Nikola Tesla - Electromagnetic Engineering

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING EE325
INDEX
Ampere's circuital law.....11
Ampere's law ................... 6
angstrom .......................... 2
Avogadro's number........... 2
B Ampere's circuital law 11
Biot-Savart law ...............11
Boltzmann's constant........ 2
capacitance ...................7, 8
between coaxial cylinders
................................ 7
between concentric
spheres .................... 7
between parallel plates. 7
between two conductors 7
characteristic impedance .. 2
complex conjugate............ 1
complex notation.............. 1
conductance ..................... 8
conductivity ..................... 8
semiconductor.............. 8
conservative field law....... 6
constants .......................... 2
continuity equation........... 8
coordinate systems ..........10
coordinate transformations10
coulomb ........................... 1
Coulomb's law.................. 7
cross product...................10
curl .................................. 9
current ............................. 8
current density ................. 7
D flux density ................. 6
del ................................... 8
divergence........................ 9
dot product....................... 9
duality of J and D............. 8

E electric field................. 5
electric field..................... 5
electron mass ................... 2
electron volt ..................... 2
electrostatic
force ............................ 5
potential ...................... 5
electrostatics .................... 5
elipse ............................... 8
Faraday's law ..............6, 12
flux density...................... 6
force
electrostatic ................. 5
magnetic .....................11
Gauss' law........................ 6
geometry.......................... 8
grad operator.................... 8
H magnetic field intensity12
impedance
short-circuit ................. 2
induced voltage
due to changing magnetic
field........................13
due to conductor motion13
Faraday's law ..............12
slider problem.............13
inductance.......................12
J current density.............. 7
joule ................................ 2
Laplacian ......................... 9
Lenz's law .......................12
light, speed of .................. 2
line impedance ................. 3
linkage ............................12
COULOMB [C]
shunt stub ........................ 4

single-stub tuning............. 4
Smith chart ...................... 4
Smith charts..................... 4
space derivative ............... 8
sphere .............................. 8
standing wave ratio .......... 4
static magnetic field ........11
stub length ....................... 4
surface charge density ...... 6
time average power .......... 5
vector differential equation8
volume energy density...... 7
wave
forward-traveling ......... 5
wave equation .................. 2
wavelength....................... 2
We potential energy......... 7
we volume energy density 7
X reactance ..................... 3
Zin line impedance ........... 3
electrostatic
potential ...................... 5
reflection coefficient .... 2
magnetic flux .............12
wavelength................... 2
s surface charge density . 6
conductivity ................. 8
del............................... 8
curl ........................... 9
divergence................ 9
2 Laplacian ................... 9
COMPLEX CONJUGATES
A unit of electrical charge equal to one amp second,

18
the charge on 6.2110 electrons, or one joule per
volt.
The complex conjugate of a number is simply that

number with the sign changed on the imaginary part.
This applies to both rectangular and polar notation.
When conjugates are multiplied, the result is a scalar.
(a + jb)(a jb) = a 2 + b 2
COMPLEX NOTATION
( AB)( A B) = A 2
ae jb = (ab)
where b may be in radians or degrees (if noted).
Tom Penick
magnetic energy ..............12

magnetic field .................11
at the center of a circular
wire ........................11
central axis of a solenoid
...............................11
due to a finite straight
conductor................11
due to an infinite straight
conductor................11
magnetic field intensity ...12
magnetic flux ..................12
magnetic force.................11
magnetization..................13
matching transformer
inline reactive load.... 3
inline resistive load... 3
mathematics ..................... 8
Maxwell's equations......... 6
mutual inductance ...........12
nabla operator .................. 8
permeability..................... 2
permittivity ...................... 2
phase constant.................. 2
Planck's constant .............. 2
Poisson's equation ............ 6
potential energy................ 7
power
with phasor notation..... 5
reactance.......................... 3
reflection coefficient......... 2
resistance ......................... 8
Rydberg constant.............. 2
self-inductance ................12
series stub........................ 4
tom@tomzap.com
Other properties of conjugates:
( ABC + DE + F )* = ( A * B * C * + D * E * + F *)
(e jB )* = e + jB
www.teicontrols.com/notes
10/22/2000 Page 1 of 13
TRANSMISSION LINES
SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE []
L REFLECTION COEFFICIENT [V/V]
Z sc = jZ 0 tan( l )
The reflection coefficient is a value from 1 to +1

which, when multiplied by the wave voltage,
determines the amount of voltage reflected at one
end of the transmission line.
L = e j =
where: Z 0 is the characteristic impedance
= LC =
ZL Z0
1 + L
and Z L = Z 0
Z L + Z0
1 L
l is the length of the line [m]
where: Z L is the load impedance
CONSTANTS
L is the load reflection coefficient

is the reflection coefficient magnitude
is the reflection coefficient phase
Z0 =
L
is the characteristic impedance
C
THE COMPLEX WAVE EQUATION

