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24. | [ =~= ~H# H
25. h\ "= HK ^<
26. w<* LQ #+=
27. w<* ~H=
28. w<* "H ~Q^
29. w<* "`=~} xO`}
30. Co2 # OK@ =i "O\+< ^`
31. w<* HO@~ =i "_K q^#O ^~ "`=~}
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ii

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2. K~< ~
3. K~< ~
4. H ~
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6. K^#Q, ZQ_ kQ_Q L# < "x H#Q#@
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9. `O~ ^= J=~ q^#=
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11. O\Q O Q xK q^#=
12. "i| O Q xK q^#=
13. O #O_ |@ =z# h\x HK@
14. h\ ~^# HeK iH~ H~O@ g@~, "@~ g@~
15. g~ =i <K xK q^#= K@
16. " xK q^#=

iii

1= J^=
^qH `= H`
1. =$` "= II/4 d2
2. =$`O K@H` II x D
3. =$`Ox Q= r/2 x

length of arc

4. K` ~H~=, n~K ` ~=, Paralleogram, Rhombus or Rhyomboid

q x Z`
5. \l" "= 1/2 x (Z^\* "`O) x Z`
6. u[ "= 1/2 x q

Z`

7. Parabola "= 2/3 x Z` (base attitude)

8. Eclipse "= II (^ JHO x z# JHO) (major axis x minor axis)
9. Cycloid " = 3 x area of generating circle
10. Surface area of sphere II x ("O)2
11. Cube #i=}O (Side)3
12. Sphere #i=}O II/6 ("O)3

BASIC UNITS OF LENGTH

British Units
1 inch
12 inches
3 feet
5 and half Yards
4 poles
10 chains
8 furlongs
100 links
6080 feet

= 2. 54 cm
= 1 foot
= 1 yard
= 1 rod, pole
= 1 chain
= 1 furlong
= 1 mile
= 1 chain
= 66 feet
= 1 nautical mile

Metric Units
10 millimeters = 1 centimeter
10 centimeters = 1 decimeter
10 decimeter
= 1 meter
10 meters
= 1 decameter
10 decameters = 1 hectometer
10 hectometer = 1 kilometer
100 links
= 1 chain
= 20 m
150 links
=
30 m
1852metyers
= 1 nautical mile

BASIC UNITS OF AREA

British Units
144 sq. inches = 1 sq. foot
9 sq.feet
= 1sq. yard
30 1/4 sq.yards = 1 sq.rod
40 sq.rods
= 1 rood
4 roods
640 acres
484 sq. yards

= 1 acre
= 1 sq. mile
= 1 sq. chain

Metric Units
100 sq. millimeters = 1sq. centimeter
100 sq. centimeters= 1 sq. decimeter
100 decimeter = 1sq. meter
100 sq. meters
= 1 are or 1 sq.
decameter
100 ares
= 1 hectare or I
sq.hectometer
100 hectares
= 1 sq. kilometer
10 sq.chains
= 1 acre

BASIC UNITS OF VOLUMES

British Units
1728 cu. inches
27 cu .feet

= 1 cu. foot
= 1 cu. yards

Metric Units
1000 cu. millimeters = 1 cu. centimeter
1000 cu. centimeters = 1 cu. decimeter
1000 cu .decimeter = 1 cu. meters

Length :
1 meter = 3.28 feet = 100 cm
1 inch = 2.54 cm
Acre
1 foot =30.48 cm
1 km =1000m
1 nautical mile=1.852 km

Area:
1 Acre =4047 m2
1 Hectare=10000m2=2.54
1 mile = 1.6093 km

Volume:
1 cubic foot = 28.32 lit
1 lit
= 1000cc
1 Imperial gallon = 4.546 lit
2

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3.2. ijeOK@ ^~ (Comptative method)
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3.1.2. F_ g@~
3.1.3. _ g@~
3.1.4. K~< ^~ ^~O HK@
3.1.5. == ^~ ^~O HK@
3.1.6. _ g@~
3.1.1. OQ H #_K q^#=:
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2. <H iu
3. JOQ ""i "Q=
3.1.2. F_g@~:
D g@~ U^< XH "#= H KH=# Qx H H KH=# Qx
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5

4= J^=
K~< ~ (Chain Survey)
K~< ~ LyOK iH~=
4.1. K~<
4.2. >
4.3. ~lOQ ~_
4.4. P~
4.5. H
6. PH ~ / prison square / offset rod
K ~ < :
< Li`= ## ~O_ aO^= =^ ^~= HK@ Wk
LQ_#. nx 100-150 eO LO_#. D eO 4 q.g. " He
W#=` `~ K|_ LO_#. D K~< H ~O_ z=i Q= W`_`
K|_, @H#@ gQ #O_ iOQ# He O_#. K~< g^ ^~=#
HK@ J#=Q #O_@ gQ W`_` H =` K|_# Q~ (P
=O\q) J=~|_ O_#. K~< "eH u~QO_ #O_@ gQ XH eO
=iH eO` =_ iOQ =# H|_O_#.
K~< ~H=:
4.1.1. "\H K~<
4.1.2. QO@~ K~<
4.13. WO[h~ K~<
4.1.4 _ K~<
4.1.1. "\
\H K~<:
D K~< ^~}OQ 20 g@~ H 30 g@~ _= =Q#. ^~}OQ
K~< H _=, K~< @ H#@ gQ #O_ O_ =kOK|_
O_#. H=# "~ ~H K~< #O_ nxx QiOK@ =. D K~< u
3 H 5 g@~ XH W`_ Q~ (P=O\) J=~|_ LO_#. u eO _= 20
O.g. =O_#. D q^O Q 20 g@~ _=Q K~< 100 eO, 30 g. K#
150 eO =O_#.

Fig. 1 20 m Metric Chain

4.1.2. QO@~ K~<:

Wk ^~}OQ 66 J_Q _= LO_#. WO^ 100 eO LO\~.
XHH eO _= 0.66 J_Q. Wk =YOQ ^~=# ~OQ H "
HK@ =i "=# ZH~= HK@ LyO`~.
D K~<# LyOz ~OQ#, "#, ZH~=# ZO` OQ
H==K< HO^ W=|_#k.
1. 10 QO@~ K~<
= 1 ~OQ
2. 80 QO@~ K~<
= XH "
3. 10 sq. QO@~ K~< chains
= 1 acre
u 10 eO XH W`_ Q~ J=~|_ O_#.
4.1.3. WO[h~ K~<:
D K~< ^~}OQ 100 J_Q _= HeO_#. D _= K~<
H z=~# @H#@ gQ ## O_ =kOK|_ O_#. 100 eO#
He
O_#. XHH eO _= XH J_Q =i 10 J_Q XH P =O\ W`_
Q~ Hey O_#.
4.1.4. O_ K~<:
Wk Kx W#~` K|_O_#. XH z=~ W`_` K|_#,
@H#@ gQ #O_#@iOQ# He O_#. Wk ^~}OQ 20 g. =i
30 g. _= ==#. D ~ "_ 16 q.g. LO_#.
nxx Yz`"# ^~=# HK@ ^#OQ LyO`~. Wk
`@O_ LO_@ `Q *Q`# fH#= O@Ok.
4.2. >:
nxx 4 ~H=Q qlOK=K#.
1. Q_` K|_# > (Cotton tapes)

2. =` K|_# > (Mettalic tapes)

3. > (Steel tapes)
4. W< "~ > (Invar tapes)

4.2.1. Q_` K|_# >:

Wk h\ `_z#_ `O^~Q _Q#. `_Q =#_ kOK
Q}= _ H^. nxH Q Q}= _ H^. JO^= nxx
~~OQ `=Q LyO`~. D > 10 q.g. =Q#.
7

4.2.2. =` K|_# > "\eH >:

<}"# Q_ =i W`_ fQ` He `~ K|_#k. Wk 5 g., 10
g., 15 g., 20 g., =i 30 g. =Q#. nxx Jx ~H= ~~OQ
# L yO`~. nx XHH i XH " g@~ # =iH " J_Q#
QiOK|_ O_#. JO^= nxx LyOz OQ J_Q# =i
g@~ # H` H==K#. nxx ^~}OQ = ~ =i <}"# enamel
` "^~. JO^=# h\ `= `@< H Z=Q LO_#.

Fig .2 a

Metallic Tape

4.2.3. >:
Wk 1, 2, 5, 10 =i 20 g@~ =Q#. Wk W# ~` `~
K|_ LO@Ok. D ~ "_ 8 q.g. H 10 q.g. LO_#. Wk `#O`@ `<
=_KH#=#. Wk HOKO Ys^#k. Wk K@H#=#_ nxx =
K @ =i HO` ^ fH#= O@Ok. J@ K xK `~Q _ =@
J=H=#k. nx# H` q.g., O.g. =i g. LO_#.
10c

16 mm

Metal

Hard
brass loop

Leather strengthening
Stitching lines

Fig. 2 b Steel Tape

4.2.4. W< "~ >:

Wk W#= (64%), ~ (36%) q=O` `~ K|_ LO_#.
JO^ =# "q H= Q Q}= W`~ > H< K `=Q LO_#.
JO^=# Z= Yz`"# H`# HK@ nxx Ly~. Wk 20 g. 30
g. 50 g. =i 100 g. =Q#. Wk K Ys^#k =i x`"#k
H=_= =#, Ju *Q`Q LyOK=#.
4.3. ~OlOQ ~_:
g\x ~ K=# #=# QiOK@ LyO`~. Wq W#=`
Qx H KH` Qx `~ K|_ O_#. Wq 3 O.g. "=, 2/3 g.
_= HeO_# g\ XH z=~ k "# =O\ Q= HeO_#. JO^=#
nxx qxH QK@ gQ LO_#. Wq ^~= #O_ iQ HxOK@
gQ `, Z~ =i # ~OQ XH ^x `~ "` =iH\ ` |_
8

LO_#. ^~= =s Z=Q ##K Z~ H *O_# gx Q=#

HeyO`~.

Fig 3 Ranging rod

Fig. 4 Ranging poles

Fig. 5 Off set rod

40 60 cm

Wrong

Fig.7 Pegs

Fig.6 Whites

4.4.P~ (} Q~):
Wq Q\ W#=` `~ K|_ LO_#. Wq 5 q.g. =O^= HeLO_,
40 O.g. _= HeO_#. nx XH z=i Q= kQ K|_O_, ~O_=
z=~ iOQ= =OK|_ O_#. JO^=# nxx "Hx=@ =.
XH K~< H _=# QiOK@ P K~< z=~ nxx < QK^~.

