Sociology of Higher Education Midterm

Cree Dueker

Professor Collier
Sociology 450
7 May 2015

1 A. Functionalism: Define and discuss Allocation theory and how Meyer explains how
education legitimates elite definition and certification.
Instead of focusing on education as a socializing force on the individual allocation theory
looks at how education is used to legitimize our current social structure. These legitimations have

effects that view education as a theory of knowledge and as a theory of personnel. Education
then serves as an institutional structure with the power to, legitimately classify and
authoritatively allocate persons to positions in society ( 2015, Collier Lecture). Because of this
power educations influence is not only on students but also on those who do not attend higher
education institutions. It allocates those who have attained a degree (or certification) into
occupations where they are the knowledgeable authority.
Education functions as both a theory of knowledge and a theory of personnel through
creating a new class of personnel with new types of authoritative knowledge (Meyer, 1977 :
56). The theory of knowledge intersects with the education of elites to legitimize knowledge
within a field so that a person learns this knowledge in a certain way. It is also structured so that
there is a collective reality within education which everyone engaged in education is socialized
to know and understand. Once specialized knowledge is accumulated it can be used to determine
a persons competence within a given subject and then award corresponding certification and
authority within that field.
Certification of knowledge intersects with the theory of personnel and the elites.
Certification is valued in our society so that the person who is certified becomes an authority on
the subject and results in that person being awarded preference because of their skillset.
Education also functions as both a tool for the elite as well as citizen definition. The elite exists
so that those who are gifted in specific areas are able to build on their strengths and attain or
maintain a good spot in society. Society allocates people to the spot that is best suited for them
based on their social capital which can include their education. Citizens everywhere receive a
mass education and are socialized on what is considered to be common knowledge which
includes but is not limited to; language, literacy, historical viewpoints and events, etc. This can

be seen in our core standards for students in schools but this amount of base knowledge is not
enough in order to be considered for more elite opportunities. Although an individual may be
talented in a certain area without certification their talent holds no authority and will garner them
no preference in our larger society.
An example of allocating the best suited individual for a job that also displays this
theories legitimizing effects would be a city looking to hire someone to build a new bridge. A
person with a degree in civil engineering will have taken specialized coursework, graduated, and
awarded with certification and recognition within their field. Their skillset would then give them
the advantage when applying for a position such as this over someone who may have also
attained the same level of mass education but is instead certified in graphic design. The civil
engineer would be chosen over the graphic designer because they are seen as the authority and
their skills are needed for this project of constructing a new bridge.

Works Cited:
Collier Lecture April 7th and 9th, 2015.
Meyer 1977 The Effects of Education as an Institution

1 B. Conflict: Define and discuss Karens maximally maintained inequality and counter
mobilization as they relate to explaining disadvantaged groups outcomes in the period of
access to higher education between 1980-1992
Karens data looks at groups that were historically underrepresented in higher education
and focuses on three groups: women, students of color, and low income students during the
period of 1980 to 1992. Within this period women were able to increase their numbers in
enrollment both at elite institutions and community colleges whereas the patterns for students of

color and low SES stayed stagnant in their enrollment numbers. The reasons behind this data can
be derived from conflict theory and focused on how elites were able to keep their advantage in
society through MMIs (Maximally Maintained Inequalities), Counter Mobilization efforts, and
the students own habitus.
MMIs manifested themselves in many different ways. One of the ways they manifested
was in the creation of new categories or differences created in Higher Education, because access
to higher education and overall enrollment increased elites thought to maintain their privileged
status by adding these different layers to higher education. This can be seen in the different
degree levels created and their corresponding value such as Associates, Bachelors, Masters, and
Doctoral. Value was also placed on more elite institutions and major programs such as ivy league
schools or programs featuring honors tracks. Inequality will be maintained in these ways by
creating differences within the same levels of education which can also take the form of gpa,
admissions requirements, and access to knowledge of resources before entering higher education
such as ap classes in high school which relies on the knowledge of the family.
Counter mobilization by the elites served to keep inequality present as well as the overall
patterns of social reproductions. The maintenance and reinforcement of these elite structures
resulted in women, students of color, and low SES students to be more likely to enroll and attend
less selective colleges and universities in contrast to the highly valued elite schools. This could
be due to the successful efforts of elite counter mobilization or the lack of mobilization by these
disadvantaged student groups. Karen states that higher education is a, vehicle that is ostensibly
organized for social mobility but may actually undermine its realization (Karen, 2002 : 193).
Education is organized as an opportunity for social mobility for all but in reality it can often
times just be used as an advantage for those who are already advantaged. By using methods such