The complex wave equation is applicable when the
excitation is sinusoidal and the circuit is under steady
state conditions.
d 2V ( z )
= 2V ( z )
dz2
2
is the phase constant
where = LC =
The complex wave equation above is a second-order

ordinary differential equation commonly found in the
analysis of physical systems. The general solution is:
+
V ( z) = V e
j z
j z
+V e
2
is the phase constant
+ jz
+ j z
where e
and e
represent wave propagation
in the +z and z directions respectively.
The same equation applies to current:
I ( z ) = I + e jz + I e + jz
Avogadros number
[molecules/mole]
N A = 6.02 10 23
Boltzmanns constant
k = 1.38 10 23 J/K
= 8.62 10 5 eV/K
Elementary charge
q = 1.60 10 19 C
Electron mass
m0 = 9.11 10 31 kg
Permittivity of free space
0 = 8.85 10 12 F/m
Permeability constant
0 = 4 10 7 H/m
Plancks constant
h = 6.63 10 34 J-s
Rydberg constant
= 4.14 10 15 cV-s
R = 109,678 cm-1
kT @ room temperature
kT = 0.0259 eV
Speed of light
c = 2.998 10 8 m/s
1 (angstrom)
10-8 cm = 10-10 m
1 m (micron)
10-4 cm
1 nm = 10 = 10-7 cm
1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J
1 V = 1 J/C
1 N/C = 1 V/m
1 J = 1 N m = 1
C V
and
I ( z) =
V e jz + V e + jz
Z0
WAVELENGTH [m]
where Z 0 = L / C is the characteristic impedance

of the line. These equations represent the voltage
and current phasors.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
vp
f
vp = velocity of propagation (2.998108 m/s

for a line in air)
f = frequency [Hz]
10/22/2000 Page 2 of 13
-WAVELENGTH INLINE MATCHING

TRANSFORMER resistive load
X REACTANCE []
For use with a purely resistive load that does not match the
line impedance. The load is matched to the line by
inserting a -wavelength segment having a characteristic
impedance ZQ.
j
XC =
C
/4
Z0
X L = j L
ZQ
RL
Z0 = characteristic impedance of the

transmission line []
= wavelength [meters]
RL = resistance of the load []
ZQ = characteristic impedance of the
-wave matching segment []
Z Q = Z 0 RL
-WAVELENGTH INLINE MATCHING

TRANSFORMER reactive load
For use with a reactive load. The load is matched to the
line by inserting a -wavelength segment having a
characteristic impedance ZQ at a distance l from the load. l
is the length of transmission line required to produce the
first voltage maximumclosest to the load. If the load is
inductive, the first voltage maximum will be closer than the
first voltage minimum, i.e. within wavelength.
/4
Z0
XC = reactance []
XL = reactance []
j = 1
= frequency [radians]
C = capacitance [F]
L = inductance [H]
Z in = Z 0
Z L + jZ 0 tan l
Z 0 + jZ L tan l
l = distance from load [m]

j = 1
= phase constant
Z0 = characteristic
impedance []
ZL = load impedance []
The line impedance of a -wavelength line is the inverse

of the load impedance.
Impedance is a real value when its magnitude is

maximum or minimum.
Z max = Z 0 S = Z 0
Z min =
ZQ Zin Z0
Zin LINE IMPEDANCE []
1+
1
Z0
1
= Z0
S
1+
Z0 = characteristic
impedance []
S = standing wave ratio
= magnitude of the
reflection coefficient
ZL
First find the reflection coefficient in order to determine the

value of . Then find the length l of the line that will
convert the load to a pure resistance, i.e. produces the first
voltage maximum. Find this resistance (Zin) using the line
impedance formula. Then determine the impedance ZQ of
the -wavelength segment that will match the load to the
line.
L is the load reflection
coefficient
ZL Z0
= phase of the reflection
j
L = e =
coefficient [radians]
ZL + Z0
= magnitude of the
i.e. L = (radians)
reflection coefficient []
Z0 = characteristic

impedance []
l=
=
Z + jZ 0 tan l
Z in = Z 0 L
Z 0 + jZ L tan l
Z Q = Z 0 Z in
= 2 /
= vp/f wavelength [m]

Zin = impedance (resistive)
of the load combined
with the l segment []
ZQ = line impedance of the
-wave matching
segment []
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
10/22/2000 Page 3 of 13
SMITH CHARTS
FINDING A STUB LENGTH
2.
0
0 . 1
.05
.0
6
Admittance
(short)
Y=
.04
.03
.22
.02
.23
0 . 1
1 . 0
.49 0
. 2 6 .2
7
5.
0
.46
45
.29
.324
.28
.47
.48
5 . 0
.01
.24
Admittance
(open)
Y =0
.34
.35
0 . 1
.33
.36 .37 .38 .39
.4
.41
.42
0.
5
.4
.3
.4
SINGLE-STUB TUNING
.18
5.0
Shorted stub of
length .324
matches an
admittance
of 1-j.5
The basic idea is to connect a line stub in parallel