Fig. Arrow

4.5. H :
H ~O_ ~H Jq
1. F< > (open type)
2. OK > (French type)

Fig 8. Cross Staff

4.5.1.F< >:
D ~H"# H # ~~OQ Z=Q LyO`~. nx ^#
LQ= K~< g^ ## XH aO^= =^ XH O|=# QiOK@. D q^OQ
O|= QiOK@, H # Wz# aO^= =^ x@x=Q LOz ~OlOQ
~_ HxOK#O`=~ D iH~=# K~< g^ LOz H^=#. D ~OlOQ
~_ QO_ = ~Y H #Oz# aO^= O|=Q #O_#.
4.6 PH ~ :
nxx Yz`" # O|=# QiOK@ L yO`~. Wk =` ` ~
K|_# QO_x > PH~O #O_#. D > 2 O.g. =O^= =i 5
O.g. "= HeO_#. nx ~O_ J^= ayOK|_ O_#. "x =^
H}= 45 _w LO_#.
I

b
P

x~}=:

Fig. 9 Optical square

=i "I" J##q 45 _w H}= ayOK|_# ~O_ J^= "H"

J^= Q= =~ ^~= ` |_ O_#. nx< =O`~ J^=x
JO^~. "I" J^= iQ ` |_ O_#. nx< WO_H J^=x JO^~.
D iH~= 3 ~O^= LO_#.
"H"

"a" ~O^=: HO\` KK@ LQ_ #x ~O^=

"b" ~O^=: z# n~ K`~H~= ## ~O^= Wk "a"

Z^~Q

LO_#.
"c"

~O^=: n~K`~H~O## ^ ~O^= Wk "a,b" O|=Q

#O_#.
10

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nx #yOz K~< g^ O|=# QiOK=K#. ~OlOQ ~_ "O"
#O_ =K HOu H~}= H ~Y "OI" WO_H J^= J~# "I" # _#. Wk
~=~#= KOk =O`~ J^= _#. D ~H=Q ~=~#O KOk# H~}=
uiy ` |_# Q= QO_ ~=~#= KOk "Ha" =~= ^~ "eH
" #. D q^O Q "A" ^~ KK@ =# "B" H x[u aO|= "H" J^= g^
Q ` |_x QO ^~ Q=xOK=K#. D q^OQ ~=~#= KOk# "O"
H u aO|= "AaB" =~= ##k. "O" H u aO|= "B" H u
aO|=` UHqOK#O` =~ H^=#.
4.7. Q ^~ HK@ H ^+=:
D ^+= ~O_ q^=Q O_# Jq.
1. #+=# |s K ^+= (Compensating errers)
2. Q_ ^+= (Cumulative erros)
4.7.1.D ^+= H@ =Y H~}=:
1. LQ` =~ =#
2. Q `s H =~ =#
3. ^$+ ^+= =#
#+= s K ^+=:
D ^+ K~<` HK#_ ~ O_ k# H@ J=H= #k.
D q^#= ^+= =s Z=Q# H =s `= Q# LO_^. D ^+=
^~}OQ D HOk = =# H#.
1. Q# iQ @H#H =_= =#
2. Q HO` Q= `Q =O_@ =#
3. "@# HK#_
4. JO~"# ^u ^~ HK@ =#
4.7.2.Q _ ^+=:
Wq XH k H ^+=. JO^=# Wk XHH\Q Q _#. nx=
Hez# H` H ^ =s Z=Q# H =s `=Q# LO_#. D
^+= ^~}OQ D HOk = =# H#.
1. K~< H > _= =O_=# _= H< Z= _=Qx, H `= _=
Qx =O__O =#.

2. K~< eO =|_ =O__= =# H u~Q|_ =O__= =#

11

3. > =__#@ JQ@ =#

4. iOQ |~^ =O_@ =#
5. < HO` Z` > H K~< HK@ =#
6. ~O_ #= =^ ~OlOQ i K#_
4.8 Q =_` @@ =i `~KH# q^#=:
Q `~K q^#=:
Q# `~K@ Q H ~O_ z=~ ## iOQ#
(O_) Z_= Ku` @Hx _ Ku` qye# Q Q=# H`
H=# k q~=#. J@ =@ XH O_# =`" @Hx
=# H=# k Q@ ^~ Q k _O_ `~|_#.
Q =_` @ q^#=:
Q# =_` @@ Q H =^ Q=# QiOz Q@
^~ =_`Q K=K#. J@ =@ =^ Q= #O_ XHH [`
eO# =_` @@ ^~ Q# iQ =_` @=K#.
4.9.Q ^~ HK@ H J=~^=:
H "H Q@, K~=, #^, J_= =i H@_=
Q ^~ HK#_ J=~^=Q H#|_#. Hx XH ~Y
HK@ D J=~^=# JkQqOK =#.
HK@ H J=~^=# D HOk q^=Q qlOK=K#:
1. HK@ J=~^=^. Hx ^$+H J=~^=#k.
2. HK@ J=~^= H^. Hx ^$+H ^+= ^.
3. HK@ =i ^$+H J=~^= H^.
4.9.1. HK@ J=~^= ^. Hx ^$+H J=~^= H^:
^~}OQ HO_ H Q@ D H=xH =K#. D q^"#
J=~^= H==# ~O_ z=~ H #= HxOK=. W@=O\
= = D H O k ~ O_ ^ ` # J=OaOz J=~^ = #
JkQqOK=K#.
(Z) =^ Q` #= #O_ ~ O_ z=~ HxOK#. D ^u J=~^= #
JkQqOK=K#.

12

C
B
D

(a) =^ Q` #= #O_ ~O_ +# HxOK=. D ~H"# J=~^= J_=

K@ =#_ H#.

4.9.2. HK@ J=~^= H^. Hx ^$+H ^+= ^:

^~}OQ K~=, z# z# QO@, #^ "^Q#q D ~H"#
J=~^=# HeOK#. D J=~^=` ~O_ ~H= H=. Jq.
Z. J=~^= K@ HK@ gO_#.
L^: K~=, QO@ =i = HOK
a. J=~^= K@ HK@ gO_^.
L^: #kx ^@= =z#_ HK@ J=~^= H#. Hx ^$+H J=~^= #
D HOk q^OQ JkQqOK =K#.
"PR" K~< = =~= J#H#= "PR" =~= #kH ~O_ " A =i
B J# #=# QiOK=. A =^ AD J# XH O|=# _yOK=.

O|= AC=CD PQ#@ C #=# QiOK=. W_ "D" =^

"DE" J# O|=# _yOK=.
AD

C, B, E g^Q XH ~Y# w=.

W_ - ACB = - CED Q=# CE=BC H=#

13

^~=# HK@ ^~ BC ^~= J#Q #k H "_#

H#Q#=K#. D q^OQ J=~^=# JkQqOK=K#.
CE

4.9.3. HK@ =i ^$+H J=~^= H^:

L^: H@_ = =i = #= HK ~ Y J=~^= Q =K#_
D HOk q^=Q D J=~^=# JkQqOK =K#.
D ^u J=~^=# W~" ~O_ #=# QiOz
=O`~=Q ~Y# _yOz "x =^ ^~=# H#Q#@ ^~
J=~^=# JkQqOK=K#.
4.10.Q ~ K@ ^# ~Y:
H==# #=:
XH Q ~Y "^\ =i PYi aO^= =^## #=#
H= =# #= Jx JO^~. Wq ~O_ ~H=.
1. ^# #=
2. H #=
1. ^# #=:
Q ~Y "^\ =i PYi #=# ^# #= Jx
JO^~. Wq H` H ikx zOK#. D ~O_ #= H
~Y# ^# ~Y Jx JO^~.
2. H #=:
Wq ^# H` ~Y QiOK|_# aO^=. Wq H` ~Y
# q=~=# `@ LQ_#. D aO^= #O_
w ~Y# ''H ~Yx JO^~.
#=# QiOK@:
#=# QiOK@ =O^ D HOk ^` # J#iOK=#.
1. ^# #= ~~= HxOKqQ O_e.
2. H` ~Y Ju `=Q O_=#.
3. H` ~Y HK@ J=~^= x ^ O_e
4. H ~ Y OY Z=Q O_ ^ ~ Y ik q=~=# `#@
LO_e.
P^~ ~Y H <:
HK@ LyOK Ju _"# Q H ~Y# ''P^~ ~Y
14

H '' < Jx JO\~. Wk K =M"# ~Y. Wk W`~ ~Y k#

x~iOK#. ZO^=# ##Q D P^~ ~Y W`~ x~}= xiOK|_
O_#. D ~Y x=Q LO_@ # =i Yz`OQ LO_@ #
qye# q=~} P^~_ O_@ =# D ~Y# XH\ H ~O_ ~
HK@ J=~=.
iK ~Y H KH <:
nxx x~~} ~Y Jx _ JO^~. Wk u[ tY~= #O_ Z^\
[= #O^e x~~OK|_# aO^=#H H|_# ~Y. Wk x~} H==
x xi+`# H#Q#@ LQ_#. D ~Y q g^ H=|_#
^~= # K|_# ^~=# =#OQ =O_#@ x~iOK#.
=^Q` ~Y H ><:
Wk HK =~=x =^Q` #=# H ~Y nx =#
~O_ LQ= H=.
1. x~} H== H xi+`# `#.
2. ^# HK =~=# L#@=O\ x~}= H q=~=#
`@.
4.11.J @:
HK q^#=#O^ =#=, HOK, ~^~, H#, K@
"^Q#q K~# = =~=# H ^# HK ~Y _, Z_=
" # i # H` fH#@ ^~ H= =K#. D ~H" # H`<
''P @ Jx JO^~.
Wq ~O_ ~H=Q fH# =K#.
1. O|=Q H` HK@ (Perpendicular offset)
2. U@"Q H` HK@ (Oblique offset)
u P \# HK@ O^ ~O_ ^# H` H=.
1. Q ~Y H`# HK@. nx< K~<* (Chainage) Jx JO^~.
2. P \ H _= HK@
D P \# ^~}OQ >` Qx H Q_ >` Qx
HK^~.
4.12.~lOQ (Ranging):
~O_ #= =^ k# iQ x~~OK@ Q# =^Q`
#=# QiOK= O@Ok. D q^OQ =^Q` #=#
15

QiOK@# ''~lOQ Jx JO^~. nxx ~ lOQ ~_ L yOz K ^~.

