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Lab Manual Basic Electronics
Lab Manual Basic Electronics
Lab Manual Basic Electronics
Manual
Prepared by
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Haluk DENZL
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hakan YET
Res. Assist. Dr. Atlgan ALTINKK
Res. Assist. Arzu Z
Res. Assist. Ali YILMAZ
Department of Physics
Abant Izzet Baysal University
SAFETY WARNING
Before using this laboratory, read, understand and follow the Safety Precautions
mentioned inside this manual.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
electrical shocks or
damage of equipment.
Check any connections for shorting two different voltage levels.
Check if you have connected load at the output. This is very important in Boost and
Buck-Boost Converters and converters based on them.
Double check your wiring and circuit connections. It is a good idea to use a point- topoint wiring diagram to review when making these checks.
3.4 Precautions while switching ON the circuit
Apply low voltages or low power to check proper functionality of circuits.
Once functionality is proven, increase voltages or power, stopping at frequent levels to
check for proper functioning of circuit or for any components is hot or for any electrical
noise that can affect the circuits operation.
wearing any of them), they conduct electricity and can cause burns. Do not wear them
near an energized circuit.
Learn CPR and keep up to date. You can save a life.
When working with energized circuits (while operating switches, adjusting controls,
adjusting test equipment), use only one hand while keeping the rest of your body away
from conducting surfaces.
PREFACE
GOAL
The purpose of the experiments described here is to acquaint the student with:
!
The aim is to teach a practical skill that the student can use in the course of his or her own
experimental research projects in physics, or another science.
(1) Design and build simple circuits of his or her own design.
(2) Use electronic test & measurement instruments such as oscilloscopes, timers,
SCHEDULE
Exp. # !
Name of Exp.!
Week
1.
FAMILIARIZATION...................................................................October 4, 2012
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
GRADING
QUIZ......................................................................................................................10 %
REPORT................................................................................................................15 %
MIDTERM I.........................................................................................................25 %
MIDTERM II .......................................................................................................20 %
FINAL ...............................................................................................................30 %
FAMILIARIZATION
OBJECTIVES:
1. To become familiar with the EEC740 mounting deck.
2. Learn how to connect external supplies to the EEC470 deck.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Qty
Apparatus
Power supply unit. External d.c and a.c supplies as appropriate (e.g.
Feedback Power Supply PS445)
Multimeters or
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
None
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
INTRODUCTION:
The Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470 is an unpowered mounting
deck suitable for the construction of a wide variety of circuits which employ:
Discrete components; Resistors, capacitors, transistors, etc.
Integrated circuits;
Analogue or digital
Discrete Components;
These are supplied in the various kits on two, three and fourpin carriers. Interlinking is done by shorting links on two-pin carriers or by
flexible patching leads with 2mm pin terminations.
Integrated Circuit Modules;
These are supplied, where appropriate, in the standard module form used by
Feedback in other digital and analogue constructional systems (series 341,346,
etc).
Many of these modules, particularly the digital types, obtain their power supply
from the +5V and 0V bus-bars built in to this section. Other types will require
power to be connected by patching leads.
Power Components;
There is provision for inserting up to two semi-conductors mounted on heat
sinks. The section is also useful for coupling to external equipment, using 2mm
patch leads internally and 4mm leads externally.
Power Supplies;
External supplies can be brought in on 4mm leads and patched internally using
2mm leads. The supplies listed on the panel are those available from the
Feedback PS445 Power Supply unit designed for use with EEC470.
The current ratings of the PS445 are as follows, and any similar power supplies
may be used as available:
-- Variable d.c V
-- Fixed d.c V
-- A.C supplies
Plug
Dia.
Length
Color
Reference
4mm
450mm
2/4mm
450mm
2mm
300mm
Red.
2mm
150mm
Orange.
2mm
150mm
Yellow.
2mm
100mm
Green.
Patching Connections;
Connections which are shown - - - - - -in the patching diagrams for any given
assignment in the text.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY:
To gain familiarity with the use of the deck, construct the simple circuit of fig 1.2
by patching the deck as shown in fig 1.1.
100 R
0 - 20V dc
2200 R
3300 R
V
0V
A
Fig 1.2
The types and quantities of components supplied in each particular kit are shown
in the separate section at the front of the relevant manual. The components
maybe recognized either from the information in that section, by the marking on
the carrier or by the component tray in which they are stored. Further information
is contained in the assignments dealing with specific components.
It is very helpful to be able to identify quickly, fixed resistors and capacitors. The
following information will help.
Resistors;
Most fixed resistors (except certain high wattage or high precision types) are
coded by a set of colored bands as shown in fig 1.3.
Fig 1.3
The colors used and their meanings are shown in the fig of 1.4.
COLOR
BAND 1
Value of
1st digit
BAND 2
Value of
2nd digit
BAND 3
Number of
Zeros
BAND 4
Tolerance
BLACK
--
BROWN
--
RED
--
ORANGE
--
YELLOW
--
GREEEN
--
BLUE
--
VIOLET
--
GREY
--
WHITE
--
GOLD
--
--
--
5%
SILVER
--
--
--
0%
NONE
--
--
--
20%
Fig 1.4
(4.7
Capacitors:
Capacitors are sometimes colored-coded but more usually they have the value
printed on the body.