(shunt) or series a distance d from the load so
that the imaginary part of the load impedance will
be canceled.
.17
.3
Z = normalized
impedance []
.07
.074
.13 .14
.15
.16
.21
= phase constant
= reflection coefficient
.08
.09
2.0
e j 2z = 12 z
Z( z ) 1
( z ) =
Z( z ) + 1
Z
1
Z= L
ZL = L
Z0
L + 1
Towar d g ener ato r
.11 .12
.1
.2
z = distance from load

[m]
j = 1
= magnitude of the
j .5
9
.1
( z ) = L e j 2 z
Open stub of
length .074
matches an
admittance
of 1-j.5
5
0.
Anchor a compass at the center of the chart and draw an

arc through the normalized load impedance point. Points
along this arc represent the normalized impedance at
various points along the transmission line. Clockwise
movement along the arc represents movement from the
load toward the source with one full revolution representing
1/2 wavelength as marked on the outer circle. The two
points where the arc intersects the horizontal axis are the
voltage maxima (right) and the voltage minima (left).
Points opposite the impedance (180 around the arc) are
admittance. The reason admittance is useful is because
admittances in parallel are simply added.
Draw a straight line from the center of the chart through

the normalized load impedance point to the edge of the
chart.
Example: Find the lengths of open and shorted shunt

stubs to match an admittance of 1-j0.5. The admittance
of an open shunt (zero length) is Y=0; this point is
located at the left end of the Smith Chart x-axis. We
proceed clockwise around the Smith chart, i.e. away
from the end of the stub, to the +j0.5 arc (the value
needed to match j0.5). The difference in the starting
point and the end point on the wavelength scale is the
length of the stub in wavelengths. The length of a
shorted-type stub is found in the same manner but
with the starting point at Y=
.
.3
First normalize the load impedance by dividing by the

characteristic impedance, and find this point on the chart.
An inductive load will be located on the top half of the
chart, a capacitive load on the bottom half.
In this example, all values were in units of admittance.

If we were interested in finding a stub length for a
series stub problem, the units would be in impedance.
The problem would be worked in exactly the same way.
Of course in impedance, an open shunt (zero length)
would have the value Z=
, representing a point at the
right end of the x-axis.
Shunt-stub: Select d
so that the
admittance Y looking
toward the load from
a distance d is of the
form Y0 + jB. Then
the stub
susceptance is
chosen as jB,
resulting in a
matched condition.
Series-stub: Select d
so that the admittance
Z looking toward the
load from a distance d
is of the form Z0 + jX.
Then the stub
susceptance is chosen
as -jX, resulting in a
matched condition.
d
Y0
Open
or
short
Y0
YL
SWR STANDING WAVE RATIO [V/V]

Y0
SWR =
V
V
max
min
I
I
max
min
1+
1
d
Z0
Z0
ZL
Z0
l
Open
or
short
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
10/22/2000 Page 4 of 13
E ELECTRIC FIELD
P(z) TIME-AVERAGE POWER ON A

LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE [W]
Equal to the power delivered to the load. The power
delivered to the load is maximized under matched
conditions, i.e. = 0, otherwise part of the power is
reflected back to the source. To calculate power, it
may be simpler to find the input impedance and use
P = I2R or P = IV.
V+ = the voltage of the
2
P( z ) =
(1 )
2
2Z 0
1
P( z ) = Re{V ( z )
2
[ I ( z) ]*}
forward-traveling
wave [V]
Z0 = characteristic
impedance []
= magnitude of the
Re = "the real part"
POWER USING PHASOR NOTATION [W]

1
S = VI *
2
S = power [W]
V = volts [V]
I* = complex conjugate of current [A]
V+ FORWARD-TRAVELING WAVE
V+ =
Z inV0
(Z in + Z S )e jl 1 + L e j 2l
coefficient
ELECTROSTATICS
F ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
F12 =
(r r )
1
Q1Q2 2 1 3
4 0
r2 r1
1
= 9 10 9
4 0
F12 = the force exerted by charge Q1 on Q2. [N]

r1 = vector from the origin to Q1
r2 = vector from the origin to Q2.
When finding the force on one charge due to multiple
charges, the result can be found by summing the
effects of each charge separately or by converting the
multiple charges to a single equivalent charge and
solving as a 2-charge problem.
Tom Penick
1 n
r rk
Qk
40 k =1 r rk 3
dE =
1 l (r )
R
dl
40 r r 2
E=
1
l (r ) dl
R
2
40
r r
Electric field from a potential:
E =
refer to the NABLA notes on
page 8.
*NOTE: The l symbols could
be replaced by a symbol for
area or volume. See Working
With on page 9.
= phase constant
l = length of the line [m]
L = load reflection
V+ = the voltage of the forwardtraveling wave [V]