D q^"# iu ^~}OQ XH #= #O_ WOH #=
HxOz#_ ^ H==# ^~= Q _= HO> Z=Q ##_
H#. D ~lOQ ~O_ ~H= Jq.
1. `H ~lOQ (Direct ranging)
2. ~H H (In direct ranging)
1. `H ~lOQ:
XH z=i #O_ (^# #=) =^ Q` #=# <~Q Kz
QiOK@# ''`H ~lOQ Jx JO^~. Wq ^~}OQ ~O_ z=~
## ''H==# #= ~~= HxOK#_ =`" gQ#.
2. ~H ~OlOQ:
~O_ z=~ ## #= (JO> ^# <) Q@, HO_
"^Q "\ =# HxOz#_ D ^u ##iOKe. D q^#=
~~ ~OlOQ ^u ##iOz =^ Q` #=# QiOK=K#.
XH ~Y Q` _= HK@:
Q` _= HK@ W^~ =#+ J=~= H^. Q#
=O^Q Q =Hx '' b_~ H ^i K "_ Jx JO^~. Q "#H
Q=# @Hx# =Hx '' J#K~_ H ~ Jx JO^~.
b_~ H =Y q^:
1. Q# =O^ Q@
2. XH Q _=# XH P~# LOK@
3. J#K~x L^=# \OK@
J#K~x H =Y q^:
1. b_~ # ~ OlOQ# J#Q}OQ i # k` =#@Q KK@.
2. b_~# P^=# WK@.
3. b_~K QK|_# P~# _ @@
4.13.H`= x K q^#=:
Q ` HK @ =O^ Q D H O k ^ # ^ ` #
J#iOK=#.
1. ^= ~
2. #=# QiOK@
3. ~ ~Y# HK@
16

1. ^= ~:
~ K =# H `=# H ^ = # "^@ sHO K@# ''^=
~ Jx JO^~. WO^ ~ Ke# =H P ^=O` #_KK
H OQ sjeOK=#. P `~"` xx U q^OQ ~OaOK=<
x~~ OKH#=#. `~ "` P ^ = H @=# Hy`= w=#.
nx< ''H # Jx JO^~. D @= =YOQ P ^ ik =Y
"Ys, H, ~^~ QiOK|_ O_#.
2. #=# QiOK@:
~ #=# HOk ^` ^~ QiOK=#.
1. ~ H#H XH ~A i J q^O Q ##K ~ #=# ~ OlOQ
~_ O` QiOK=#.
2. ~ H#H Hx ~A i Q O^~= =~ ~A #=#
QiOK@ gQ J# @=# L yOKe. JO^=# ~ #=
q+` J=~"#_ ^ Jq QiOK@ LOK Q~ ~##
J# @= J=~=Q#. D J# @= OHOQ# Kz#
"O@< J~=Q#@ LO_=#.
3. ~ ~Y# HK@:
^= ~ =i #=# QiOz# =@ Q` P ~Y
H _=# QiOK=#. _=# HK@ Q# iQ y
@Hx Q z=~ P~ =~# QK=#. P \ ^~ Q#
^Q~Q ## =#=, ~^~, K@, K~= Q ^~=# QiOz
H` H=` x~iOK=#. D q^OQ Q` HK@ =i
P\# HK@ "`= ^~=# HK#O` =~ K=#. W^
q^OQ qye# ~Y# QiOK=#.
H` H= H`# "@:
U H= <` ~ H` @= K|_< P H=# H`
H= H ~ H` " H= Jx JO^~. D H= H
u r =^ x=Q 1.25 O.g. ^~O ~O_ x= ~Y w|_
O_#. D ~Y =^ H` "=#. D w` ~O_ H
Q Mm = =#=, K~=, #^, ~^~ "^Q "x
H @= w=# =i P\ _=# QiOK=#. H`
H= H`# "@ r H J_Q Q= #O_ "^ H
=#. H= "@"^@ "#_ D HOk q~=# `H
17

"=#.
1. HK ~Y H OY =i ~
2. HK #= H OY =i ~
3. #=# QiOK z=
Hx Q~:
1. q
2. K@
3. Q@
4. ~# (Oy #)
5. ~# (_| #)
6. H ~O
7. Q_ "=
8.
9. ~^i
10. a_
11. =#=
12. >e< O=
13. Hb# H ~ H K~=
14. @
15. #k
16. O_`@
H ~:
H ~ #O^ =MOQ D HOk iH~= J=~=Q#.
1. 20 H 30 g@~ K~#
2. ~OlOQ ~_
3. P~
4. >
5. H
D ^u O^ ''< H P^~ ~Y W~" H="#
P \ fH#@ `__`Ok. H# L yOz < H W~"
L# H` ik# QiOK=#.
~ i J~# `~ "` H ` " =# @= w=#. `~ "`
@= K|_#@ J<H u[=Q =i >l=Q qlOz
"\ "=# H#Q#@ ^~ P H`= H "=#
18

Road in
embankment

Building

Wall

Road in
Gate

Gate
Cemetry

Wall and Gate

Police station
Railway single track

Railway double track

Light house

Road Pucca

Temple

Kutcha road
Mosoue
Foot Path
DA
M

Fencing post and

rail fence

Ferr
y
Bridge
Tree

Hedge
Garden

Mashy
Ground

Stream

Pond
Jungle

19

H#Q#=K#.
1. u[ "= 1/2 [= Z`
2. >l" "= 1/2 Z^\ [= "`= "\ =^
^~=
K# ~x
` = :
i# ^~= L /L Hez# ^~=
J "= (L /L) Hez# "O
1

K~< H J H`
L K~< `H` (Z= / `=)
L = L+e
e= ^+=
L = L + e K~< _= J H` H< Z= L#_
L = L - e K~< _= J H` H< `= L#_
L

1
1
1
1

=ki 1:
XH 20 g. K~<` ~^ix Hez#_ ^x _= 180 g.
LO_#k. Hx K~< _= 7 O.g. Z=Q L#K J ~^i
_= ZO`?
K~< J _= (L) 20 g.
^+= e=7 cm = 7/100 = 0.07 g.
K~< ` H` (L ) = 20+0.07 = 20.07 g.
Hez# ^~= = 180 g.
J ^~= L /L Hez# ^~=
20.07/20180180.63 g.
1

=ki 2:
30 g. K~<` XH H`=# H=Q ^x "= 45 K.H.g.
LO_#k. Hx K~< 10 O.g. `= _= L#K P H` J
"= ZO`?
K~< J _= (L) 30 g.
^+= (e) 10 O.g.0.1 g.
K~< ` H` (L ) 30-0.1 29.9 g.
1

20

Hez# "= 45 K.H.g.

J "= (L /L) Hez# "=
44.7005 K.H.g.
1

=ki H:
3. 20 g. K~<` XH ~^ix H=Q ^x _= 610.2 g.
=O_#k. Hx P ~^i 612 g. J~# K~< H `H`
=i ^+= H#Q#=?
K~< J _= 20 g.
H=Q =z# _= 610.2 g.
~^i J _= 612 g.
4. 30 g. K~<` XH H`=# H=Q Jk 16 II LO_#k. Hx
K~< 30 O.g. Z= _= L#K P H` J "= ZO`?
L
L1

30 g.
30{0.3 30.3 g.
J "= (L /L) H=Q =z# "=
1

= (30.3/30)2 X 16 = 16.32 ha

5. 20 g. K~<` XH ~^ix Hez#_ ^x _= 634.4 g.

LO_#k. Hx K~< 5 O.g. Z= _= L#K P ~^i J
_= ZO`?
20 g.
L 20{0.05 20.05 g.
J _= L /L X 634.4 = 635.986 m = 635.99 m
L

6. XH ~^ix H=Q ^x _= 1000 g. LO_#k. 30 g.

>` H=|_#k. x J~~# `~"` K_Q > 30 O.g.
`= _= L#K J P ~^i _= ZO`?
J ~^i _= (L /L) 1000
(30-0.3)/30 X 1000
990 g.
1

J _= = (L /L) H=Q =z# _=

1

21

612. m = L1/20 X 610.2 m

L1 = 20.0589 m
L + e = 20.0589 m
e = 20.0589 m - L = 20.0589 m - 20 m
= 0.0589= 0.06 = 6 cm

H #yOz K H
1. D HOk P \ H` H= K|_#q. @= wz H`
"=# H#Q#=?
.
120
112
50 C

90

27F

39B

70

60F

54

35F

40

` = :
>lO "= 1/2 (Z^\ [= "`= "\ =^ ^~=)
u[ "= 1/2 [= Z`
u[= 1/2 54 39 1053
>lO 1/2 (39 { 50) 36 1/2 89 36 1602
u[= 1/2 30 50 750
u[= 1/2 27 8 108
>lO 1/2 (60 { 27) 42 1827
>lO 1/2 (60 { 33) 30 1425
u[= 1/2 40 35 700
"`= "= 1053{1602{750{108{1827{1425{700 7465
H` "= 7465
2. D HOk P \ H` H= K|_#q @= wz H`
"=# H#Q#=? C
.
300
200
25 D

150

20 B

15 E

100

12 A

25
F

.
22

u[= 1/2 25 15 187.5

>l= 1/2 (15{25) 125 2500
>l= 1/2 (25 { 30) 150 4125
u[= 1/2 100 20 1000
>l= 1/2 (12{20) 100 1600
u[= 1/2 100 12 600
"`= "= 187.5{2500{4125{1000{1600{600 1012.5
"`= "= 10012.5
3. D HOk P \ H ` H = K|_#q @= wz H ` " =#
H#Q#=?
u[= 1/2 7520 750
>l" 1/2 (20{35100) 2750
>l" 1/2 (35{22{175) 4987
u[= 1/2 100 15 750
u[= 1/2 100 29 1450
>l" 1/2 (43{29) 200 7200
>l" 1/2 (35{43) 45 2925
>l" 1/2 (24{35) 75 2112.5
u[= 1/2 50 24 600
"`= " = 750{2750{4937.5{925{750{1450{7200{2925 {2112.5{600
24550
"`= "= 24550 2.455 II
H= PH~O x H` "=# H#Q#@:
# @= K|_# PH~O Q H` "=# D HOk
`= LyOz H#Q#=K#.
H` "=: (Trepezoidal rule)
A H` "= (KII gII)
d P\ =^ ^~=
h "^\ P\
h z=i P\
h =i h =^Q P\ "`=.
A h +h +h +h +h
0
n
0

23

1 =ki: D H O ^ W=|_ # P \ ^~ H ` " =#

H#Q#=. P\ =^ ^~= 25 g., h 4 g. h 5.6 g.
h 6.4 g., h 8 g., h 5.8 g.
^ # :
H` "= (A)
d = (P\ =^ ^~=) 25 g.
h 4
h 5.8
0

0
n

h +h +h +h
5.6 + 6.4 + 8 + 7.2 27.2
"= 25 (4/2{27.5{5.8/2)
25 (2{27.2{2.9) 25 32.1
802.5 K.g. 0.08025 II
h

2 =ki:
D HO^ W=|_# P\ ^~ H` "O# H#Q#=. P\
=^ ^~= 18 J_Q.
h 10, h 15, h 18, h 20, h 1.6, h 9, h 12
0

24

5= J^=
HO ~
D ~ #O^ J<H ~~Y XH^xHH\ H|_ O_ "\
H _=, H}= =i k H=|_#. _=# HK@ K~<
H ># Ly~. H}=# XH `H iH~= ^~ H~.
5.1.HO ~ ~H=:
HO ~ 2 ~H=Q qlO=K#.
1. ik Q ~ H =H~O Q ~
2. ik #@=O\ ~ H =H~O x ~
5.1.1. ik Q ~ H =H~O Q ~:
WO^ J<H ~ ~Y XH ^xHH\ H|_ O_, z=i ~
~Y "@"^\ ~ ~Y` H|_ =O_#. J\ ^xx ik Q ~ Jx
JO^~. L^II J_=, ~ "^Q#q.
5.1.2. ik #@=O\
@=O\ ~ H =H~O x ~:
J<H ~ ~ Y XH ^xHH\ H|_ O_ z=i ~ Y "@ "^\
~Y` He #@~# J\ ^xx ik #@=O\ ~ H =H~O
#@=O\ ~ JO^~. L^II f~ O`, ~_, ~ #
5.2.Hx OHuH ^=:
i) " i_ < :
U^x ~ ~Y, XH x[ H T ~Y` XH Yz`"# =~O HO`
H}= KK# _ T H x[ ~Y# "i_< JO^~.
ii) i OQ :

U^x XH ~~Y "i_<` K H}=# iOQ Jx JO^~.

iii) @

"i_<:
U^x T ~ Y q H L`~ , ^H} ^$== QO_ = K#@~#
^xx @ "i_< JO^~. XH O`= H @"i_< =~^.

iv) =Q \
\H

"i_<:
U^x JO` ==x H`= XH JO` zHK
K|_ L`~, ^H}, ^$==# H =~= =QqH "i_< JO^~.
25

=\
\H HO:
Wk @= K|_#@ QO_x PH~=# He 85-110 q.g.
"= Hey LO@Ok. nx =^ Q=#Q XH W# z"# XH
JO` zH "_|_ LO_#. D zH =$`H~O LO_ ^x 0
_w #O_ 360 _w =~ QiOK|_ LO_#. ''P|H "< XH HHO
^~ HO# ayOK|_ =O_#. JO^=# nxx J=~= x =O
HO QO# J=~|_# J^= =OK|_ O_#. `i`Qu zH
H}=# QiOK@ gQ XH OQ, HO e QO J=~|_
O_#. nx =# zH# `~Q x uH fHx =K@
gQ#.
v)

P| " H =^ QO# XH Q~ "O@H J=~|_ O_#.

