as a wall material by spray-drying technique.[4244] The process
of the preparation of vitamin Cencapsulated chitosan microcapsules is
shown in Fig. 2. Chitosan was cross-linked with nontoxic cross-linking
agent, i.e., tripolyphosphate. Vitamin Cencapsulated chitosan microspheres of different size, surface morphology, loading efficiency, and zeta
potential with controlled-release property could be obtained by varying
the manufacturing parameters (inlet temperature, flow rate) and using
the different molecular weight and concentration of chitosan. Vitamin
Cencapsulated chitosan microcapsules were spherical in shape with a
smooth surface as observed by scanning electron microscopy (Fig. 3).
Microencapsulation of vitamin C improves and broadens its applications
in the food industry.
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Variables
Process variables
1. Inlet air temperature
2. Inlet air velocity
3. Spray rate
4. Solution temperature
5. Solution dry matter content
6. Atomization pressure
Ambient variables
1. Ambient air temperature
2. Ambient air relative humidity
Thermodynamic
1. Outlet air temperature
2. Outlet air relative humidity
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Extrusion
Encapsulation of food ingredients by extrusion is a relatively new process
compared to spray-drying. Extrusion used in this context is not same as
extrusion used for cooking and texturizing of cereal-based products. Actually, extrusion, as applied to flavor encapsulation, is a relatively lowtemperature entrapping method, which involves forcing a core material in
a molten carbohydrate mass through a series of dies into a bath of dehydrating liquid. The pressure and temperature employed are typically <100 psi
and seldom 115C.[23] The coating material hardens on contacting the
liquids, forming an encapsulating matrix to entrap the core material. Then
the extruded filaments are separated from the liquid bath, dried, and
sized.[12] The carrier used may be composed of more than one ingredient,
such as sucrose, maltodextrin, glucose syrup, glycerine, and glucose.[70]
Schultz et al. were pioneers in the extrusion=encapsulation processes.[83] They emulsified orange peel oil in a molten dextrose mass, poured
it on stainless steel sheets, and let it cool. The pulverized product exhibited
good stability and flavor retention over a 6-month period. Combining the
basic formulation of Schultz et al. with extrusion, Swisher created a novel
encapsulating processes that is similar to the one currently used today in
the flavor industry.[84] The primary benefit claimed was the maintenance
of fresh flavor in encapsulated citrus oils, which otherwise would readily
oxidize and yield objectionable off-flavors during storage. He conducted
an accelerated shelf life test on encapsulated orange peel oil that contained
an antioxidant and found that its shelf life was about one year. Figure 7
shows the key steps for the flavor encapsulation by extrusion.
The advantage of this method is that the material is completely surrounded by the wall material (true encapsulation), and any residual oil or
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Centrifugal Extrusion
Centrifugal extrusion is another encapsulation technique that has been
investigated and used by some manufacturers. A number of food-approved
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Lyophilization
Lyophilization, or freeze-drying, is a process used for the dehydration of
almost all heat-sensitive materials and aromas. It has been used to encapsulate water-soluble essences and natural aromas as well as drugs. Except
for the long dehydration period required (commonly 20 h), freeze-drying
is a simple technique, which is particularly suitable for the encapsulation
of aromatic materials. The retention of volatile compounds during the
lyophilization is dependent upon the chemical nature of the system.[88]
Coacervation
Coacervation involves the separation of a liquid phase of coating
material from a polymeric solution followed by the coating of that phase
as a uniform layer around suspended core particles. The coating is then
solidified. In general, the batch-type coacervation processes consist of
three steps and are carried out under continuous agitation.
1. Formation of a three-immiscible chemical phase
2. Deposition of the coating
3. Solidification of the coating
1380
In the first step, a three-phase system consisting of a liquid manufacturing vehicle phase, a core material phase, and a coating material phase
is formed by either a direct addition or in situ separation technique. In
the direct addition approach, the coating-insoluble waxes, immiscible
solutions, and insoluble liquid polymers are added directly to the
liquid-manufacturing vehicle, provided that it is immiscible with the
other two phases and is capable of being liquefied. In the in situ separation technique, a monomer is dissolved in the liquid vehicle and is then
subsequently polymerized at the interface. Deposition of the liquid polymer coating around the core material is accomplished by controlled
physical mixing of the coating material (while liquid) and the core
material in the manufacturing vehicle in the liquid phase; this sorption
phenomenon is a prerequisite to effective coating. Continued deposition
of the coating is prompted by a reduction in the total free interfacial
energy of the system brought about by a decrease of the coating material
surface area during coalescence of the liquid polymer droplets. Finally,
solidification of the coating is achieved by thermal, cross-linking, or desolventization techniques and forms a self-sustaining microcapsule. The
microcapsules are usually collected by filtration or centrifugation,
washed with an appropriate solvent, and subsequently dried by standard
techniques such as spray- or fluidized-bed drying to yield free-flowing,
discrete particles.[7]
A large numbers of coating materials have been evaluated for coacervation microencapsulation but the most studied and well understood
coating system is probably the gelatin=gum acacia system. However,
other coating systems such as gliadin, heparin=gelatin, carrageenan,
chitosan, soy protein, polyvinyl alcohol, gelatin=carboxymethylcellulose,
B-lactoglobulin=gum acacia, and guar gum=dextran are also studied.[89]
In recent years, modified coacervation processes have also been developed
that can overcome some of the problems encountered during a typical
gelatin=gum acacia complex coacervation process, especially when dealing
with food ingredients; for example, a room-temperature process for the
encapsulation of heat-sensitive ingredients such as volatile flavor oils.[90]
In this process, the coating materials are mixed and then phase separation
(coacervation) is achieved by adjusting the pH. The newly formed coacervate phase is allowed to separate and sediment, most of the supernatant
water is removed, and the flavor oil is then added to the mixture kept at
50C and emulsified rapidly. The initial volume of water is restored with
room temperature water, causing a quick drop in the temperature, which
means that the flavor oils experience a high temperature for only a few
minutes, compared to several hours for a typical coacervation process.