There is a good deal of variation between makers in exact form of the markings
but most use the normal units of picofarad (pF), nanofarad (nF) or the microfarad
(
).
Often the F is omitted and sometimes, when there is no chance of confusion, the
other letter also.
Example;
0.47
be too low a value for any fixed capacitor. It could not be 0.47nF either because
such a value would be expressed as 470pF.
The tolerance and voltage rating of a capacitor are also often printed on the
body, again with or without units. Thus you could find;
1.0
1.0/20/160
Large value capacitors (greater than about 1
types, which MUST be correctly polarized. Usually one of the terminals is marked
with a+ or a- and the capacitor must be inserted so as to apply the correct
polarity.
Name
Multiplying
Power
tera
x 1012
giga
x 109
mega
x 106
kilo
x 103
milli
x 10-3
u or
micro
x 10-6
nano
x 10-9
prefix
pico
x 10-12
Fig 1.5
Thus, for example 4700 ohms can also be expressed as 4.7
be expressed as 100nF.
In this form the decimal point frequently occurs and it is easy for a value to be
misread if the point is badly printed or omitted entirely by error. To avoid this
difficulty an alternative coding method is often used.
For resistors the symbols R, K, M, G and T (all capitals) are used to represent 1,
and
Value
Code
0.1
ohm
OR1
0.22
ohm
OR22
2.7
ohm
2R7
100
ohm
100R
1.5k
ohms
1K5
2.2M
ohms
2M2
1G
ohms
1GO
1.5T
ohms
1T5
For capacitors the symbols p, n, u (or ) and m are used to represent and
farad respectively.
Some examples of these are as follows:
Value
Code
1.5
pF
1p5
22
pF
22p
nF
1n0
0.1
0u1 or 100n
2.2
2u2 or 22
1500
1m5
Theoretical Values
Resistor
( )
Current
(
)
Voltage
( )
Experimental
Values
Current
(
)
1000
2200
3300
470
Fig 1.5
Voltage
( )
Percentage
Errors
Error in
Current
Value
Error in
Voltage
Value
Apparatus
Multimeters, or
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
Assignment 1
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
INTRODUCTION:
A Semiconductor Junction Diode (or just diode) is made from a piece of P-type
and a piece of N-type semiconductor joined together. See fig2.1.
If a voltage (potential difference) is applied across the two terminals, the Diode
will conduct electricity. The amount of current that flows depends upon the size
and polarity of the applied voltage.
The Diode is represented in circuits by the symbol shown in fig 2.2.
Anode (A)
P - type
Cathode (K)
N - type
Find and examine the two Diode supplied in the kit. They should appear as in fig
2.3.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Construct the circuit of fig 2.4. Note that the resistor limits the current to safe
value.
+ 10V dc
4k7
A
K
BYW54
A 10mA
d.c.
0V
Fig 2.4 Diode Test Circuit
A
K
BYW54
1mA
d.c.
0V
QUESTIONS:
a) Forward Biased
b) Reverse Biased
+5V
Vr
2k2
If
100R
Vs
BYW54
Vd
0V
NOTE:
And
Copy the results table as shown in fig 2.9, reproduced at the end of this
Assignment, for your results.
Turn the potentiometer to zero; fully clockwise.
Switch on the power supply and adjust it to supply 5V.
Adjust the potentiometer to give a voltage of 1V on the voltmeter showing
Now use the power supply variable control to set
0, 0.1V, 0.2V, etc, up to 1.0V.
Note
to:
Now, with the power supply variable control set to supply 20V, use the
potentiometer to set
to:
and
versus
in your table.
QUESTIONS:
begin to
rise noticeably?
4. Does
Both BYW54 and 6F60 diodes are made of Silicon and the forward conduction
voltage of about 0.6V is typical of silicon junctions. Also typical of silicon diodes is
the very small reverse current. Some diodes are made of Germanium and these
have a smaller conduction voltage of about 0.2V but they also pass greater
reverse currents. The 6F60 diode passes a greater reverse current than BYW54.
This is because 6F60 is designed for much larger forward currents up to 6A
average. At the low voltage used in this experiment the reverse amount will still
be very small. Diodes can withstand high reverse voltage but will eventually
break down at some voltage and may be irreparably damaged. Type 6F60 can
take the higher voltage of 600V compared with 150V for BYW54. Diodes have
very many applications at many different powers, voltage and current levels. A
very important application is the production of direct voltage from alternating
voltage and this is dealt with in Assignment 3 and 4 which cover Rectification.
SUMMARY:
In this assignment you have learnt that:
1. A diode conducts when its anode is positive relative to its
cathode, and does not conduct when the voltage is reversed.
2. Diodes have different shapes and sizes according to their
voltage, current and power ratings.