V0 = source voltage [V]
Zin = input impedance []
ZS = source impedance []
Ep =
tom@tomzap.com
Ep = electric field at point

p due to a charge Q
or charge density
[V/m]
dE = an increment of
electric field [V/m]
Q = electric charge [C]
0 = permittivity of free
space 8.85 10-12

F/m
l = charge density;
charge per unit
length* [C/m]
dl' = a small segment of
line l*
R = unit vector pointing
from r' to r , i.e. in
the direction of r - r'.
r' = vector location of the
source charge in
relation to the origin
r = vector location of
the point at which
the value of Ep is
observed
= Del, Grad, or Nabla
operator
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL [V]

1 n Qk
40 k =1 r rk
1 l dl
d =
40 r r
1
40
r r dl
Potential due to an
electric field:
b
ab = Ed l
a
To evaluate voltage at
all points.
(r ) = Ed l
r
*NOTE: The l symbols

could be replaced by a
symbol for area or
volume. See Working
With on page 9.
= the potential [V]

d = an increment of potential
[V]
ab = the potential difference
between points a and b [V]
E = electric field
dl' = a small segment of line l*
dl = the differential vector
displacement along the
path from a to b
0 = permittivity of free space
8.85 10-12 F/m
l = charge density along a
line* [C/m]
rk' = vector location of source
charge Qk
r' = vector location of the
source charge in relation
to the origin
r = vector location of
electrostatic potential
in relation to the origin
10/22/2000 Page 5 of 13
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
GAUSS'S LAW
Maxwell's equations govern the principles of guiding

and propagation of electromagnetic energy and
provide the foundations of all electromagnetic
phenomena and their applications.
E = -
B
t
Eds = Q
Faraday's Law
Gauss' Law
H = J +
D
t
Ampere's Law*
B = 0
no name law, where:
E = electric field [V/m]

B = magnetic field [T]
t = time [s]
D = electric flux density [C/m2]
= volume charge density [C/m3]
H = magnetic field intensity [A/m]
J = current density [A/m2]
enc
0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 10 F/m

D = electric flux density vector [C/m2]
ds = a small increment of surface S
dv = a small increment of volume V
Qenc = total electric charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface [S]
D =
div ( 0 E ) =
or
GAUSS'S LAW an example problem

Find the intensity of the electric field at distance r from a
straight conductor having a voltage V.
Consider a cylindrical surface of length l and radius r
enclosing a portion of the conductor. The electric field
passes through the curved surface of the cylinder but not
the ends. Gauss's law says that the electric flux passing
through this curved surface is equal to the charge enclosed.
POISSON'S EQUATION
2 =
0
0Eds = 0 Er lr d = Qenc = l l = ClVl

0
s SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY [C/m ]

2
E
E n = n
Dds = dv = Q
The differential version of Gauss's law is:
*Maxwell added the D term to Ampere's Law.

t
0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 1012
enc
-12
D =
s = 0 En
The net flux passing through a surface enclosing a charge

is equal to the charge. Careful, what this first integral really
means is the surface area multiplied by the perpendicular
electric field. There may not be any integration involved.
F/m
En = electric field normal to the

surface [V/m]
D FLUX DENSITY [C/m2]
so
0 Er r d = ClV
0
and
Er =
ClV
20 r
Er = electric field at distance r from the conductor [V/m]

l = length [m]
r d
= a small increment of the cylindrical surface S [m2]
l = charge density per unit length [C/m]
Cl = capacitance per unit length [F/m]
V = voltage on the line [V]
or ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT PER UNIT AREA
D r
Q
4r 2
D = E

= dielectric constant = 0 r
CONSERVATIVE FIELD LAW
E = 0
Edl = 0
S

ds = a small increment of length
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
10/22/2000 Page 6 of 13
COULOMB'S LAW
D =
C CAPACITANCE BETWEEN TWO

PARALLEL SOLID CYLINDRICAL
CONDUCTORS
Dds = dv
S

We POTENTIAL ENERGY [J]
This also applies to a single conductor above ground,

where the height above ground is d/2.
C = capacitance
[F/m]
C=
, where d ? a = permittivity of
ln d / a
The energy required to bring charge q from infinity to

a distance R from charge Q.
We = q =
We =
or
Qq
4R
1
1
dv = DE dv
2 V
2V
= the potential between q and Q [V]

q,Q = electric charges [C]
= permittivity of the material
R = distance [m]
C=
the material
d = separation
(center-tocenter) [m]
a = conductor
radius [m]
cosh 1
d
2a
C CAPACITANCE BETWEEN PARALLEL