[O H ~O_ Li`O g^ ~O_ OH~ H@H= ayOK|_
O_#. nx =# zH _w# ^qQ K|_#.
HO" QOx J^= , [ O =i J| " ^| u#O_ LO_#@
iH~= JO` XH H=~` =|_ LO_#.
5.3 =\
\H HO# H`= LyOK ^u:
=\H HO# XH >_ O_ ayOK=#. D >_
O_ Q=# H@ =i ~ J=iH =# iH~=# `i`Qu#
qH =O`~=Q K=K#.
O@iOQ:
>_ O_ H =^ Q= #O_ XH ~~x HO^ =^@
^~ H==# aO^=# QiOK=K#.
XH ~~Y H >iOQ fH# q^#=:
"AB" J# XH ~Y H iOQ fH#@ D HOk ^`#
J=OaOK"#.
1. "AB" XH ~~Y
2. HO# "A" aO^= g^ iQ =#@ iK=#.
3. " # iK zH Q Q~ iQ H#|_#@ K =#.
4. W_ HO# "B" aO^= "# u, " H Q=#
Q \ OQ ^~ J*H "< =^ Q Q~ "O@H =i ~lOQ
aO^= =^ Q ~_ XH k =O_#@ K_=#.
5. zH x u H =K#O` =~ Py " ^~ K iOQ#
QiOK=#.
6. zH L`~ ^$==# K K# _ =# " ^~
26

Kz#_ 0 _w PQ) ~lOQ 0 _w =O_#. JO> ^H} ^$==

#O_ H` ~O=Q#. H=# iOQ HK#_ Q_~
= u~Q "# =`" fH#=#.
5.4 iOQ q^#=:
Wq ~O_ ~H=Q H= =K#.
1. =$`H~O iOQ fH# ^u: Whole circle bearing (W.C.B)
D ^u O^ XH ~Y H iOQ# L`~ ^$==# "i_<Q
TOKHx Q_~ = u~Q k H~. JO^=# nx
H}= 0 _w #O_ 360 _w =~ LO@Ok.
@= K#@ AP1 ~ Y H H}= Q1 AP2 H}= Q2 AP3 H}=
Q3 =i AP4 H}= Q4
2. ^= ^u iOQ fH#@: Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B)
D ^u XH ~Y H iOQ#, Q_~ = u~Q k#
=i =u~M k# fH# =K#. Hx WO^ iOQ L`~=
H ^H} ^$ == #O_ =`" fH#=#. JO` HO_ ~ Y U ^$ ==#
^Q~Q =#K D ^$==#O_ fH#=#.
H=# WO^ XH aO^=# 4 ^=Q qlOz WO^ XH
aO^= =^ ~O_ ~Y XH ^xHH\ O|=Q LO_#@ wz ^xx 4
^=Q qlOK=#.
@= K#@
1= ^=
NE
2= ^=
SE
3= ^=
SW
4= ^=
NW Q QiOK=#.
nx iOQ 0 _w #O_ 90 _w =~ =`" H= =K#.
L^ ~ } :
AP H iOQ N0 E
AP H iOQ S0 E
AP H iOQ S0 W
AP H iOQ N0 W
1

D ^u =Y=Q Q=xOK=# q+= U=#Q iOQ#

L`~, ^H} ^$== #O_ =`" fH#=#. `~, _=~ ^$==
#O_ Z\ i`# fH#@ g^.
27

~_* iOQ: Reduced bearing (R.B)

=$`H~ ^u fH# iOQ 90 _w HO> Z=Q =#K
^xx 90 _w H< `=Q =~H#=K#. QiOK=K#. P q^=Q
=~Hx H}=# QiOK@ ~_* iOQ Jx JO^~.
^u XH ~Y H iOQ 90 _w HO> Z=Q =#K
^xx XH `H ^u ^~ 90 _w H< `=Q =~H#@ g
H^. D ^u< ~_* iOQ ^u Jx JO^~. D q^=Q ^=
^uxH =~H# q^#=# P~.a. JO^~.
W.C.B

D HO^ W=|_# \ H ^~ =~H#=K#.

Case

1
2
3
4

W.C.B

0 _w #O_ 90 _w
90 _w #O_ 180 _w
180 _w #O_ 270 _w
270 _w #O_ 360 _w
W.C.B

Rule for R.B

Quadrant

W.C.B

NE

180-W.C.B

SE

W.C.B -180

SW

360 -W.C.B

NW

iOQ# ^= ^uxH =~H#@ g H^ JO>

~ =i H iOQ: (Fore bearing and back bearing)

u ~Y ~O_ iOQ fH#=#. u ~Y ~O_ z=~
#O_ ~O_ iOQ fH#=K#. ~Y H ~ ~O= ~Y
H "^\ aO^= g^ fH# ^xx ~ iOQ Jx ~O_= z=~
fH# ^xx H iOQ Jx JO^~.
W.C.Bearing ^ u L yOz# _ :
Back bearing Fore bearing { 180 _w
~ iOQ 180 _w H< `=Q=#K
Back bearing = Fore bearing +1800

~ iOQ 180 _w H< Z=Q =#K

Back bearing = F.B-1800

J^ ^= ^u LyOz#_:
~ iOQ =i H iOQ JOH =#= Hx "\ H
k =u~Y=Q#.
JO> N |^ S
S |^ N
E |^ W
W |^ E
L^~}: XH ~Y H ~ iOQ N.40 25'E H iOQ S.40 25'W
0

28

6= J^=
q =i h\
h\ O~H}
< `OQ L`^< Hx He O_\xH K ^x<< H U ^u
<# ''O~H} ^u Jx = =K#.
6.< H`:
h\ =OQ Qx, Qe =# Qx H =~ z# =OQ
Qx, < #O_ =\ "~ _ (~=O`"#) XH K\ #O_ =iH K\H
H@Hx =_x < H` Jx JO^~.
< H`# =MOQ ~O_ `~Q`Q qlOK=K#.
6.1. h\ H`
6.2. Qe H`
6.2.h\
6.2.h\ H` :
h~ <# =YOQ ~O_ q^Q H` _`Ok.
1. =\ < q~Q _ =~ z# =
2. X~=_` =OK |~^h\ `H_ =
6.1.1. =\
=\ < q~Q _ =~ z# =:
#O_ =~ z# q~Q _Q ## < _#_ P =\
~}= < #O_ q_=_ H Hke ~ H "^[|_`~. D
q^OQ =~ z# < _# K@ #O_ =\x ^^ ~O_ J_Q
Z` =~ =i 5 J_Q ^~= =~ "^[`~. =~ z#
=~ 25-30 H.g. "Q=` HO^ _`~.
6.1.2. X~=_` =OK |~^h\\ `H_ =:
=~ h\ `H_H q_Q@|_# =\ ~ }= =~ h\` He |~^Q
=i < Q= g^Q = ~ z# z# H` Ki=_=
=OQ JH_H_ "Q U~_`~.
D |~^ h~ Z"# Hn nx` _ H@Hx =\ h\ #
i=}= _ Z" ^ ^ "Q U~_`~. nx< ''*H` ^
''"H` Jx _ JO\~. Z_ Z_`QO_ =~= z# `H_H
|~^ h\ == Q~# < JO` HO` `# "Q U~_ P <
U O@ O_OK_xH xH ~O_ `Ok.
29

h\
h\ H` = i}= H #+=:
1. ~=O`"# =\
=\ H@Hx =_=:
< Q= L# ~=O`"# =\ ~ O@ ~Q^ K
=Y=. ZO^K`#O> "H " K =~ D < LO\~.
H|\ < Q=x =\ ~ H@Hx ~#_ HO^ =# < `=
~=O`OQ =O_@= K` D < O@ QQ O_@ J=H=
`Q#.
2. ~=O`"# O@ = g^ WH Ki =_=:
" HO^ Q= =# O`x ~=O`"# < #O_
h\` H@Hx =K =`H =i WH ^~=` H|_ O@
O_OK_xH xH ~O_ =^= LOk.
3. [=, ~ "@ "_=:
`Q_xH, =Oz h~ ^ O@ h\ ~^ J=~"# =~
h\x x= K LOK_xH [ xiOK|_`~. [ = #
H K@ =# O` #O_ h~ =z g\ K~`Ok. D O` <
H`# J^ @O_ =^e" #O_ "h\` H@Hx =z#
=\ D [=x J_Q Q= Ki "@ U~_`Ok. JO^K`
g\ x= K|_ h\ i=}= `y~ `~< =# LQO
O_ `~.
4. < J_Q# L# h\
h\=@= `y=@:
=~ h~ "QOQ < _ H@Hx =_= Z"` <xH WOH
=_xH qye h\ # i=}O `Q`Ok. D q^OQ WOH
h~ `y ~#_ =x h\x Z\ H_ s K_xH < J_Q
Q= #O_ = h~ _ K ` =Q LO@Ok. JO> =
h~ `y` h\ ~^ H=# h~ H O@ kQ|_ `Q`~.
h\
h\ H`# x~kOK@:
< i ~ h\ =# HeQ < H`# D HOk ^` # J=OaOz
J^ @=#.
1. ~x Ja=$k KH#@ ^~:
=Oz "~ H\ LO_ < QQ qiOz <# H LOK "H
=~ z# `H_H # =# "`_ =\ zO^~= O^~Q ^ =^x
HO` =~ `y~. < H` ~=O`"#=~` "H ~Q^ _
JO`Q LOk. < H` _O_ ~H} HQ K~.
30

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Q_ J=~|_ LO@Ok. JO^= WO"~ #O_ <@|_# h\ "Q=
D =u~Yk Q Q_ = K =~ `y h~ |\H =K =~=
=^ =K iH h\ "QO iQ `Q#. D ~H"# WO"~# `~
K@ K H+=` _# x. JO^= D ~H"# WO"~ Z"
"_HO =. Hx h\ =~O "_ > O H< Z=.