Another process involves the formation of a multilayered coacervated
microcapsule.[91] This process consists of multiple coacervation stages in
which an additional layer of wall material is applied to the microcapsule
at each passage and the final shell layer can reach a thickness up to 100 mm.
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if a single layer or multiple layers are formed. Fatty acids also make up
liposomes and their degree of saturation is dependent on the source. Animal sources provide more saturated fatty acids. They influence the transition temperature, which is the conversion from a gel to the more leaky
liquid form. The main issues in liposome encapsulation for the food
industry are (1) the scaling up of the microencapsulation process at
acceptable cost-in-use levels and (2) the delivery form of the liposomeencapsulated ingredients. The development of a cost-effective drying
method for liposome microcapsules and development of a dry liposome
formulation that readily reconstitutes upon rehydration would ensure
a promising future to liposome encapsulation of food ingredients. The
recent advances in liposome technology have most probably solved
the first issue: microfluidization has been shown to be an effective,
cost-effective, and solvent-free continuous method for the production
of liposomes with high encapsulation efficiency. The method can process
a few hundred liters per hour of aqueous liposomes on a continuous
basis.[101,102] The other issue concerns the aqueous form in which the liposomes are usually delivered. Most of the time, if not always, liposome formulations are kept in relatively dilute aqueous suspensions and this might
be a very serious drawback for the large-scale production, storage, and
shipping of encapsulated food ingredients.
Inclusion Complexation
Molecular inclusion is another means of achieving encapsulation. Unlike
other processes discussed to this point, this technique takes place at a
molecular level; b-cyclodextrin is typically used as the encapsulating
medium. b-Cyclodextrin is a cyclic derivative of starch made up of seven
glucopyranose units. They are prepared from partially hydrolyzed starch
(maltodextrin) by an enzymatic process. The external part of the cyclodextrin molecule is hydrophilic, whereas the internal part is hydrophobic.
The guest molecules, which are apolar, can be entrapped into the apolar
internal cavity through a hydrophobic interaction.[103] This internal
cavity of about 0.65 nm diameter permits the inclusion of essential oil
compounds and can take up one or more flavor volatile molecules.[13]
In this method, the flavor compounds are entrapped inside the hollow
center of a b-cyclodextrin molecule. The chemical structure and geometry
of b-cyclodextrin are shown in Fig. 9.
b-Cyclodextrin molecules form inclusion complexes with compounds
that can fit dimensionally into their central cavity. These complexes are
formed in a reaction that takes place only in the presence of water. Molecules that are less polar than water (i.e., most flavor substances) and have
suitable molecular dimensions to fit inside the cyclodextrin interior can
be incorporated into the molecule. There are three methods to produce
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Category of food
ingredients
Acidulants
Flavoring agents
No.
Examples
Inclusion complexation,
extrusion, centrifugal
extrusion, spray-drying
Fluidized-bed coating,
extrusion
Preferred mode of
encapsulation
Applications
1387
Sweeteners
Colorants
Lipids
Vitamins and
minerals
Enzymes and
microorganisms
Sugars, nutritive
or artificial sugars:
aspartame
Annatto, b-carotene, turmeric
Coacervation,
spray method,
liposome entrapment
Coacervation,
inclusion complexation,
spray-drying,
liposome entrapment
Spray-drying, freeze-drying,
vacuum-drying
Extrusion, emulsion
Cocrystallization,
fluidized-bed coating
1. To reduce off-flavors.
2. To permit time-release of nutrients.
3. To enhance the stability to extremes in
temperature and moisture.
4. To reduce each nutrient interaction
other ingredients.
1. To improve the stability.
2. To reduce the ripening time.
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