3. Silicon diodes have a conduction voltage of about 0.6V whereas
Germanium diodes have one of about 0.2V.
4. The forward characteristic of a diode is not a straight line trough
zero but looks like fig.2.10.
EXERCISE:
Construct the circuit of 2.11 and apply the method used earlier in this
Assignment to find
and
+5V
Vr
2k2
100R
Vs
If
BYW54
Vd
0V
FURTHER READING:
If you wish to know more about the physics of semiconductor diode, read
Appendix A. this is not, however, essential.
!
Circuit
Current
(mA)
Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.6
Fig 2.5
VS
(V)
Vr
(V)
Vd = Vr - Vr
(V)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Fig 2.9
If = 10 Vr
(mA)
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS
OBJECTIVES:
Because of their ability to conduct current in one direction and block current in the
other direction, diodes are used in circuits called rectifiers that convert ac voltage into dc
voltage. Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that operate from an ac voltage
source. A power supply is an essential part of each electronic system from the simplest
to the most complex. In this experiment, you will study the most basic type of rectifier,
the half-wave rectifier.
To understand the effect of a reservoir capacitor upon the rectified waveform and
its mean value.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Qty Apparatus
1
1
1
Oscilloscope.
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
Assignment 2.
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
Before working this assignment you should:
INTRODUCTION:
In assignment 2 you found that a diode conducts current in one direction (from
anode to cathode) but not in the reverse direction.
A widely used application of this feature is the conversion of alternating voltages to
direct voltages (fig 3.1). This assignment studies the simplest circuits for achieving this
conversion,
Which is called RECTIFICATION or in some cases, DETECTION.
0V
V
0V
A Direct Voltage
Fig.3.1
Equation: 3.1
Vavg = Vp /
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
SIMPLE HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION:
As shown in the patching of fig 3.2, construct the circuit of 3.3.
BYW54
Vp (in)
10 k
Vpk
Sketch the waveform and label it to show the periods when the diode is conducting and
those when it is not. Time t depends upon the frequency of your power supply. For a
50Hz supply it should be 20 ms and for 60Hz it should be 17 ms.
Confirm this. Vpk should be nearly equal to the peak voltage of the alternating supply:
b) By using a d.c. voltmeter
determine the average voltage (Vav) and compare with Vp(in)/
QUESTIONS:
Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage, we wish to produce a steady direct
voltage free from variations of the sort observed in fig 3.4. one way of doing this is to
connect a capacitor in parallel with the load resistor as in fig 3.5
BYW54
Vp (in)
10 k
0V
Waveform without Capacitor
Fig: 3.6 The Effect of a Reservoir Capacitor
The capacitor C (usually called the reservoir capacitor) becomes charged-up by the
current trough the diode during the positive half-cycle. Then, when the supply voltage
starts to reduce again, the capacitor keeps the output voltage high and the diode cuts
off. Capacitor C then discharges trough R until the next positive half-cycle occurs.
Now, add a capacitor of 1uF to your circuit.
Observe the output waveform on the oscilloscope and note the value of the peak-topeak variations in voltage. Note also the new mean voltage on the voltmeter.
a) Observe the input and output voltage signals and draw them to graph paper for
capacitor C=100nF, and C=1F (Note that Vac far each capacitor)
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Vpp(in)=12V
Vp(rec)=?
Vpp(in)=12V
Vp(rec)=?
f(Hz)
Vdc
f(Hz)
Vdc
500
40
750
80
1000
120
1250
160
1500
200
1750
240
2000
QUESTION:
4. Is the new mean voltage greater or less than it was before?
Now replace the 1F capacitor by a much larger value of 22 F, making sure to connect
the + side of the capacitor to the diode cathode(the capacitor is electrolytic and MUST
be connected inn the correct polarity) and answer the following questions.
QUESTIONS:
5. The variations on the rectified waveform are called RIPPLE. Is the ripple now less or
more than it was with the lower value capacitor?
6. Is the mean rectified voltage now greater or less?
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS:
When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage power supply from an alternating
source, the ripple is an undesirable feature. For a given capacitor value, a greater load
current (smaller or resistor) discharges the capacitor more and so increases the ripple
obtained fig 3.7 shows this.
0V
Fig 3.7 the Effect of Load Current
0V
SUMMARY:
A half-wave rectifier, as in fig 3.9, produces a certain amplitude (from peak-to peak ) of
ripple.
Vp (in)
V(out)
Apparatus
Power supply unit. A.c. supply; 20V rms; 50 or 60Hz. (isolated from
other supplies). (e.g. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
Multimeter or
Oscilloscope.
PREREQUISETIE ASSIGNMENT:
Assignment 2
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
INTRODUCTION:
At the end of Assignment 3 we discussed ways of reducing the ripple or voltage
variation on a rectified direct voltage. One of these was to use every half cycle
of the input voltage instead of every other half cycle.
A circuit which allows us to do this is shown in fig 4.1, and is known as the
DIODE BRIDGE.
A
D4
D2
D1
Load
D3
During the positive half cycle of the supply A is more positive than B. Diodes
D1 and D2 therefore conduct while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased. The
current flows as shown in fig 4.2.