47

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O\Q O =sH~}:
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48

4. H# Q@= _=.
5. _e=s Q@= _=.
6. H# Q@= =i _e=s Q@= H JO`~ "=
7. O# x K~OK "\~ H iu.
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49

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=

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50

i~=
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XH x= @~# O, z# "=Q "i| ZHH
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51

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52

O ~_= HQ #+=:
H Q@= h~ "t OK#_ Q@= H e Q_
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= h\ "= H` ~_ He " "Q= `Q#. nx<
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hf = 4flv2 / 2gd
= 4 x 0.005x500x2x2 / 2x9.81x0.1
= 20.38 m

O =~`# H#Q#@ (H\ x):

D HOk q=iOz# `= ^~ O #O_ =OK h\ #
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H = ~A O xK QO@, (QO@)
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53

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= 28 x 8 x 5 / 10 x 16

7 b@~ / H#
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A 18 H~, D 5 O.g., E 10 ~A

54

11 J^=
| [ =~=
q Li`O KQ ~ U [ =~O<< H= J#=K. U
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1. [ =~= H PH$u
2. [ =~= H H`
3. [ =~O H J# ^~" (_eH )
| [ =~O ~H#:

1. `_# ik, P : (Wetted perimeter)

nx< H H #^, `_#@=O\ Q=Q K=K#.
P = c+b+c
= 2c+b

2. J_ H` "=, A : (Area of cross - section)

A = 1/2 (a+b) x d
1/2 x (Z^\

[= "`=) x "\ =^ ^~O

3. _eH ~_, R : (Hydraulic radius)

H H J_ H` "O# =i `_# ikH Q x+u
R = A/P = J_H` "O / `_# ik
R = A/P

55

4. J# ^~", S: (Hydraulic slope)

nx< S ` QiOK^~. Wk H= H " =i H H
_=# Q x+u.
D x+u< ^~}OQ 0.1 `O =O_#.
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H "
L H _=
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6. [ "Qx JOK< "@:
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nxx D HOk `= ^~ H#Q#=K#.
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2/3

1/2

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R _eH __
S _eH " H J# ^~"
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V

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Wk Z=Q LyOK_#. ^~}=Q < == =i [
=~x xiOK@ LyOz H@_=# |\ nx q= =~KO_#.
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56

=xOQ Q}H=
0.023
0.015

7. H ":
[ =~O ~ H# ` h\ [ =~O H H" 1.5:1
HO> Z=Q =O_~^. ^~}=Q qq^ ~H=# < D H"
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h\ "= H #i=}= ("H aH g@~ / H#)
Q=A V
A = H J_ H` "O `_# QO, K^~ g@~
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=ki :
XH | [ =~O H J_Q QO "_ 40 O.g. =i H
` 40 O.g. H H H " 1.5:1 =i J# ^~" 0.1
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H J_Q "_ = 40 O.g.
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H"
=1.5:1
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W_ H " Z` H"
d=

1. H H `_# ik = P = 2c+b
2 " Z` { J_Q "_
272{40
144 { 40
184 O.g.
1.84 g.
57

2. H "_

21.5404021.5Z`{J_Q "_
= 26040
120{40
160 O.g.
1.6 g.

3. H Q@ "_ (Top) 20 `= _ 0.2 40 8

"`= _
48 O.g
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72 O.g.
72{72{40
184 O.g. 1.84 g.
4. J_H` "=A= (a+b)x d
2

(160{40)40
2
4000 K.O.g 0.4 K.g.
5. _eH ~_ A/P = 4000/184
0.4/1.840.217 g.
J#^~" 0.1 `=
0.001
=xOQ Q}H= 0.025
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h\ #i=}= Q 0.4 0.456
0.182 "H
0.1821000 b.
182 b/H#
HQ@ Z` H ~ 20 `= _
20/100408 O.g.

58

12 = J^=
h\
h\ "=# HK ^<
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59

2. H~O@ g@~:
=YOQ #^ H, h\ " "Qx H#Q#@ nxx
L y~ . D ^u ^~ h\ #i=}x H "O# H#Q#@
Q@ " "Qx P H H h\ H J_ H` "O` zOK@
^~ H#Q#=K#.
Wk XH z# iH~O , Wk z# z# KHO O\ ^x XH z=~ He
O_,
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KHO XH g@~# H|_ =O_#. nx ^~ KHO Zx K@ uiy#^
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= H H #^ =# H=# ` h\ " "QO#
H#Q#=K#.

3. "@~ g@~ ^u:

Wk XH z# g@~ H =H=. nx O^ ^~}OQ J<H
~H He# XH KHO J=~|_ =O_#. Wk W# ~, H H ~|~`
`~ K|_ =O@Ok. D KHO XH \@[~# H|_ =O@Ok.
JO^= ZO` h~ =Oz#n nx= QiOK=K#.
60

nx =~ ` `Q O_ =O_@ H Yz`OQ x K @ D HOk

~O_ q+# QiOz \OKe.
1. Q@O h~ Z_ xO_Q =OK` LO_e.
2. h\ " "Q=, g@~ QiOK|_# Ju `= " "Qx
H< Z= =O_e.
L Q:
nx ^~ i=#, #, h\ ""Qx H#Q#=K.
nx H H #^ LyOz#_ Q@O ^~ h\x =OK
g@~ s_OQ ^~ h\ " "Qx H#QO\~.
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H~. nx#yOz Ju `= "= Q O _ h\
# i=}x H#Q#=K#. D HOk `=#yOz =~ =Y
^~O =^ Q h\ "x H#Q#=K#.

Q = 0.0138 H5/2
Q = h\ # i=}O, b / H<
H = h\ ` Z` O.g.

1 =ki : < `=#yOz n~ K`~H~O Q

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61

1. XH" HO\H< Q x~}=

Q = 0.0184 (L-0.1 x H) H3/2

2. ~O_ " HO\H< Q x~}=

Q = 0.0184 (L-0.2 x H) H3/2

3. ~O_ " HO@H< x x~}= h\ "=

Q = 0.0184 LH3/2

62

13= J^=
Greenhouse ( i` W )
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^
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2) =^ ^~ ~H=
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3) Z= ^~ ~H=
(High cost)
63

` = ^~ ~=
i` W [ ^` ^~ "`=~} xO`}

HO`" ~ K |_`Ok. =^ ~H=

fan =i evoporative cooling
##iOz (h\x Pqi K) "`=~} xO`}
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LQ:
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64

vii) Tissue culture ^~ L`u K#

"H# ^$ _
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viii) =~\ J=~=
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2) OHuH i*#O Q = J=~O.
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4) x~} Y~ Z=.

65

14= J^=
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II) L
Q=# |\ (Based on usage)
III) x~}=# |\ (Based on structure)

H
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# |\ (Based on roof coverage)
IV)
V) x~} Y~# |\ (Based on construction cost)
14.1)

PH~x |\
14.1.1) Lean to type
14.1.2) Even span type
14.1.3) Un even span type
14.1.4) Ridge and Furro type
14.1.5) Sawtooth type
14.1.6) Quonset type
14.1.7) Interlocking ridge and furrow Quonset type.

14.1.1) Lean to type:- D q^"# 'Green house # Wk=~H xiOz# H@_O

H Q_ xiOK@ LQ_#. nx =# ~~tx QQ

LyOKH#=K#. nx =# HC J=~"# =yx _
`yO KH#=K#.
14.1.2) Even span type:-

nxO^
H
C ~ O_
H =#=Q =OK|_
LO_#. W@=O\ Design # =` ^= z# z# H=`
xiOK^~. =#=Q nx _= 24 metre, "_ 5 #O_ 9 metre Z`
2.5 #O_ 4.3 g@~.
14.1.3) Uneven span type:- Wk HO_
O`= xiOK@ J#OQ

LO@Ok. nx HC ~O_" =#=Q LO_^. Wk

(JOHe`O ) xK
@ L
Q_
^
.
14.1.4) Ridge and furrow type:-

Automatic

~O_ H Z= 'Evenspan Greenhouse'

#
H
H # J=i# ^xx 'Ridge and furrow type Greenhouse' Jx JO\~.
D q^=Q J=i# ~O_ Green house XH Q_ J=i# i`Ok. nx
=# = U~_ b Y~, 'Automation' Y~, WO^#
Y~ `y
b# KH Q P[=~+ K
@ g L#q. =# ^ H=# i`
Wk ZO` J#"#
k.
66

Lean to type

Even Span type

Uneven type

Ridge and furrow type

67

14.1.5) Sawtooth type Greenhouse:-

Wk HC ~O=. O_= J=~|_

LO_#. nxxH H$u ^=Q Qe, "`~ ^~=Q =K#.
14.1.6) Quonset type Greenhouse:-

nx
H
C Arch Q LO_#. nx
H
C #
(Polythene) "_^~. g\x ` = Y~` xiOK=K#.
14.1.7) Interlocking Ridge and furrow Quonset type:-

# `e# 'Quonset'

O_H P#
He H\#
^xx 'Interlocking Ridge and furrow Quonset
Green house ~
type' Jx

JO\~.

14.2)

L Q = # |\ : LQ=# |\ Green house # ~O_

q^=Q qlOK=K#.
1) Green house for active heating (Green house # "_ K
@)
2) Green house for active cooling (Green house # K|
~K@)

14.2.1) Green house #

"_ K@: ~u == Green house

KQ =i "H ^|f@ J=HO L#k. Jk x"iOK@
Green house eH `y#O` "_x OOz "H# H_@ g#k.
eH O=# L+= |@ "`=~}= P^~_ LO_#. Wk
x"iOK@ J<H ^` H=.
i)
HC
~ O_~ polyethylene cover ` H =K#.
ii) Thermopan glass ("_x
|\H x"iOK@ L
Q_
glass)
iii) L+=# Green house OK@# <Q q^=Q "_
K=K#.
1) Unit heaters
2) Control
3) Radiant Heaters
4) Solar heating systems.
14.2.2) Greenhouse for active cooling:-

"q HO Greenhouse
|@HO> Z= "_Q LO_ O@
~Q^ J=~^O Q LO_#. D "_x

`yO z O@
~Q^
OKH#@ gQ LO_#. KQ e xH
"
\
'Green house' # K|~K^~. W K|_ ^` Evaporative Cooling
Pq~=` K |_@) ^u ^~ KQ OK^~.
Wk ~O_ ~H=:i) Fan and Pad Cooling System
ii) Fog colling system

D 'Greenhouse' #O^ 90100% =~

H
C `~ KH#@ gQ LO_#
68

Sawtooth type

Interlocking ridge and furrow quonset type

69

14.3)

x~}=# |\: x~} ^ux |\ nxH H=e# =y P^~_

LO_#. J^QH 'Greenhouse' "_ # |\ _ nxH H=# =y P^~_

LO_#. "_ `"# Hk Q\ =yx "_=#. D 'Greenhouse'
x~}=# |\ <Q q^=Q qlOK=K#.
14.3.1) H` K#
K@
= (Wooden framed 'Greenhouse')
14.3.2) W# Q@O` K# K@=
14.3.3)


"
w < * (Pipe framed 'Greenhouse')
*H~O` K#
K@
= (Truss frame 'Greenhouse')
14.3.4) u
14.3.1) Wooden framed Green House:- Greenhouse
HC " (span) 6m HO>

`=Q L#C_ H` K# Green House # xiOK^~. Side, posts,

columns # H` K^~. `= ^~, Z= ^$_`O =# pine wood x
^~}OQ g\ x~}O L
yOK^~ . timber # _ L
yOK^~ .

14.3.3) Pipe framed Greenhouse:-

H
C " 12 g. LO_ Greenhouse #

xiOKO>

` xiOz# Greenhouse # xiOK^~ .