PLATES
C = capacitance [F]
d = separation of the plates [m]
A = area of one plate [m2]
A
C=
d
C CAPACITANCE BETWEEN COAXIAL

CYLINDERS
we VOLUME ENERGY DENSITY [J/m3]

for the Electrostatic Field
C=
1
1
we = DE = E 2
2
2

R = distance [m]
C CAPACITANCE OF CONCENTRIC
SPHERES
4ab
C=
ba
CAPACITANCE
C CAPACITANCE [F]
C=
Cl =
l
V
2
ln ( b / a )
C = capacitance [F/m]
b = radius of the outer cylinder
[m]
a = radius of the inner cylinder
[m]
Q = total electric charge [C]

Cl = capacitance per unit length [F/m]
l = charge density per unit length [C/m]
V = voltage on the line [V]
C = capacitance [F/m]
b = radius of the outer sphere [m]
a = radius of the inner sphere [m]
J CURRENT DENSITY
The amount of current flowing perpendicularly
2
through a unit area [A/m ]
= conductivity of the material [S/m]
J = E
I = current [A]
I = Jds
S
In
nc = the number of conduction band
semiconductor
electrons
material:
qe = electron charge -1.60210-19 C
J = nc q e v d
vd = a small increment of surface S
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
10/22/2000 Page 7 of 13
MATHEMATICS
CONTINUITY EQUATION
J +
=0
t
WORKING WITH LINES, SURFACES, AND

VOLUMES
J = current density [A/m2] J = E

DUALITY RELATIONSHIP of J and D

RESISTANCE, CAPACITANCE, CURRENT,
CONDUCTIVITY
Where current enters and leaves a conducting
medium via two perfect conductors (electrodes) we
have:
Q
Dds =

I = Jds = Eds =
S

D = electric flux density vector [C/m2] D = E
As a result of this, we have the following relation,
useful in finding the resistance between two
conductors:
R = resistance []
C = capacitance [F]
RC =
= conductivity of the material [S/m]
G CONDUCTANCE [1]
G=
1
I
=
R
Eds
R = resistance []
I = current [A]
= voltage potential [V]
= conductivity of the material
[S/m]
Edl
SEMICONDUCTOR CONDUCTIVITY
[ 1]
q e N d
= conductivity of the material

[S/m]G = conductance [1]
q = electron charge -1.60210-19 C
e = electron mobility [m2/(V-s)]
Nd = concentration of donors, and
thereby the electron concentration
-3
in the transition region [m ]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
l(r') means "the charge density along line l as a

function of r'." This might be a value in C/m or it
could be a function. Similarly, s(r') would be the
charge density of a surface and v(r') is the
charge density of a volume.
For example, a disk of radius a having a uniform
charge density of C/m2, would have a total
charge of a2, but to find its influence on points
along the central axis we might consider
incremental rings of the charged surface as
s(r') dr'= s2r' dr'.
If dl' refers to an incremental distance along a circular
contour C, the expression is r'd
, where r' is the
radius and d
is the incremental angle.
GEOMETRY
SPHERE
Area A = 4r
Volume V =
ELLIPSE
Area A = AB
Circumference
4 3
r
3
L 2
a2 + b2
2
NABLA, DEL OR GRAD OPERATOR

[+ m-1]
Compare the operation to taking the time
derivative. Where /t means to take the derivative
with respect to time and introduces a s-1 component to
the units of the result, the operation means to take
the derivative with respect to distance (in 3
dimensions) and introduces a m-1 component to the
units of the result. terms may be called space
derivatives and an equation which contains the
operator may be called a vector differential
equation. In other words A is how fast A changes
as you move through space.
A
A
A
in rectangular
A = x
+ y
+ z
coordinates:
x
y
z
in cylindrical
A 1 A
A
A = r
+
+ z
coordinates:
in spherical
coordinates:
r
r
z
A 1 A 1 A
A = r
+
+
r
r
r sin
10/22/2000 Page 8 of 13
2 THE LAPLACIAN [+ m-2]