+
D4
D1
D1
D4
D2
D3
D2
Load
D3
During the negative half cycle the current flow is as represented by fig 4.3. n
each case the current in the load is in the same direction.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
The terminals labeled + and are so called because these are the polarities that
will exist across the load.
Construct the circuit of fig 4.5.
Oscilloscope
Y input
AC supply
20 V rms
10k
Oscilloscope
common
Fig 4.5 Test Circuit
With the oscilloscope d.c. coupled, adjust the controls to obtain a steady trace of
about 4cm vertical and 5ms/cm horizontal. You should observe a waveform as in
fig 4.6. time T will be 10ms for 50Hz supply, and 8.5ms for 60Hz.
Vpk
0V
T
Note the value of Vpk and also the mean value of output voltage indicated on the
voltmeter. Compare these figures with those obtained in Assignment 3.
QUESTIONS:
1. Should Vpk be the same as it was for a half wave rectifier?
Does your observation confirm your answer?
2. How does the mean value compare with that found for half
wave rectification?
As the mean value of a half cycle of sine wave is
present, this should be the mean value measured. Confirm this from your
readings.
line
Oscilloscope
Y input
main
supply
rectified
output
neutral
Oscilloscope
common
The arrow show how current flows on alternate half cycles. The value of the
output waveform is exactly the same as that for a bridge circuit provided each
half of the transformer windings has the same rms voltage as the whole of the
winding in fig 4.7.
The circuit saves two diodes, but increases the cost of the transformer. In fig 4.8
each half secondary winding must have the same voltage rating as the single
secondary of fig 4.7. Suppose the half secondaries were wound with wire of
half the cross sectional area, so as to fit the two into the same space as the
one secondary of fig 4.7, and use the same amount of copper. Each half
secondary would then have twice the resistance.
The current flows in each half secondary only on alternative half cycles, but
would generate twice the
Each half secondary would thus develop as much heat as the single secondary
of fig 4.7, i.e. twice as much for both. A larger transformer would therefore be
required to avoid excessive heating. Its greater cost would usually outweigh the
cost of the two diodes saved.
In full wave rectification the basic repetition rate of the ripple is twice that of the
supply (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply). In half wave the frequency is the same
as the supply frequency. This is often useful as an indication that one half of a
bridge or full wave rectifier is faulty.
SUMMARY:
EXERCISE:
Fig 4.9 shows the discharge curve for a reservoir capacitor in half wave and full
wave rectification, for the same load and capacitor values.
Fig 4.9
b) Less than
c) More than
d) Explain your answer and confirm it by reference to measurements
made in Assignment 3 and 4 for similar load conditions.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Qty
Apparatus:
Multimeter, or
Ammeter, 1a d.c.
PREREQUISITE ASSINGMENTS:
Assignment 2.
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
Know what is meant by internal resistance and the effect it has on terminal
voltage.
INTRODUCTION:
In Assignment 2 you found that a reverse-biased diode passes neglect able current.
You also learnt that it will eventually suffer breakdown and damage if the reverse
voltage is made too high. See fig 5.1.
Zener diodes are specially constructed to break down at controllable voltages and to
do so without damage to this device. As we shall see, this feature can be put to good
use.
Two Zener diodes are contained in the EEC472 Kit. They are types BZY95C10 and
BZY88C7V5 and are shown in fig 5.2 with the standard circuit symbol.
Zener diodes look very similar to rectifier diodes and terminal names and
identification methods are the same. The larger types, such as BZY95, have greater
power and current capacities.
The two types of diode can usually be distinguished only by their type numbers. For
Zener diodes these often, but not always, contain the letter Z.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
The Zener Diode Reverse Characteristics:
and
Copy the results table as shown in fig 5.5, reproduced at the end of this assignment,
and enter your results.
Prepare a graph like fig 5.6 and plot
against
and
, and enter it
Plot
against
mW
on your graph.
If either Vs or
One way of keeping this voltage more constant is to connect across the load a Zener
diode whose breakdown voltage is the desired constant voltage. Fig 5.8 shows
practical circuit of this kind.
can be tolerated?
As shown in the patching diagram of fig 5.9, construct the circuit of fig 5.8.
Copy the results table as shown in fig 5.10 reproduced at the end of this assignment,
for your results.
Now, remove the potentiometer temporarily to make
Vs until the diode just begins to conduct current say 1mA. Record Vs and
=0 in the
Increase Vs to 12V; the diode current will increase above 1mA. Then adjust
the diode current just returns to approximately 1mA. Again record Vs and
until
Fig 5.11
Every point on your graph represents a condition where the Zener diode has only
just reached its breakdown voltage.
, lower value of Vs will take the diode out of breakdown and, for a
Therefore the whole of one side of your graph is an area where the diode is not in
breakdown and thus is not holding
NOTE:
If you cannot do this look at the fig 5.15 of this assignment for help.
You have now found what maximum load current and minimum supply voltage can
be used without the load voltage falling below the Zener value.