Q XH^x`
XH\ K|_ LO_=. Hh P^~O HO Side bars ` JuHOK|_ LO\~.
Greenhouse plastic covers # L
yOK=K#.

70

14.3.4) Truss framed Greenhouse:- Green house

HC " 15m , JO`HO >

Z=Q LO> g\x xiOK^~.

flat steel, Hh tabular steel Hh angle iron (H}O =OK|_# W# Q) Hh
XH^xHH\ u*H~O (truss) weld K|_ rafters, chords & struts #
~Ok~ .
Angle iron purlins Green House _= "O|_ " |_, strauss bolt
K|_ LO\~. columns x "_# Green house (21.3m)
L
y~ . K =~ Glass Green houses J<k Truss frame type.
Pipe framed Green House Structure

Truss framed Green House Structure

71

14.4)

HC#yOK == |\: Wk =_ ~H.

14.4.1) Glass Green House.

14.4.2) Plastic Green House.
14.4.3) Regid pannel Green House.
14.4.1) Glass Green house:- Glass Green House

# 1950 #O_
yOK@ =# Z=Q HOu

i OK#.
LyOKK<~. Glass L
H=# nxO^ ` = `= `= LO_ "H# ~Qx~^H =
Q LO_#.
L^: i) Lean type Green house
ii) Even span type Green house
iii) Ridge and furrow Green house

# `e#

Green house HCQ Glass # "_ xiOK^~.

14.4.2) Plastic film Green House:- D Green house

H
C Q Polythene, Polyster,
PVC # L
yOK^~ . g\ x~}xH Glass` "#

H
C HO> K Y~

`=. JO^=# Z= LQL#q. D ~H"# plastic cover rq`

HO K `=. UV- Resistant plastic film # LyOz# <Q
O=`~ = =#` Ok. Qunoset type greenhouse, Gutter connection.Green house
plastic covers L
yOK^~ .
14.4.3) Rigid pannel Greenhouse:- PVC Rigid pannels, Fiber glass, Rainforced
plastic, Acrylic =i Polycarbonate Rigid Panels #
H
C Q "_`~.

L^: 1. Quonset Type, 2. Rigid and Furrow Type Greenhouse

HC Q "_^~.
D q^O Q
HC Q O_ Q\Q LO_ Green house # "`O =O`~O Q
HOu ~} [~Q#. ~O_ q^=# HC HO> <}`Q LO_ 20 OII
=~ xK
#.
#+ O D q^"# HC =# Z= ^= Q K|_, <K U~_ HOu
~} `Q`Ok. J^ q^=Q Jy =^=# _ J=HO L#k.
14.5) x~}=# J=~"# Y~# |\: x~} Y~# |\ nxx =_
QQ qlOK=K#.
14.5.1) `= ^~` xiOK Green house : g\ supporting structure "^ ~,
'G.I' pipe `# polyethylene film #
HVCQ# ventilation H= [=Q
Qe "eH q^=Q U~@ K~. Drip h\ ~^ ^u =i
Shadenets LO\~.
14.5.2) =^ ^ ~ Green house : WO^ supporting structure 'G.I' H
JqxO pipe , 'uv' sterilised plastic film #
H
C Q, ventilation cooling
H= pad, fan, shadenets ` @ heating iH~ LO\~.
72

14.5.3)

Z
=
= ^~ Greenhouse : WO^ 'u' pipe 'uv' steel, plastic film
Z
fan, pad Drip h\ O^e h\ \OQ iH~=
=i +
_ <\ LO\~.
J~` D "`=~} xO`} iH~ Drip ^u Jx _
HO@sH~}
K |_ Auto Control mechanism ` J#OkOz LO\~.

73

15= J^=
w<* "H ~Q^
"H P~QOQ iy `^~ <}"# JkH kQ|_H J#
"`=~} i` ZO` =Y"#
k. J@=O\ "\ Qe, h~, < ~~t
H$u kOz# [=#~ "H ~Q^ J#"# "`=~}=x

H $ u ^=
Q xK@ H$u
=OQ J=i# O@HO =Oz kQ|_ O^
J=HO L#k.
D J^O "H H=# Jx ^ =# Qx HxO\x
Qx xOuOK ^` # Qi q+^
~ K
@
O J~#k.
15.1) HOu "H ~Q^ =Y=Q h~, CO2, ~~t #O_
=K#@=O\ H H~}
[# OQH
J=~O . D H
^~< "H
P~=# `
~ K Hx
~Q@ HH "H "H _ ^^_
#.
D H~}[# OQH "HH JO^@ L# Z~=, h~, CO2, HOu
=i "_ g^ P^~_ LO_#. ~HOu H=# "`^HO>
`"#K "QO _ `Q#. JO`HO_ "H ~Q^ _ `Q#.
J^ q^=
Q HOu Z=Q L#K "H xH~=
. "H H K^
#
O
(Plant Chlorophyll) ^|ux "H
~Q^ [~Q^
.
D HOux International Unit 'Lux' H~ . XH International Candle
#O_ XH g@~ ^~O HOu O[= H i=}O# 'Lux' Jx JO^~.
Greenhouse #O^ iOK|_ HOu "q 129.6 klux #O_ KeHO
3.2 klux =~ LO@Ok. D HOu U O@H#
# J#O H^.
H~}
[# OQH
[~Q@ 32.3 klux i`Ok. O@ ~H=
#
|\ HOux Greenhouse =~H#=K#.
HOux ^x Wave length P^~OQ qlO`~. Jx ~H= HO`
H~}
[# OQH
H~ L
Q_
=
. ('UV') HOu ` = 'Wave Length
JO^@ LO@Ok. (400 nm HO> ` =).
<400 nm 400 nm - 700 nm
>700 nm
UV light Vibgyor(visible) light Infrared light

Wk Z= "`^ L# O@ xH~O . Wk UV HOu Glass Hx

plastic #O_ Qx iOK|_#. 'Visable light 400-700 nm Wave Length `
LO_#. 700 HO> Z= L#K Farred =i Infrared ~HOu_
"H hH~=
.
74

15.2) LQ` (Temperature):- u O@ ~Q^ XH xq` L+=

=^ LO@Ok. ^xHO> ` = J~# "HO^ r=H
Pi=K "H
=OKQ_Q =i H}=# QH\ "H H Z^Q^ Py=#.
L+= Z"#K ZO[" xKH "H Z^Q^ Py`Ok. ZO*"
"_x `@H#=. D ZO*" H H u 100c L+= ~Q^ 2
#O_ 3 ~@ ~Q`Ok. Jk _ XH xs`"# L+= =~ [~Q`Ok.
WOH L+= iy# D ZO*" K~ iQ Py=#. ^~}=Q Greenhouse ~u@ 7-210c =~ LO_#. J^ Q =| L# ~A
~u L+= HO> 3 #O_ 60 Z=Q LO_#. J^ ^~} ~A 80c
~u@ HO> Z=Q LO_#. J^ q^=Q Q "= Oz#
300c L+= JkH=Q ~Q#. 320c Qe L+= L#@~` "H

~Q^ QO@Ok.
15.3) ` = ` = (Relative humidity):- Green house "H
LO_@ =# "H#O_ Pqi J~# h\ =# e `=`= JkHOQ
LO_#. D `= ventilation ^~ |@ ~ Greenhouse `=`=
`Q ` Ok. Green house `= `=# xOuOK@ `=# `yO K@Qx

OK@Qx K =#. Z= O@ `=# 50 #O_ 80 `= J=~=

LO@Ok. "H# JO@ H@@ 90 `= =~ J=~=
O@Ok. "q

Sensible heat =# KeHO ~u@ Greenhouse "_ K@=#
`=`= `Q`Ok. nxx iK@ 'Evoporative cooling' pads Qx H
foging system Qx J=~=#. `=`= Z=Q L# _ `yO
K@ 'Ventilation' Qx, 'Chemical de-humidifiers' Qx, Cooling Coils Qx LyOz
`yO K=K#.
15.4) " O \ + < V( Ventilation):- Green house ventilation #yOz
"_x Qx, CO2 # Qx `= `= Qx xOuOK =K#. 350c HO>
Z= L+=
L# O@ J#= H^. nxx xOuOK@ `y#x
ventilators # Green house J=~=#. (Natural ventiation) Hx, Forced
ventilation Qx LyOz xOuOK=K#. 6 meters HO> `= "_
L# z# Green house Natural ventilation J=~H=K#. Hx Yz`OQ
H=# i` # HeOK@ 'forced ventilation' (OH) J=~@
=Ozk.
15.5) Q " = (CO2) : "H ~Q^ H=#
^~= 'CO2' K =Y"#k. "H L# ^~= ^^ 40
`= =~ H~<`< xi`"#k. ^~} i` QeO^ 0.03
`= CO2 (345ppm) LO@Ok. O@ H~}
[# OQH
[iy#_ 'CO2
200ppm _
=#. J@=O\ i` ventilation ^~ 'CO2' Level #
75

OK= =Ok. H~< _ PH_ ^~} level HO> `"#K ~Q^

`y`Ok. KeHO CO2 "`^ OK@ ventilators #yOK@
\ H^. ZO^=# J#Q eH =K Qex "_ K= LO@Ok.
J@=O\ i` CO2 "`^# "~ ^` ^~
OK= =O k. D
CO2 J=~=
O@# |\ =~`Ok. nx J=~=
"~ J=~=
#
HOu,
L+=, Z~=, O@ ~H, O@ ^ g^ P^~_`Ok. Z= O@
1000 #O_ 1200 ppm Q "= "`^ J#=Q

u
Ok~.

Greenhouse ~ Q Q H= # "`=~ } i `
::

O@

J# "`=~} i`
Q\
~u
`=
PH L^[x
LQ ` (0c) LQ `
`=
OzH
1. @=\
21 #O_ 28 15 #O_ 20 60 #O_ 65 67
2. OQ~ qi
2223
1819
7075
67
3. =OH
2227 1722
5065
67
4. ^ ~H
2025 1820
7090
67
2026 1820
7075
67
5. Musk milon
6. K
2123 1518
7080
55.6
7. Summer Squash
2025 1618
7075
67

<~=_H H=# i`
::
O@

q`#=
(Kg)

1. PK Qc
2. Hr
3. ^~H
4. =OH
5. P~
6. = q<
7. O_H
8. @=\
9. KH

1/4 H
1/4 H
1/2 H
1/4 H
1/8 H
1/2 H
1/4 H
1/4 H
1/2 H

LQ`(0c)
K^~
"H`@
~Q^ J_Q
Hh= J#O J`kHO Q ~u "H OY
7
20
35
1524 1315
48
4
20
37
1524 715
48
15
35
40
2129 1521
36
15
29
35
2129 1521
36
2
24
29
1521 713
144
15
32
38
2129 1521
24
15
29
35
2129 1521
36
10
29
35
1536 1415 1636
15
35
40
2429 1521
48

76

qq^ O@ J# Q\ ~u LQ`:
O@
Q\ LQ` (0c)
1. K=Ou
1820
2. H<i"
1619
3. Qa
2127
4. @=\
2630
5. ^~H
2830
6. Gerbera
2024
1620
7. Gladiolous
8. Poinratia
2021

77

~u LQ ` ( 0c)
17
1213
1617
1316
1820
1315
1012
1017

16= J^=
w<* "`=~} xO`}
Greenhouse ^
HOQ O@ O_OK@ H=e#

=Y J=~=# L+=, `= `=, CO2, "^Q "xx H=Q

xOuOKH#@ ZO` J=~=. Greenhouse D i`#
xOuOK@ D HOk q^"# ^` LQ_`~.
1)
=#+ ^~ xO`}
K
@ (Human control)
2)
^~ \ ^~ xO`}
(Thermostat)
3)
"q
K|
~K q^#O (Active Summer Cooling System)
4)
KeHO K| ~K@ (Active Winter Cooling System)
5)
Q
"=
OK@ (CO2 Enrichment Method)
6)
"O\+
< (Ventilation)
7)
HO@~` xOuOKH#@ (Step Controller dedicated Micro
processor Computer)

8)
"_K


q^#= (Heating)
D xO`}
^~ Green house #O^ O@ "
==, <}"#

O@ kQ|_, `Q x"~} =i J=~"# Hx ^ K=K#.