2 A = x 2 Ax + y 2 Ay + z 2 Az = 0
in rectangular
coordinates:
2
2
2
+
+
=0
x 2 y 2 z 2
2 A (A ) A
= grad (div A ) curl(curl A )
2
in spherical and
cylindrical
coordinates:
for example, the
Laplacian of electrostatic potential:
2 =
2 2 2
+
+ 2 =0
x 2 y 2
z
-1
DIVERGENCE [+ m ]
The del operator followed by the dot product operator

is read as "the divergence of" and is an operation
performed on a vector. In rectangular coordinates,
means the sum of the partial derivatives of the
magnitudes in the x, y, and z directions with respect to
the x, y, and z variables. The result is a scalar, and a
factor of m-1 is contributed to the units of the result.
For example, in this form of Gauss' law, where D is a
density per unit area, D becomes a density per unit
volume.
div D = D =
Dx Dy Dz
+
+
=
x
y
z
in cylindrical
coordinates:
div D =
D
1
(rDr ) + 1 + Dz
r r
r
z
in spherical coordinates:
1 (r Dr )
1 (sin D )
1 D
div D = 2
+
+
r
r
r sin
r sin
2
Tom Penick
curl B = B =
B B
B B B B
x z y + y x z + z y x
z
x x
y
z
y
in cylindrical coordinates:
curl B = B =
1 Bz B Br Bz
1 ( rB ) Br
r
+ z
r
r r

z
r z
in spherical coordinates:
curl B = B = r
1 ( B sin ) B
+
r sin
1 1 Br ( rB ) 1 ( rB ) Br
r sin
r
r r

The divergence of a curl is always zero:
( H ) = 0
The dot product is a scalar value.
In the electrostatic context, the divergence of D is the

total outward flux per unit volume due to a source
charge. The divergence of vector D is:
in rectangular
Dx Dy Dz
div D =
+
+
coordinates:
The circulation around an enclosed area. The curl of

vector B is
in rectangular coordinates:
DOT PRODUCT [= units2]
D = electric flux density vector D = E [C/m2]

= source charge density [C/m3]
CURL [+ m-1]
tom@tomzap.com
A B = (x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) (x B x + y B y + z B z ) = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az B z
A B = A B cos AB
x y = 0 , x x = 1
B y = (x Bx + y By + z Bz ) y = By
Projection of B
along :
AB
(B a )a
The dot product of 90 vectors is zero.

The dot product is commutative and distributive:
A B = B A
A (B + C) = A B + A C
10/22/2000 Page 9 of 13
CROSS PRODUCT
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
A B = (x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) (x B x + y B y + z B z )
= x ( Ay B z Az B y ) + y ( Az B x Ax B z ) + z ( Ax B y Ay B x )
A B = n A B sin AB
AB
is the unit vector normal to

where n
both A and B (thumb of right-hand rule).
B A = A B
xy = z
y x = z
z = r
r = z
n
A
x x = 0
The cross product is distributive:
A (B C) = ( A C) B ( A B) C
Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinates:
x is a unit vector
r = x2 + y2 + z 2
= x sin + y cos
z = z
Cylindrical to Rectangular:
To obtain: r ( x, y, z) = xx + yy + zz
x = r cos cos
= r sin + y cos
z = z
r + A + A
To obtain: A ( r , , ) = rA
Ar = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
r = x sin cos + y sin sin + z cos
=
Spherical Coordinates:
r is distance from center

is angle from vertical
is the CCW angle from the x-axis
r , , and are unit vectores and are functions of

positiontheir orientation depends on where they
are located.
Cylindrical Coordinates:
r is distance from the vertical (z) axis

is the CCW angle from the x-axis
z is the vertical distance from origin
z cos 1
x2 + y2 + z2
= x cos cos + y cos sin z sin

y
= tan 1
= x sin + y cos
x
Spherical to Rectangular:
To obtain: r ( x, y, z) = xx + yy + zz
x = r sin cos
x = r sin cos cos cos sin
y = r sin sin
y = r sin sin + cos sin + cos
z = r cos
Tom Penick
r = x cos + y sin
Rectangular to Spherical:
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
C(r , , z )
Ar = x 2 + y 2
y
= tan 1
x
z=z
y = r sin
z=z
Also, we have:
P(r , , )
r + A + zA
z
To obtain: A ( r , , z) = rA
x = r cos
A (B + C ) = A B + A C
r ( x, y, z) = xx + yy + zz
Rectangular to Cylindrical:
tom@tomzap.com
z = r cos sin
10/22/2000 Page 10 of 13
THE STATIC MAGNETIC FIELD

F F12 MAGNETIC FORCE [N/m]
due to a conductor
If the current in the two wires travels in opposite
directions, the force will be attractive.
F12 = the force exerted by conductor 1
carrying current I on conductor 2.
x 0 I1 I 2
[N/m]
F12 =
-7
0 = permeability constant 410