as counter mobilization and MMIs elites in power are able to protect and maintain their power
while keeping out underrepresented students as well as affecting their individual habitus around
what it means to have access to higher education or be a student.
These three groups of students were left worse off because it did not require physical or
verbal experiences by elites to keep them out of elite institutions but instead relied on the
students socialization and view of self-worth, ability, and access; also known as habitus.
Habitus is constructed within individuals to determine what they are capable of doing and
achieving based on their backgrounds and skills. Habitus also has intergenerational ties
demonstrated in how, 1st generation students would tend to aspire to, apply to and enroll in
relatively non-selective colleges and universities while students whose parents held advanced
degrees would be more likely to aspire to, apply to, and enroll at more highly selective schools
(2015, Collier Lecture). Thus without telling these students they could not attend elite institutions
they restricted themselves due to their own habitus.

Works Cited:
Collier Lecture April 14th and 16th, 2015
Karen 2002 Changes in Access to Higher Education in the United States: 1980 - 1992
2. Social Mobility: Describe and explain Torches overall pattern of intergenerational
occupational association aka the parent to child match in terms of
class/education/occupation in degree completion data
Torches model for Intergenerational occupational association and its associated data
creates a u-shaped pattern. The top of the U is where a parents occupation or class level
strongly impacts the childs occupation or class level among those who dont complete a college
degree. The bottom curved section of the U represents how once someone has earned a
Bachelor's degree their occupation or class is not affected by their parents occupation or class
level. The final part of this U is where a parents occupation or class level is once again

strongly tied to their childrens this time correlated to the type of graduate degree a student will
obtain. (2015, Collier Lecture). Intergenerational occupational association has to do with a
students advantages and disadvantages within higher education. It is used to predict the success
of the student based on their parents completed education and social class. Torche states that,
for both men and women, the intergenerational association is substantial among those with less
than a college degree; it weakens considerably among college graduates, to partially re-emerge
among advanced degree holders (Torche, 2004 : 767). This pattern can be connected to the
amount of cultural capital and knowledge these parents and students have about how the higher
educational system works as well as the individuals habitus.
Before or if a student decides to pursue higher education is strongly tied to their parents.
Students from low income families may be hesitant to take on the amount of debt associated with
higher education whereas a student with high income will be more likely to receive help from
their family or know of the benefits of higher education and be more comfortable with debt.
Cultural capital plays a large role in higher education as well as personal habitus where a student
may feel that they don't belong in higher education or the opposite can be true and students may
feel entitled to higher education. Once students graduate from a higher education institution their
intergenerational association does not matter because they have already reached success, attained
a higher class, and gained the fixed capital of their education presenting them as equals to their
peers. The correlation between a student and their parents reemerges when looking to achieve an
advanced degree and their parents class and educational level are seen as predictive of a
students occupational outcomes, this can again be linked to cultural capital but also to
occupation and representation within different fields. This also has to do with how elites are
more likely to put their resources into earning an advanced degree because they are

knowledgeable about the economic returns as well as their horizontal stratification where elites
are more likely to attend highly selective programs and earn professional degrees.
Based on these findings it seems like social class and success levels can be changed
through completing any degree in higher education. Social mobility is possible through higher
education and can give individuals better opportunities as long as they are able to access these
institutions. The ideas behind the data is that there is a lot of variation among students entering
higher education which is linked to their intergenerational association. If we are able to see these
patterns we will be better able to confront individual habitus and promote cultural capital through
offering resources and mentoring to students with disadvantages.