16.1) =#+ ^~ x O u OK @: Greenhouse 20= `|O
"^\ QO =#+#yOz LQ`# xO`} K"~. P =H
~` O^ xq` =O Greenhouse #O^ u~Q` J=~"
#
C_
heating pipe, valves # `~=
_O ^ =_O ^~ LQ ` #
xO`}
K_ .
J^ Q\
== "O\@
~#
`~z
Qx, = Qx "_x
xOu~ .
P q^=Q O@ "`= H= xO`} K= LO@Ok. D q^"#
xO`}, P x K =H =~= P^~_ LO@Ok.
16.2) ^ ~ \ ^~ x O ` } : Wk Greenhouse "_x J#iOz
x K P\"\H ^#=. D ^u ^~ xOuOz#C_ `~KQ
g\x 'Thermo couples' iK= =Ok. (calibration) Yz``O 'Thermo
couples', Thermifitors LyOz computer ^~ xOuOz#K `=
L
QO LO@Ok.
16.3) " q K | ~ K q^ #O:
Wq ~ O_ ~H=
.
16.3.1) Fan and Pad Cooling System (OH =i `_H
` K|
~K
q^#O)
16.3.2) Fog cooling System (Q=OK` K|
~K q^#O)
78

16.3.1) Fan and Pad Cooling System:

nxO^ fig. K# q^OQ

Greenhouse XH
H fan ayOK|_ LO@Ok. Wk e "_ Qex |@
O@ LQ_`Ok. ~O_ H Pad ayOK|_ LO@Ok. Pad #
K|~K@ XH h\ `>, h\ O ~O^= Hey# Q@= LO\~.
`\x h~ (Delivery pipe) ^~ }Oz ~O^= Q@=#O_ pad
xH "tOz pad # K |~K#. pad #O_ h~ =~ `\xH ~
uiy LyOK@ gQ LO_#. Fan ^~ Greenhouse L# "_
Qex |@ OOz#C_ Greenhouse _#
= `Q ` Ok. nx =#
|@ L# Qe `_z# pad ^~ xH "tOK#. D Qe xH
"tOK@C_ K|_ xH =K#, nx=# Greenhouse K|_#.
D pad # xiOK@ khus Q_x LyOK^~.
Fan - and - pad cooling system

16.3.2) Fog Cooling System : 1980 D ^u

Greenhouse
"

@|_

#k. Wk Q_ pan =i pad K|_ q^#O = 'Evaporative Cooling'

^O`= P^~_ x KOk. nxO^ XH Q@= ^~ Z=
_#=` h\x O Nozzle ^~ P h\x Ju z# i=}O 10 "H#
g@~ HO> `"# h\ aO^=Q =i |@ O`~. h\ `O~
Qe `` iQ PqiQ =i Greenhouse #O^ Jx Q=
"OK#. JO^=# Greenhouse "_ |\ HO> `y=#. Fan and
pad system 80%=~ `=` K|~#. Hh D ^u 100% =~
K|
~K_
xH g=`Ok.

79

Foging ^`
~ O_ ~H.
16.3.2.1) Z= _# ~H=
16.3.2.2) `= _# ~H=
16.3.2.1)

Z= _# ~H=: h~ 3570 kg/cm _#=` QO@

2

1g #O_ 2g b@~ O^~=Q Nozzle QO_

=
O k. nx =# h~ K
#x `O~Q Q =OK= =i Greenhouse _ `Ok. D =OK e
"_x Hx LQ`# `yOk. =OK PqiQ =~`Ok. =OK @
i=}O10 "H< g@~ LO@Ok. D ^u Q "_Q L#C_
L
yOKe.
16.3.2.2) ` = _ # =: h\ _#= 1kg/cm2 LO@Ok. =OK
i=}= 20 "H < g@~ LO@Ok Natural Ventilation ^u
H< nx ^~
L+= Z=Q `Q`Ok. XH nozzle ^~ 6 #O_ 10 K^~ q~=
0102 b@~ h~ QO@ =i 1000 K.O.g. q~= 50100 b@~
h~ QO@ i=#. 1gm h~ PqiQ =~@ 540 kcal L+O H=#.
Foging =#

#:

Foging PLQ
` #
`y
O k. nx =# "H `H O `Q ` Ok.

"H K~Q ~Q=. Z= ~ foging K#@~` "H "~ h\x

=
. JO^K "_ "`=~}O< Foging K
e. Fogers Ys^ Z=. Fogers
` Hq O~H =O^# spray K@ ^~ HO` Y~ `yOK=K#.
16.4) Active Winter Cooling System (KeHO K|~K q^#O):
KeHO Greenhouse e Q= L+= Z=Q LO_#. "
L# KeQex Greenhouse eH OOz K|
~K=
#. Wk 2 ~H=
.
16.4.1) Convection tube (K|
~K q^#=):
16.4.2) Horizontal Air flow Cooling System (Greenhouse =`OQ
Qex O K|~K q^#=)
Convection tube type cooling system

80

16.4.1) Convection tube ^~ K | ~ K q^ #=: @= K#

q^=Q nx O^ Qex |@ O@ Exhaust fan, lowered air inlet
(Qex eH OOK H\H ) , polyethylene K#
~O^
=
Hey# convection Q@= XH pressurizing fan (Xu_x HQK fan) Qex Q@= xH
OOK@ LO\~. Convectioin tube 58 O.g. ~O^= =^ ^~O
0.5 to 1m LO_ Q@O W~H U~@ K|_ LO\~.
Greenhouse H=# ^x HO> Z= "_ L#C _ exaust fan ^~
"_ Qex |@ O`~. ^x =# # ^= U~_`Ok.
1-2 sets pressurizing fan ^~OQ L# ~H H\H ^~ Kx Qe xH
"tOk. "tOz# Kx Qex pressurizing fan ^~ ~O^= Hey#
plastic Q@= Jp H O~ . D Q@= ^~ Kx
Qex Green house
Jx = O~ .
16.4.2) Horizontal Airflow Cooling System:- @= K#@ OH#
QeH Green house K@ uiQ@@ J=~=#. 1m2 square Greenhouse
" =# Qe

i OK fan # U~@ K
e. Blade slice 16cm (16 inches)

#
, 31-62 watt (1/30 - 1/15 HP) fans =i XH~ Fan =^ ^~O 15 meters
(50fect) LO_ "H 0.6-0.9m Z`
fans # J=~e. =i XH H #
OH ^~ Qe < =O`~OQ Greenhouse _=Q `_ Q@~ =i
=~ H uiy "@@ J=~`~. D ^u Greenhouse "`=
=#=Q Kx
Qex O`~. D
"H Convection tube D ^u

e#@~` half ^u
"H LQ ` =#OQ LO\~.
1960 ^= CO2 tanks # Greenhouse " U~@ K"~. ^= CO2
U~_# CO2 gas # ^~ w< QkH ~~ K"~. D pipes 3 to
6mm "O Hey k ^~ ~O^
=
K#
(u
~ O_ ~O^
=
=^ ^~O
30cm)
A
~O^
=
# Hey LO@Ok.
Fan arrangements for HAF system

81

16.5) CO2 enrichment Method:- Greenhouse, H ` =

`e# q^O Q "H
J=~"# Q "=# cylinder xO# CO2 ^== Z=
_#
= Q "=Q =i regulator volve ^~ _#
= `Q plastic Q@=
^~ w< # OOK^~. J O# CO2 =#=Q w<
"OK#. Ex:- plastic Q@= 3-6m "= Hey 30cm K J=~=#.
(Hh D ^u ^~ "_ CO2 ^== Z= Y~` _#k.
a) Kerosene, propane, Natural gas # Burner ^~ =O_Oz "=_ CO2 #
w< xH OOK_ "~. nx =# CO2 "=` L+=_
" =`" x K~OKe. ventilators "_#_

~Q`Ok. D burner Q\
g\x P"e.
b)

` HO Sensors (Thermo couple) ^~ CO2 i=}=# xOuOK
K<=. D sensors sampling tube ^~ w < x CO2 i=}=# |\
computer `eK O
k. computer D i=}=# |\ CO2 Generator #
xOuOz ZC_ H=# CO2 i=}=# LO_@@ KOk.
16.6) Green house Ventilation:- w< L# xH~x Qex |\H
O
"
#
Qex xH O@< Ventilation Jx JO\~. w < D Ventilation L+=# =~@, CO2 xO@, `= `=# =~@# nO`
K~ . D ventilation w < =#O O_OK O@ HO P^~_
LO@Ok.
nxx ~O_ q^=Q qlO=K#.
16.6.1)
H $ u ^" #
Ventilation
16.6.2) H$u
="#
Ventilation
O@ kQ|_, <}` "`=~} i` P^~_
LO@Ok. H#H D Ventilation ZO`
=Y` LOk. Ventilation =#+` xOuOK@ ZO` H+
^"# x. iQ xOuKxK O@ kQ|_ `y P^= _
`y `Ok. H =
OQ Ventilation K
@ Automatic control J~# microprocessors and computer # D ~A "_K<~ .

82

16.6.1.1) Chimney effect ventilation :

@= K# q^=Q ventilation # Q_ ~O_ H =i
HC#O^ _ J=~=#. HC w< 10 `= ventilation HC
ventilators B, Q_ J=i# ventilators LO_#@ J=~=#. "`=
ventila #
q =i W~
H g He =~ w < < " = 2025
tors
`= LO\~. ZH~=

H ## ventilator #Oz Qex OOK=#.
D Qex OOz#_ "_ Qe |~= H O^` `y HC## "O\@~
^~ |@ `Ok. w< # "_ `y K|~_O [~Q`Ok.
Chimney effect in passive ventilation

@O K# q^O Q ventilator #
H
C
Q_ ~ O_
H J=~`~.
HC =i Q_ J=i# ventilator XHH\ HC "O 10
`= w< < "O 2025 `= LO\~. w< #
K|~K@ side ventilators # Q_ J=i# ventilators # `iK#_
|\ Kx Qe eH "tOk. ~~t =# w< D Qe
"_H , O^` `Q_
O =# `eHQ =i
H
C ventilator ^~ |@ "`Ok.
nxx Chimney Effect =O J#=K. Hh D ^u w< # H=#O`
KQ LOK^
. nx< 'Chimney Effect' Jx _ JO\~.