2d
[H/m]
I = current [A]
d = distance between conductors [m]
BP BIOT-SAVART LAW
Determines the B field vector at any point P identified
by the position vector r, due to a differential current
element I dl' located at vector r'.
BP = magnetic field vector
[T]
0 I dl 'R
dB P =
=
permeability
constant
0
4R 2
410-7 [H/m]
I
dl'(r r ') I dl' = current element [A]
BP = 0
= unit vector pointing
3
R
C
r r'
= r r'
R
r r'
from the current

element to point P
R = distance between the
current element and
point P [m]
B MAGNETIC FIELD [T or A/m]

due to an infinite straight conductor
May also be applied to the magnetic field close to a
conductor of finite length.
BP = magnetic field vector [T]
0 = permeability constant 410-7 [H/m]
0 I
I = current [A]
BP =
2r r = perpendicular distance from the
conductor [m]
B MAGNETIC FIELD [T]

due to a finite straight conductor at a point
perpendicular to the midpoint
BP = magnetic field vector [T]
0 Ia
B P =
0 = permeability constant
2r r 2 + a 2
410-7 [H/m]
I = current [A]
a
a = half the length of the
r
conductor [m]
r
=
perpendicular
distance
I
from the conductor [m]
Bctr
at the center of a circular wire of N turns

-7
0 NI 0 = permeability const. 410 [H/m]
N = number of turns of the coil
= z
2a
I = current [A]
a = radius [m]
B AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW

Ampere's law is a consequence of the Biot-Savart
law and serves the same purpose as Gauss's law.
Ampere's law states that the line integral of B around
any closed contour is equal to 0 times the total net
current I passing through the surface S enclosed by
the contour C. This law is useful in solving
magnetostatic problems having some degree of
symmetry.
B = magnetic field vector, equal to
B times the appropriate unit
vector [T]
0 = permeability constant 410-7
Bdl = 0 Jds
[H/m]
C
S
dl = an increment of the line which
= 0 I
is the perimeter of contour C
[ m]
ds = an increment of surface [m2]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com

along the central axis of a solenoid
0 NI
(z + l / 2) (z l / 2)
2
2l a 2 + (z + l / 2 )2
a 2 + (z l / 2 )
NI
and at the center of the coil: Bctr z 0
l
B(z ) = z

0 = permeability constant
410-7 [H/m]
N = number of turns
I = current [A]
l = length of the solenoid [m]

z = distance from center of
the coil [m]
a = coil radius [m]
10/22/2000 Page 11 of 13
H MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY [A/m]
L11 SELF-INDUCTANCE [H]
The magnetic field intensity vector is directly

analogous to the electric flux density vector D in
electrostatics in that both D and H are mediumindependent and are directly related to their sources.
H = magnetic field [A/m]
B
B = magnetic field vector [T]
H
M
0
0 = permeability const. 410-7 [H/m]
D M = magnetization [A/m2]
H = J +
J = current density [A/m ] J = E
t D = electric flux density vector
[C/m2]
When a current in coil 1 induces a current in coil 2,

the induced current in coil 2 induces a current back in
coil 1. This is self-inductance.
N
L11 = 1 11 11 = the total flux linked by a single
I1
turn of coil 1 [Wb]
2
I1 = current in coil 1 [A]
N
= 1 11 11 = the magnetic flux produced by
I1
a single turn of coil 1 and linked
by a single turn of coil 1 [Wb]
, (,lambda) MAGNETIC FLUX, LINKAGE

Flux linkage is the ability of a closed circuit to store
magnetic energy. It depends, in part, on the
physical layout of the conductors. It is the total
magnetic field due to circuit #1 passing through the
area enclosed by the conductors of circuit #2. The
text seemed to describe as the flux due to one turn
and as the flux due to all of the turns of the coil, but
was not consistent so be careful.
12 = the magnetic flux passing
12 = B1 ds 2
S2
12 = N 1 12
= N Bds
S
through coil 2 that is produced

by a current in coil 1 [Wb]
= total flux linkage [Wb]
ds = an increment of surface [m2]
LENZ'S LAW
Induced voltage causes current to flow in the direction
that produces a magnetic flux which opposes the flux
that induced the voltage in the first place. This law is
useful in checking or determining the sign or polarity
of a result.
L INDUCTANCE [H]
Inductance is the ability of a conductor configuration
to "link magnetic flux", i.e. store magnetic energy.
Two methods of calculating inductance are given
below.
I
2W
L = 2m
I
L=
= flux linkage [Wb]

I = current [A]
Wm = energy stored in a magnetic field
[J]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
L12 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE [H]

The mutual inductance between two coils.
N = number of turns of
N
N N
L12 =
12
I1
12
the coil
I1
Neumann formula:
L12 =
0 N1 N 2
4
C1 C2
dl 1 dl 2
r r'
= flux linkage [Wb]

I = current [A]
= magnetic flux [Wb]
r = vector to the point
of observation
r' = vector to source
Wm MAGNETIC ENERGY [J]