But what sets a limit to the minimum load current and the maximum supply voltage?
The answer is the power dissipation allowable in the Zener diode.
The maximum power dissipation allowed for BZY95C10 is 1.5 W.
But
And
Thus:
=1.5/10 A = 150mA
(Provided Id never goes higher than this the power limit will not be exceeded).
We use the same circuit but set the Id meter to the 1A d.c range. Copy the results
table as shown in fig 5.12, reproduced at the end of this assignment, for your results.
Now start by reducing
increase
until the diode current Id reads 150mA. Read the load current
and
record it against Vs=20V in the table. Reduce Vs in steps of 1V, each time resetting
to give
previous graph. Shade on your graph the area that now represents the useable
range of Vs and
SUMMARY:
In this assignment you learnt that:
1. A Zener diode in its breakdown region has an almost constant
voltage regardless of diode current.
2. This feature can be used to stabilize a varying voltage.
3.
in a simple
EXERCISE:
Refer to your graph and decide which of the following combinations of Vs and
(supply voltage and load current) are permissible in the circuit of fig 5.8.
VS
(V)
12
IL
(mA)
300
19
250
19
50
15
75
14
200
VS
(V)
0
2
4
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
10
15
20
Vr
(V)
Vd=VS-Vr
(V)
Fig 5.5
Id = Vr
(mA)
Pd = Vd x Id
(mW)
VS
(V)
7.4
10
11
12
13
14
IL
(mA)
0
Id = 1 mA fixed
Fig 5.10
VS
(V)
16
15
14
13
12
11
IL
(mA)
All readings are for Id
just equal to 50 mA
Fig 5.12
TRANSISTOR FAMILIARIZATION
OBJECTIVES:
1. Ability to recognize transistors in various physical forms and to identify their
terminals.
2. Understanding of the basic construction of PNP and NPN transistors.
3. Understanding of junction biasing and the direction and magnitude of current
flows.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Qty
Apparatus
Multimeter, or
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:!
Assignment 2
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
INTRODUCTION:
Transistors are three- terminal devices constructed in the form of two semiconductor
junctions, rather like two junction diodes. Fig 6.1 shows the two types, NPN and PNP,
governed by the physical arrangement of the P- and N- type semiconductor
materials.
PNP TRANSISTOR
NPN TRANSISTOR
Construction
Two-diode
analogy
E
Symbol
B
PNP Transistor
B
NPN Transistor
In normal use the EMITTER-BASE diode is forward biased and behaves almost
exactly like an independent diode. The COLLECTOR-BASE diode, however, is
reverse-biased and normally you would expect if to pass no current. But if the E-B
diode is conducting forward current, this influences the reverse-biased C-B diode and
causes it to pass almost as much reverse current
Fig 6.2 shows this for PNP and NPN types. The small difference current flows in the
base circuit.
PNP
IE
C
IB
NPN
IE
IC
IB
IC
IE
IE
IC
IB
IB
B
B
Is slightly less than
The ratio
Because
is usually called
is almost as big as
is nearly 1.
The ratio
IC
is usually called
or
Thus
and
If
=0.99,
= 0.99/0.01
= 99.
and
provides an
output.
In the Assignment we shall first identify some actual transistors and then confirm the
directions and magnitudes of currents, finding
and
in the process.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Transistor Identification:
Select from the EEC472 the transistors BC107 and BCY70. Fig 6.3 illustrates these
types.
Transistors are made in many other physical forms. Fig 6.4 shows some other types
you could have to recognize.
Make sure you can accurately identify the terminals of the transistors in the kit.
This uses the BC107-NPN transistor. The capacitor is provided to ensure that the circuit is
stable and has no effect on your measurements.
Fill the table 6.9 according to NPN transistor (BC107)
Turn the potentiometer to zero (clockwise) and switch on both power supplies.
Slowly increase
Connect the voltmeter temporarily between E and B on the transistor (3V d.c. range) and
note the value of
in the table.
Plot
versus
until
and
Now increase
versus
until
and
and plot
Fig 6.6
This uses the BCY70-PNP transistor. The capacitor is provided to ensure that the circuit is
stable and has no effect on your measurements.
Fill the table 6.9 according to PNP transistor (BCY70)
QUESTIONS:
and
and
as follows:
and
a) Increase;
b) Decrease , or;
c) Stay constant as
increase?
The measurements you made on the BC107 transistor used a circuit in which the E and C
terminals were biased with voltages relative to the base B. for this reason this circuit is called
a COMMON BASE connection. It is also possible to bias the junctions with voltages relative
to the EMITTER or COLLECTOR, giving COMMON EMITTER and COMMON COLLECTOR
connections as in fig 6.7.
In common-emitter,
reverse-biased. In common-collector,
junction remains forward-biased. These three connections have important differences in their
responses to inputs. The common-emitter and common-collector circuits are the most
important connections since the common-base is used only in special circumstances. As with
diodes, transistors can be made from Germanium instead of Silicon, but these are rarely
used.