Works Cited:
Collier Lecture April 21st and 23rd, 2015
Torche 2011 Is the College Degree Still the Great Equalizer? Intergenerational Mobility
Across Levels of Schooling in the United States
3. Student Retention Issues: Discuss myths and realities with student retention AND
Discuss possible strategies for addressing the issue of student retention.
While many studies of higher education focuses on an individuals access to an institution
student retention focuses on how to keep individuals in higher education until they complete
their degree as well as the barriers students face in completing a degree. Many factors affect
whether or not a student will complete their degree such as family support and resources,
whether or not the student will need to work while in school, and their access and awarded
financial aid. These issues and potential resolutions seek to debunk the preconceived ideas
surrounding what it means to be a college student today as well as looking at ways to support
them and offer resources to those with disadvantages. By identifying issues and stages where a

student is most likely to be challenged and look at leaving higher education we are able to
predict their needs and seek to retain them through resolving or lessening their problems.
The first myth addressed is that, most students go to college full-time. If they leave
without a degree, its because theyre bored with their classes and dont want to work hard
(Johnson, Rochkind, Ott and Dupoint, 2010: 5). Results from data gathered proved that most
students choose to leave college because they are unable to handle the stress that comes from
working and going to school at the same time. Students in these cases are not afraid of working
hard or being bored with their classes but rather are often times overworked the stress leading
them to concentrate on supporting themselves or their families instead of going to school and
living in debt. Strategies to help students within these situations could be looking at more
flexible class schedules which would allow for students to work part or full-time. Increased
access to online learning platforms and online degrees from universities would also help students
who are unable to come into class as it gives them the opportunity to get things done on their
own time. The second myth presented in the study is that, most college students are supported
by their parents and take advantage of a multitude of available loans, scholarships, and saving
plans (Johnson, Rochkind, Ott and Dupoint, 2010: 9). In reality many of the students who fail to
complete their degree are alone in getting financial support. This relates to the first myth in that
for many students working is not a choice but is instead a necessity when engaged in higher
education. These students who are putting themselves through school may also be unaware of the
different financial programs available to them such as work study or need based loans, grants,
and scholarships; and by the time they do become knowledgeable about these programs it may
be too late. To help these students we can also look at more educational financial opportunities
when interacting with students. Offering help with these resources before a student reaches

higher education would help so that they have the knowledge and tools to continue while being
financially literate and smart with their choices.
The third myth from the article is that, most students go through a meticulous process of
choosing their college from an array of alternatives (Johnson, Rochkind, Ott and Dupoint, 2010:
12). Among the students who were unable to complete their degree their college selection
process was much more limited than suggested as well as many times being made in an
uninformed way. These students could drop out because they do not feel a connection to their
school due to the lack of information they had about the school. Many students may also feel
pressure to choose a university that is close to home if they have familial responsibilities and
support as well as looking at their most cost-effective choice. This reality is also heavily reliant
on what kind of support structure the student has, if they are choosing a college based on the
recommendation of family who are alumni, friends who they want to stay with, or a high school
guidance counselor or faculty who is invested in the students education. To help these students
resources on campus must be marketed more effectively to be sure students know more about the
university they are attending. This would also be heavily reliant on the students support system
to help educate them in their diverse options when looking at higher education. The final myth
confronted was, students who dont graduate understand fully the value of a college degree and
the consequences and trade-offs of leaving school without one (Johnson, Rochkind, Ott and
Dupoint, 2010: 15). The reality is that students who are leaving higher education may understand
as an idea that a diploma is an asset to them but they do not look at the effects of dropping out on
their future. Although these students want a degree they may think it will be easier to start back
later or that they can make it by without one. They may not be knowledgeable of how soon they

will need to start repaying their loans or the difficulties associated to returning to higher
education at a later date.
Another highly important factor in explaining the differences in attaining higher
education can be found in Tintos ideas on the importance of considering how factors that affect
a students departure change over time. Tinto focuses on three major stages or passages in
persisting in higher education: separation, transition, and incorporation through which a student
must pass through in order to complete their degree. The process of departure, like that of
persistence, will also be marked in time by qualitatively distinct stages (Tinto, 2004: 442).
Within the first stage of separation a student is breaking away from their previous community
groups in order to gain membership in their new college community. Depending on the student
and their personal value of education, self-worth, and other forms of habitus this separation step
may be a temporary discomfort or a long term stress or depression which could lead to the
student leaving school. The second stage is transition here the student has separated from their
past but the new norms of higher education have not yet been internalized. Without intervention
this could lead to a student feeling lost in the crowd not yet fully in one community but not part
of their previous community either. This can lead to a sense of isolation where a student must
make the choice to persist and join the higher education community or return to their past
community and leave higher education. The final stage of this model is incorporation where the
student is now fully integrated into their college community (2015, Collier Lecture). The
incorporation stage is heavily reliant on the social interactions and connections a student forms
with their peers, professors, and university staff.
In order to retain student we must look at supporting them through their individual
challenges as well as making sure that they feel a connection to their college. This connection is