Energy stored in a magnetic field [Joules].
Wm = energy stored in a magnetic
field [J]
1
2
=
permeability
constant
0
Wm =
B dv '
410-7 [H/m]
2 0 V
FARADAY'S LAW
When the magnetic flux enclosed by a loop of wire
changes with time, a current is produced in the loop.
The variation of the magnetic flux can result from a
time-varying magnetic field, a coil in motion, or both.
B E = the curl of the electric field
E =
t
Another way of expressing Faraday's law is that a
changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
where S is the surface
d
Vind = Edl =
Bds enclosed by contour
C
dt S
C.
(see also Induced Voltage below)
10/22/2000 Page 12 of 13
Vind INDUCED VOLTAGE
M MAGNETIZATION [A/m]
The voltage induced in a coil due to a changing

magnetic field is equal to the number of turns in the
coil times the rate at which the magnetic field is
changing (could be a change in field strength or coil
area normal to the field).
d N = number of turns of the coil
Vind = N
= the magnetic flux produced by
dt
a single turn of the coil [Wb]
The induced magnetic dipole moment per unit

volume.
Nq 2 a 2 B
M= e
qe = electron charge 4me
1.60210-19 C
a = orbit radius of an electron [m]
B
or M = m
0
0 = permeability constant 410-7
where
[H/m]
me = who knows?
Nq e2 a 2 0
m =
m = magnetic susceptibility
Vind = Edl
C
Vind INDUCED VOLTAGE DUE TO
4me
MOTION
When conductors move in the presence of magnetic
fields, an induced voltage is produced even if the
magnetic fields do not vary in time. For the voltage
produced due to both a changing magnetic field and a
conductor in motion:
B
ds + ( v B )dl
S t
C
Vind =

v = velocity vector of the conductor [m/s]
ds = increment of the surface normal to the magnetic field
vector [m2]
dl = incremental length of conductor [m]
INDUCED VOLTAGE SLIDER PROBLEM

A frictionless conducting bar moves to the right at
velocity v produces a current I.
I
R
B0
An expanding magnetic field area having a static

magnetic field directed into the page produces a
CCW current.
Vind = induced voltage [V]
B0 = static magnetic field [T]
h = distance between the conductor rails
[T]
v
=
velocity
of the conductor [m/s]
Vind = B0 hv
Fmag = magnetic force opposing slider
[N]
Fmag = x B0 Ih x = unit vector in the direction against
conductor movement [m/s]
d
E = I 2R
I = current [A]
v
E = energy produced [J or W/s]
R = circuit resistance []
d = distance the conductor moves
[m]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
10/22/2000 Page 13 of 13

Nikola Tesla - Electromagnetic Engineering

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Nikola Tesla - Electromagnetic Engineering

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ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING EE325

duality of J and D............. 8

shunt stub ........................ 4

A unit of electrical charge equal to one amp second,

The complex conjugate of a number is simply that

magnetic energy ..............12

Other properties of conjugates:

L REFLECTION COEFFICIENT [V/V]

The reflection coefficient is a value from 1 to +1

where: Z 0 is the characteristic impedance

l is the length of the line [m]

where: Z L is the load impedance

L is the load reflection coefficient

THE COMPLEX WAVE EQUATION

The complex wave equation above is a second-order

Permittivity of free space

where Z 0 = L / C is the characteristic impedance

vp = velocity of propagation (2.998108 m/s

-WAVELENGTH INLINE MATCHING

Z0 = characteristic impedance of the

-WAVELENGTH INLINE MATCHING

l = distance from load [m]

The line impedance of a -wavelength line is the inverse

Impedance is a real value when its magnitude is

Zin LINE IMPEDANCE []

First find the reflection coefficient in order to determine the

= vp/f wavelength [m]

FINDING A STUB LENGTH

.36 .37 .38 .39

The basic idea is to connect a line stub in parallel

Towar d g ener ato r

z = distance from load

Anchor a compass at the center of the chart and draw an

Draw a straight line from the center of the chart through

Example: Find the lengths of open and shorted shunt

First normalize the load impedance by dividing by the

In this example, all values were in units of admittance.

SWR STANDING WAVE RATIO [V/V]

P(z) TIME-AVERAGE POWER ON A

POWER USING PHASOR NOTATION [W]

F12 = the force exerted by charge Q1 on Q2. [N]

Electric field from a potential:

V+ = the voltage of the forwardtraveling wave [V]

Ep = electric field at point

space 8.85 10-12

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL [V]

*NOTE: The l symbols

= the potential [V]

Maxwell's equations govern the principles of guiding

no name law, where:

E = electric field [V/m]

0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 10 F/m

GAUSS'S LAW an example problem

0Eds = 0 Er lr d = Qenc = l l = ClVl

s SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY [C/m ]

The differential version of Gauss's law is:

*Maxwell added the D term to Ampere's Law.

0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 1012

The net flux passing through a surface enclosing a charge

En = electric field normal to the

D FLUX DENSITY [C/m2]

Er = electric field at distance r from the conductor [V/m]

or ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT PER UNIT AREA

Q = electric charge [C]