SUMMARY:
1. Transistor has two basic forms; the PNP and the NPN.
2. A transistor is similar to two diode junctions, one forward and one
reverse-biased.
3. The base current is much smaller than either the emitter or collector
current, which they nearly equal are.
4.
EXERCISE:
Fig 6.8
Complete the circuit with a suitable collector bias voltage and show the direction and size of
the collector current
Also find
and
FURTHER READING:
If you wish to know more about the physics of transistors read Appendix A.
IC
(mA)
IB
(mA)
just
measurable
----
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig 6.9
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Qty
Apparatus
Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c regulated and +15V d.c. regulated.
A.c. supply; 20V rms 50 or 60 Hz (isolated from other supplies). (e.g.
Feedback Power Supply PS445)
Multimeter or
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
Assignments 2 and 6.
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
INTRODUCTION:
The Silicon Controlled rectifier, or SCR, is one of several semiconductor devices
which are capable of acting as fast switches for large currents. The general name for
these devices is THYRISTOR. Fig 8.1 shows the SCR symbol and some of the
physical forms in which it is found.
This can be regarded as two inter-connected two-junction transistors, one PNP and
the other NPN. If A is made positive relative to K, and G is left unconnected, no
current will flow because each transistor gets its base-emitter current from the others
collector emitter current. So, until the one of the transistor is given some base
current, nothing can happen.
If now a current is injected into the base of transistor 2, the resulting collector
current flows in the base of 1. This in turn causes a collector current in 1 which
increases the base current of 2 and so on. Very rapidly the two transistors force
each other to conduct to saturation; the current being limited only by resistance in the
external circuit.
If the anode-cathode voltage is now reduced; the current also reduces until it goes
below some critical value, and the transistors switch off again. Just as rapidly.
If a reverse voltage is applied to the SCR (anode negative to cathode) it behaves
very much like an ordinary diode. No current passes until at, some high voltage, it
breaks down completely.
Firstly we shall measure two important quantities of a forward-biased SCR.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE SCR Measurements:
Set the variable d.c. volts to 20V. Turn the potentiometer to zero (clockwise) and
switch on the supplies. Slowly rotate the potentiometer, observing the gate current
meter continuously, until the lamp suddenly lights. Record the gate current at which
this occurs. Switch off the supplies and return the potentiometer to zero. Copy the
results table as shown in fig 8.4, reproduced at the end of this assignment, for your
results.
Repeat the measurement several times. To ensure that you have the correct value.
What you have found is the TRIGGER CURRENT (I
trigger the SCR on again and measure the voltage from anode to cathode. This is the
SATURATION VOLTAGE V
QUESTION:
1- Look back at fig 8.2. do you expect the saturation voltage to be greater
or less than 0.6V? Explain.
Finally connect the milliammeter (on range 100mA) in series with the lamp as in fig
8.5). See also fig 8.3).
Trigger the SCR on. The meter reads the lamp current for a 20V supply voltage.
Temporarily disconnect the gate connection. Slowly reduce the supply voltage until
the SCR current suddenly falls to zero. Note the value of the current at which this
occurs. Repeat this procedure several times to ensure that you have the correct
value. What you found is the HOLDING CURRENT (I ). Enter this also into your
table.
NOTE
To switch an SCR ON the GATE CURRENT must by at least I
QUESTION:
2- What do you think will happen in the circuit of fig 8.3 if you trigger the
SCR on, and then reduce the gate current to zero again? Confirm your
answer by experiment.
to switch the
SCR off. This is the only way of switching off. You CANNOT do it by reducing the
gate current. If the anode supply is an alternating voltage it will go negative every
half-cycle, reducing the anode current to zero. Alter your circuit to that of fig8.6.
Remember to use a.c meters.
In (a) a high temperature increases the leakage current of the two transistors in the
SCR. This is the small collector-emitter current that flows when there is zero base
current. If it becomes too great it will be enough to initiate the trigger action. If a very
high forward voltage is applied, as in (b), the transistors can break down and this too
will initiate triggering.
Fig 8.7(c) shows a very rapidly rising anode-cathode voltage. Every transistor has
some capacitance from collector to emitter as shown in fig 8.8. A fast-rising anodecathode supply causes small currents in these capacitors and can act to cause
triggering.
Steps must always be taken in practice to avoid each of these possible false trigger
mechanisms.
SCRs are available to carry currents from less than 1A up to 1000A or more. They
therefore find use in the switching of heavy electrical equipment, where they replace
contractors. The following advantages should be obvious:
No moving parts
No contact arcing
No bad contacts due to corrosion or dirt
In addition to simply switching currents on and off, SCRs can be made to control the
mean value of a load current without dissipating large amounts of power. In this
application they can replace bulky high wattage rheostats and save electrical energy
at the same time. A good example of this is the control of theatre lighting. The
introduction to Assignment 10 explains how this can be done.