integral in college because without it the student is isolated and less likely to persist in
completing their degree. Students bring their own set of norms and values to college and
although they will adopt all or some of the norms and values of higher education connection and
support from their past community plays a large role in if students will complete their degree.
Social connection and interactions will also impact a students view on the value of their
education as well as whether or not they have the drive to complete it. Social connection to their
college depends not only on the interactions and experiences they have at the university but also
the interactions and experiences happening at home. If they are needed more at home they may
choose to temporarily or permanently leave higher education to return to that community
whereas if their support system allows it they may continue their education through their
struggles. Students face a variety of barriers when looking to complete their degree and retention
programs must support them with tools and resources to conquer these barriers or else the
student will not persist and be successful in their education.
Works Cited:
Collier Lecture April 28th and April 30th, 2015
Johnson, Rochkind, Ott, and Dupoint 2010 With Their Whole Lives Ahead of them Myths
and Realities About Why so many Students Fail to Finish College
Tinto 2004 Promoting retention Facing the Truth and living with the Consequences

4. Preparation and Access Issues: Discuss shadow education including differences between
class, race, and gender groups in usage AND Use Bourdieus theory of Social Reproduction
to explain how differences in shadow education usage relates to access in higher education
Shadow education is described as educational activities that take place outside of the
normal channels of the educational system,and are designed to improve students chances of
successfully moving through the allocation process (2015, Collier Lecture). Examples of
shadow education would be private tutoring services and test preparation courses. Shadow
education is an important form of cultural capital and as such it is not accessible to all students.
This difference in cultural resources leads to privileged students experiences being legitimized.
Students who take advantage of shadow education are looking to use this form of education to
receive higher test scores which correlates to their higher test score being considered in
admissions processes as well as increasing their likelihood to gain admission to more elite
universities. Because shadow education relies on cultural capital and test scores are not good
indicators of student success it is odd that there is so much value placed on SAT and ACT scores
in university admissions.
Data has shown that there are differences based on social classifications on who attends
these test preparation courses. Students from a higher class will be more likely to attend these

courses than a student from a lower class. Racial minorities are also more likely to use these
services as well as women being more likely to participate. Bourdieus theory of Social
Reproduction looks at how inequality is maintained by the elites so that they reproduce the
existing social structure so that they will always have an advantage. It also looks at how schools
are the main mechanisms where these structures are reproduced because schools are not socially
neutral institutions and instead reflect the experiences and expectations of the dominant class and
groups (2015, Collier Lecture). Because of these social structures there is a clear link between
shadow education, the advantages of dominant groups in primary education and how that
translates into higher education.
Class advantages often translate to inequalities within the educational system such as
educational resources, in regards to shadow education this can be linked to if test prep is offered
in the students area and if the student will be able to afford these often times spendy courses.
Class will also determine the parents social capital and knowledge. If they are not aware of these
courses and their value they will not look into them or they may be unable to afford them
whereas a family with a higher class will be able to make more educational investments for their
students. A familys capital will also impact what type of school and degree a student may
choose to pursue in their value placed on education, their own educational levels, and their
habitus. Disparities between families matter when considering college admissions and the
helpfulness of shadow education, although high scores (SAT) by no means guarantee admission
to selective schools,low scores very often disqualify students from admission (Buchmann,
Condon, Roscigno, 2010: 438).
Mobilization by disadvantaged groups have caused the surprising data that racial
minorities and women are more likely to use test preparation courses. An explanation for this is