SUMMARY:
EXERCISE:
The C220E in fig 8.9 has a maximum steady anode current capability of 10A. Given
that V
Fig 8.9
TRIGGER CURRENT
SATURATION VOLTAGE
HOLDING CURRENT
Fig 8.4
(I
mA
(V
(I )
mA
Qty
Apparatus
Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated +15V d.c. regulated.
a.c. supply; 15V rms 50 or 60 Hz (isolated from other supplies.
e.g.
2-channel oscilloscope
Multimeter or
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
Assignment 8 or 9
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
INTRODUCTION:
In assignment 8 and 9 two semiconductor switches (or thyristors) were studied; the
SCR and TRIAC. In ON-OFF switching applications they could be triggered by simple
circuits producing steady gate currents. Fig 10.1 reminds us of such a circuit using an
SCR.
A thyristor will switch off only when its supply voltage falls to zero.
If we wish to control the mean value of a load current, rather than just switch it on
and off, we have only one method available. This is illustrated in fig 10.2 for an SCR.
A steady gate current would allow conduction over the full period of the positive halfcycle. If instead, a short pulse of gate current is applied at the TRIGGER POINTS,
conduction occurs over part of the half-cycle only. This reduces the mean current.
The mean current can be varied by changing the delay time T between the start of
the cycle and the trigger. This is known as PHASE CONTROL. Fig 10.3 explains why.
The supply wave A is delayed by the phase shift to give B. When B reaches a certain
TRIGGER LEVEL the trigger circuit generates a gate pulse C for the SCR.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
The DIAC;
Find the DIAC-type ST2 in your EEC472 kit. It should appear as in fig 10.4, which
also shows the symbol and the voltage-current characteristics.
would then remain constant as the current increased. In the DIAC the transistor
action causes the voltage to reduce as the current increases. This gives the
characteristic a negative resistance, as shown in fig 10.4.
The DIAC is symmetrical and therefore has the same characteristic for negative
voltages. It is the negative resistance that makes the DIAC suitable as a trigger for an
SCR or TRIAC.
To test this, construct the circuit of fig 10.5 to the patching diagram of fig 10.6.
Set the variable d.c. supply to zero and switch on the supplies.
Slowly increase the variable d.c. voltage until the waveform at Y2 suddenly appears.
That is, the DIAC switches on.
Notice the very rapid rise of V , produced by the negative resistance. See fig 10.6.
Measure V
THE TRIAC
OBJECTIVES:
1. Recognition of a TRIAC device
2. Understanding of the bidirectional nature of the TRIAC and its areas of application.
3. Appreciation of the different behavior of the device in the four operating applications.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Qty
1
1
1
1
1
Apparatus
Electricity & Electronics constructor EEC470
Basic Electronics Kit EEC472
Power supply unit +5V d.c. regulated and +15V d.c. regulated.
A.c. supply; 15Vrms 50 or 60 Hz (isolated from other supplies.
(e.g. Feedback Power Supply PS445)).
Multimeter or
Milliammeter 50mA d.c
.
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
Assignment 8
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
Before working this assignment you should:
Know how to use Cartesian axes involving four quadrants.
INTRODUCTION:
In assignment 8 we learnt that the SCR can be used to switch a unidirectional current but it
will not conduct in reverse.
An alternating supply is often necessary to ensure that the SCR will switch off. It is rather
inefficient, because it conducts only every other half-cycle (like a half-wave rectifier as
described in Assignment 2).
Fig 9.1 shows the basic single-SCR circuit and also one way of using four SCRs in a bridge
to achieve controlled full-wave rectification.
Switch off and move link 1 to apply -15V to the gate circuit instead of +15V.
Repeat the measurement and record the value of I
connections if necessary.
Now move link 2 to apply -15V to the lamp. Repeat the measurement of I
Finally restore the gate supply to +15V and measure I
You should find that modes I+ and III- have similar values of I
SUMMARY:
In this assignment you have learnt that:
1
2
3
EXERCISE:
Fig 9.7 shows a simple TRIAC switch circuit.
Suggest a value for R which, when the switch is closed, will give:
a) Half-wave operation of the lamp
b) Full-wave operation of the lamp
Confirm your answer experimentally.
MODE V
I+
IIIIIII+
Fig 9.5
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMENTS:
Assignments 1, 6, 7
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
Before working this assignment you should:
Know how to use an oscilloscope.
INTRODUCTION:
Field-Effect Transistors (FETs) are made in various forms. One type, the Junction FET (JFET)
has a construction quite similar to the UJT (Assignment 10) but works in a different way.
A voltage gradient is thus formed down the length of the channel, the voltage becoming less positive
as we go from DRAIN to SOURCE. The PN junction thus has a high reverse bias at D and a lower
reverse bias at S. This bias causes a DEPLETION LAYER, whose width increases with the bias.
Depletion means a reduction of available electrons to carry current. If V
the depletion layer increases in width at all points. The values of V
and V
width of the depletion layer. This alters the effective channel resistance and hence I . Fig 11.3
shows this.
increases negatively the channel is squeezed, reducing the current I . But the GATE-
CHANNEL junction is like a reverse-biased junction diode and thus carries only a very small
current. I is controlled by V trough a field effect. Hence the name FET.