that due to the historical under representation, biases, and disadvantages against these groups
within education as a whole has lead to more public attention being brought to the advantages of
using these resources as well as a heightened public consciousness about the need to counter
biases and inequalities related to tests like the SAT. Test preparation has no significant impact
on enrollment in less that four-year and non-selective four-year institutions, yet has a positive
effect on enrollment in selective and highly-selective institutions (Buchmann, Condon,
Roscigno, 2010: 452). This is interesting because it looks like one of the most important factors
in shadow education and corresponding enrollment in elite institutions has more to do with class
and the students socio-economic standing than the students race or gender. This may also have
to do with the individuals goals in taking the SAT and their habitus and values regarding what
sort of university they want to attend. Participating in college test preparation courses may show
that a student is more engaged in education and is taking the course because they know they are
high achieving but want to get the best score possible. The reason test preparation would matter
less in non-selective schools or schools that are less than four-year universities also relies on the
students habitus and if they see a selective university as an attainable goal.
Although standardized test are not the best indicators of student success or knowledge
they are still highly important to the higher education admissions process. Families are becoming
increasingly aware of the importance of these test scores and thus are looking more towards
forms of shadow education with the goal of improving their students performance on these tests
so that their chances of attending a university is higher. Although some schools are moving away
from placing so much value on the SAT score it is still an important part of the higher education
process riddled with inequality.
Works Cited:

Collier Lecture April 28th and April 30th, 2015

Buchmann, Condon, Roscigno 2010 Shadow Education American Style Test Preparation
the SAT and College Enrollment

Bonus: Social Capital and College Success: Define and discuss the elements of social capital
as conceptualized by Coleman AND Discuss how mentoring impacts relative level of social
capital and the likelihood of college success for first generation students
Social capital is an important aspect of higher education not only in the process of
mentoring but also in student retention. Social capital is seen as social connections with other
people, these connections can be accessed through social networks. Social capital is structural
and facilitates action, networks have structure and are connected to one another, and individuals
are able to access these connections in order to get things done (2015, Collier Lecture). Coleman
has four elements of social capital which include norms, sanctions, closure, and information
channels and relies on the sharing of resources and knowledge in order to increase an
individuals access and persistence in higher education.
The first element of Colemans social capital is norms which are guidelines for how
interactions should occur in a given network. This can include class expectations, how and when
to approach a professor outside of class, and the levels of authority in higher education. The
second element is sanctions which are the potential consequences for not following the norms, in
college this could be failing grades or even disciplinary actions such as probation. The third
element is closure which is about the close personal relationships that students form in college
such as with their peers, mentors, faculty, and staff which can lead to new opportunities and
utilization of resources. The fourth and final element of social capital is information channels or
the means by which social capital is maintained through the sharing of knowledge, beliefs, and
resources in the network (2015, Collier Lecture). For a student this could be a job or internship

opportunity, help with a difficult paper, letter of recommendation for a scholarship, or even
knowing where to go for health services.
The study that Smith conducted provides, evidence that race, gender, and power
dynamics have influence on establishing and sustaining close mentoring relationships. It appears
that trust, friendship, and sharing personal life stories are the key components for building strong
mentoring relationships (Smith, 2007: 43). Mentoring is done well when the mentor and mentee
are able to have both a close and strong relationship and not only impacts student retention but
also the broader idea of student success. Students of all levels can require mentorship but it is
most important for incoming freshman and students from disadvantaged groups. Specialized
mentor programs also serve to connect with students more like them in the hopes that this will
aid in making a close and strong connection. Programs that focus on racial and first generation
mentoring provide services for students who may not have knowledge about how to conduct
themselves and be successful in a higher education setting as well as getting them connected to
different resources and opportunities.
Mentoring serves as a bridge for students who need assistance in navigating higher
education and seeks to give them someone who the can connect with and feel comfortable
enough to ask questions and seek advice. Social capital is exchanged through mentoring in order
to help the mentee and make sure that they are able to navigate resources and norms of a
university. This sharing of norms and trust facilitates friendship and the creation of a support
system for the mentee because they know someone who is invested in them and their education.
It also provides benefits for the mentor by giving them an avenue to share their knowledge and
past experiences in the hope that it will make a mentees experiences easier than their own. The

exchange of social capital and knowledge is also integral to a students sense of connection to
their college and corresponding persistence in completing their degree.
Works Cited:
Collier Lecture April 21st and 23rd, 2015
Smith 2007 Accessing social capital through the academic mentoring process