In the first Practical we shall see how V
and V
affect I .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Characteristics of an N-Channel JFET:
Construct the circuit of fig 11.4.
Plot I
versus V
QUESTIONS:
Study your graphs and answer the following questions.
1. Above which values of V is I almost unaffected by V
2. For a given value of V
when V
= 0?
of I ?
Understand what you answer implies.
Now go back to your circuit and set V
to 10V and V
ammeter in place of the link in the gate lead as in fig 11.5. And try to measure I .
or is it too small?
A JFET Amplifier:
An FET can be used to amplify signals in manner similar to a transistor in common-emitter
connection. In this case we call it COMMON-SOURCE.
To obtain an output voltage we insert a load resistance in the drain lead, the effects of this being
represented on the characteristic by a load line.
Fig 11.6 shows a practical amplifier circuit with a typical characteristic and load line.
on the I versus V
graph.
5. The input resistance of fig 11.6 can not be greater than the bias resistor R
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS:
We have studied an N-channel JFET. A P-channel JFET is very similar in operation but uses
reversed bias voltages as in fig 11.7.
Another form of FET exists whose gate is insulated from the channel (insulated gate FET). The most
common insulation method is a metal-oxide layer and the type is called MOSFET. The gate on a
JFET must not be biased in such a way as to forward-bias the PN junction however, in a MOSFET,
no such limitation applies.
It is therefore possible to bias the gate in either polarity. Fig 11.8 shows the usual characteristics of
two types of N-Channel MOSFET.
The depletion-mode type is like a JFET with an extended gate bias range but the enhancement-mode
is quite different since at V =0, no current flows at all. This is often a useful feature.
Two matching types of MOSFET exist with P-channel and have reverse polarities of bias. Their
symbols are shown in fig 11.9.
SUMMARY:
In this assignment you have learnt that:
1
2
3
4
EXERCISE:
An important parameter of an FET used as an amplifier is its transconductance.
This is defined by:
Transconductance (g ) = (change in I ) / (change in V
(Common source)
)=
Study your graph, fig 11.7 and estimate the change in I for a 0.5V change in V
and V
when V
=10V
A=
where R is in ohms (
V
0V
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.0
=0.5V
=1.0V
=2.0V
=3.5V
=5.0V
=7.5V
=10V
=15V
=20.0V
Apparatus
Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470
Amplifier Kit EEC473
Power supply unit 0 to +20V variable d.c and 15V d.c regulated ( e.g.
Feedback Supply PS 445)
Multimeter or
Voltmeters 15V d.c
PREREQUISITE ASSIGNMNETS:
Assignment 7
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL:
Before working this assignment you should:
Know the operation of a.c coupled amplifier circuits with and without negative
feedback applied.
INTRODUCTION:
In the amplifiers we have looked at so far the inputs and outputs have been a.c coupled.
This means that they are of no use for very low frequencies or for d.c amplification. The
main problem in making an amplifier for d.c is ensuring that the mean d.c level of the
output is the same as the mean d.c level at the input. In the single stage in the previous
assignments this is obvious not so.
Operational Amplifiers:
The operational amplifier is a device that has all the properties required for d.c
amplification. It contains several stages and circuitry for temperature drift compensation.
Although it could be made using discrete transistors it is usually an integrated circuit (IC)
with all the components on a single silicon chip. This makes operational amplifiers
available in large quantities at very low cost.
This is very important as we have produced an amplifier the gain of which is the
ratio of two resistors, and is independent of the actual gain of the op amp. This is
called closed loop operation. Notice that the amplifier inverts the signal.
We now have an amplifier that produces an output proportional to the SUM of the
two input voltages. This is called a summing amplifier.
If the two input resistors were not equal the equation would be modified thus
The operational amplifier we shall be using for our experiments is a type 741. It is
very small, and comes in plastic pack 9mm x 6mm x 3mm. For convenience the
device is soldered on a small board with pins to suit the EEC470 deck. There are a
few practical problems. Although in theory when both inputs are zero the output
should be zero, due to leakage currents and other causes there is a slight offset of
the output. This can be removed by the offset null potentiometer mounted in the
module.
In the first activity we shall familiarize ourselves with the IC and try the offset null
control. In the second activity we shall make a closed loop feedback circuit.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Dc Offset:
The circuit we shall use is shown in fig 16.4. Set up it.
NOTE
Operational amplifiers of the type used in the Kit require a fixed power
supply of +15, 0, -15V d.c. This fixed supply is usually omitted from circuit
diagrams showing operational amplifiers, in order to reduce the number of
connections to pins 12 and 9 respectively of the 741 Op Amp on fig 16.4 and
subsequent diagrams.
Op Amp Performance:
We have made an electric adding machine as the output voltage is the algebraic sum of
the input voltages. It uses electric current as an analogue of the number. There are larger
systems using this principle and they are called analogue computers.
Input voltage
Output voltage
Calculated Voltage
0.5
0.1
0.3
-0.9
-1.1
-1.5
4
6
Fig 16.6