83

16.6.1.2) Roll up side ventilation:- w<* "_Q L#_ side polyethylene H## plastic K\# J=~=#O` H K\ Qex xH

"
t
OK
=K#. D K@ (side covers) Q=# =# J=~=#.
D = ~Q Greenhouse x " O_ H_`Ok. Gutter connected Greenhouse Wk L
Q_
^
.
Roll up side passive ventilation

16.6.2) H $ u =" # Ventilation (Forced ventilation):Fan and Pad System, Fog Cooling System, Connective tube K|
~K q^#O
Horizontal fan K|~K q^#O =O\ "\x "_ `# H=# =O

H=# ventilation VK
H#=K#.
[^"# =i H$u="# ~O_ ventilation # J=~=#.
^ _#
O` =~ Natural Ventilation # L
yOz# `~` Forced Ventilation # "_xK Y~ `Q`Ok. D q^#O xiOK@ =# ~O Y~
JkH"## "_H Y~ =`= K `Q`Ok.
Fan-and-pad type active summer cooling system

84

16.7) Computer Control System:- D ~A HO@~#yOz

w < x "`=~}x Europ, Japan, America ^ xOuOKK<~ .
D HO@~ #yOK@ =# w< H=e# Jx "`=~}
J# i` # OH=
Q xu
OK=K#.
Computerised control systems in Green House

Microprocessor for controlling Green House Environment

"`=~} i`, L+=, HOu, `=, h~, CO2, Z~= h_ D q^"#

^u 2550e2/c =~ J=~"# H, h~, Z~= P^ J=`~. P^
J=@" HO_ O@ ~Q^ kQ|_ <}` _ ~Q`Ok.
HO@~ <~ u xq+O Q JOk H=# P^ *s
J=`~. =i HO@~ #O_ D P^ "~ J=~"# "`=~}
i` U~@ J=`~.
=: i) HO@~ LyOK@ =# Jx #O|~ (iH~, h\
~^ J=~"
#
x=@) L+=
`= `=)
^` xK
#.
ii) HO@~ w
< L# Jx i` # iH~ K @ =# O@H=
[iy# i`# `Hx J=~"# =~ K~ KH< g#k.
iii) XH HO@~#
yOz J<H w < "`=~} xO`}
K H<
g#k.
iv) nx L# U^# iH~= K_~# HO@~ "O@< `e*Ok. J^
q^=Q ~ "`=~} i`# _ =O^Q " KOk.
#+=: i) @|_ Z=.
ii) HO@~ i*#O K =~ J=~O
. ZO` =O^ *Q` =i x~}
J=~=
.
iii) z# `~ w# =i Hx H=< O_OK O@
xH~^.
85

16.8) " _ K q^ #=:- L`~ ^= Z= Ke LO_@ =#

JK@ w < *# "_ K =# J=~O L#k. JO^=# JH_ w < #
K|~K iH~=` @ "_ K iH~=# _ J=~=#
J=~O LOk. J^ ^H} ~`^O Ke f=` Z=Q LO_^. JO^=#
K|~K iH~= =`" i`~. ~u" L# "_ H=#
^xHO> `y#K "_ K= LO@Ok. "_ ZO`"Q=` `y`O^ J^
"Q= "_ K= LO@Ok.
Conduction, convection radiation ^~ L+=
`Q ` Ok. w < "_
K
@ == ^` ` @ ~~tx "_ h\x "_ K H ~#

"_ K x= LOz J=~"#C_ "_H#=K#.
"_x H q^#=:
16.8.1) Conductionloss:- w<# H|_# == ^~ JqO
Q@= ^~ Q =i "O\ Q_^~ "\ L+= #+=@O
[~Q`Ok. H|_# H=iOQ +\# ~O_ ~Q K =^# Qe
LOz#@~` D #+=# 40 `= =~ `yOK=K#. e "_HO>
|@ 10c `= L#C_ XH ~` H# w< [~Q #+= 6.8
watts/m2. J~` ~O_ ~ H#C_ 3.97watts/m2 =`" #+=
[~Q`Ok.
16.8.2) Convection loss:- Ventilations ^~ H\H ^~ Qe |@#O_
xH =z#_ e#O_ |@ "o#_ "_#+= [~Q`Ok.
16.8.3) Radiation loss:- "_ H~}
=

i OK ==
^~ "_ #+=

[~Q`Ok. Glass uinial plastic, FRP and Water #O_ "_ #+=
[~Q^
. Hx
polyethylene ^~ #+=
[iQ J=HO L#k.
"_ K q^#=: =_ q^=Q #+= "_x J^ i=}=
s K = LO@Ok.
16.8.4) Unit Heater System:- ` = Y~` K |_# 'Unit Heater System'
WO^#
=# =O@ =O_OK
> =O_Oz "_Q ex 'Unit heaters' z#
"=Q "_ Q@= ^~ Q Q@=x OOK#_ Q@=H
Kx Q_ "_x iQ QOK#. w<#O^ exaust fan # x
K@ =# w< x Kx Qe Unit Heater #x Q@= "e
Q=# fQ "_ QOz "#H Q=#O_ w<xH O#@~`
w< "_ ~Q`Ok.
16.8.5) Central Heating System:- w < #O^
H
C e QO #x
Q@= J=i# "_ K H#@ gQ LO@Ok. H OnH$`" #
Boiler ^~
h\x "_ K H PqiQ =i Q@=^~ OOz "_ K=#.
<Qx #Qx, "H#Qx J=i "_ KH#=K#.
86

16.8.6) Radiation ^~ " _ K q^ #=: w< "_n#

Q@= Q# =O_Oz Q@=# "_ K@=# Q@=#O_
~_+< ^~ w< "_ Z`Ok.
16.8.7) Convection Tube System =i Horizontal Airflow System:Convection Tube System =i Horizontal Airflow System ^~ "_Q
ex w <
xH OOz w< "_ KH#=K#.
16.8.8) ~ ~ t ` " _ K q^ #=: @= K# q^=Q
nxO^ Solar Collection ~ O_ O ~ O_ heat exchanger ("_x
=~
Oz h\x "_ K
#. P "_
^#
=) H=. Solar Collector ~~tx Q
h~ ~u == pump ^~ heat exchanger ouger xH OOK^~.
Kx
Qex heat exchanger "e QO QO_ O#_ h\ L# "_x

QOz "_Qe w< #O^ "tOK^~. D ^u =# 2050

`= H=# "_x ~~ K=K#.
Solar heating system for Green House

h\ =i ~u "_x x LOK ^#=: XH H h\H 4.23KJ "_

10c L+= ~Q^ x= LO@Ok. XH Hr ~ 0.83KJ "_, 10c L+=
~Q^ x= LO@Ok. H#H 34 ~@ ~ "_x xLOK ^#=
Z=Q LO_=#.
XH H h~ 71.1KJ "_x ~ 14.2KJ "_x 170c ^Q~ ~~ K~.
w < |@Qx, #Qx J_QQ= i # =O^=` ~u ~#
J=~H=#. Q w < H=# ^xHO> Z=Q "_ ZH#_ P
"_x
`yO K@ w < L# "_Q ex ~#O_ OOz#_ P Qex
~ QOK#. uiy Kx Qe w<xH Q@= ^~ "tOK#.
JC_ w< i_ L+= LO@Ok. D ~u ~ x= L# L+=
`y O_ `y#
Insulation "_=#.
~u == w < #O^ H=# ^xH< ` = "_ L#C _
w< x Kx Qex "_ ~u ~QO_ OOz Qex "_ K ^xx
uiy w<xH "@^~. D q^=Q ~u ~ x= LOz#
"_x LyOz w<#O^ "_x H=|^= K=K#.
87

Cross section of a typical rock storage unit

1) O_, ~Q qxQ^~ = HO =~ LOK=K#.

=Hx H ~~ K=K#.
2) q`<# q`#=Q "_ ^Oe (OQ ^Oe) K_O_
Z=HO x LOK=K.
3) L^# L`` <}` `QO_ Z= HO x= KH=K#.
4) Process K# O_ ~Q ^~=# Z=HO x=
K H=K#.

88

17= J^=
w< x~}=
17.1 w< x~}= H~:
1) w
< < " = 13 `= ^ 10 `= =~H #
s Buildings
H~ =~ H \~OKe.
2) =Oz
^
O x~~ OK@
3) =Oz k# x~~ OK@ (Green House Orientation)

17.2 w< H@@ ^ x~=:

i) =Oz FO_=\ Hey K^<# ^= H"e.
ii) =Oz Qe, "`~ =K ^" LO_e.
iii) K@

LO_ K@ =~ "\ Z`H< 2 1/2 ~@ Z` LO_e, xK

"\ h_ w< g^ _`Ok.
iv) L`~ =i L`~ _=~ Qx [=Q U~_ wind breaker JO>
HO_ Qx K@ =OQx LO> =Ozk.
v) h~, H~O@, ~_ =i =Oz =~\OQ =` LO> =Ozk.
17.3 Green house Orientation (k ) : Gutter Connected Green house
k L`~ ^H}=Q LO> =Ozk. ZO^H#Q ~_ `~# ^ _=~
k L#C_ `^#Q}OQ XH H# h_ _`Ok. JO^=# "H
H=#O` ~~t JO^^. JO^H Gutter Connected Green house L`~
^H}
=O> =Ozk.
Construction details of pipe framed Green House

89

10 x 2.5 x 0.3 Pipe frame ` `~ K w< 4m x 20m < "=

J=~"# == 1.25m ^~= XH Hoop J=~=#.

17.4 x~}=: w# x~}= =Y=Q <Q Q=#q.
1) Supporting Structure
2)
HC (Clading ^ Galazing)
3) "`=~} xO`}
iH~=

4) h\ ~^ ^u
17.4.1) Supporting Structure:- nxx "^ ~, GIMS (Galvanized Iron Mild Steel)
HC, JqxO HC`Qx xi~. WO^ Hoops, Foundation
pipes, End frames, Lateral Support, Ridge Line Mechanism, Polygrip Assembly
LO\~.
i) Hoops:- 'GI' pipe # J~ KO^
H~= J=i. LO\~. W~
H
z=~ Foundation pipe ayOK@ gQ LO\~.
ii) Foundation Pipes:- Hoops # J=~@, Polygrip JOax @@
L
Q _ #. GI Pipes 22 mm, classA _=# Hey=O_e. MS
flat (10 x 2.5 x 0.3cm) H
O k Q=# weld K
e. Cement Concreate
1:4:8 q=
x 20cm Z` =~ xOe. 15cm Z` <
<
LO_e.
O_+<


1.25m ^~= W~
H
q LO_@@
`H"e.
iii) Polygrip assembly:- Polyethylene foundation pipes ` @ @Hx
LO_@@ KO k. Qe "Q=
Polyethylene Sheet ~O^
=

_ O_ KO k. Channel =i 'L' angle H~ 20 Gauge GA
Sheets "_^~. 'MS' Rod 0.6 dia 5.6cm _= Key H~ "_^~.
50cm HH\ ayOK^~
.
iv) Ridge Line:- 'C' Camp 0.6 ` ayOK|_ LO@Ok.
v) Lateral Support:- 4 `O` Hoops
@@ =O^ ~ O_= Founda
tion Pipe `_Q^~. ~
O_ K@ End Frame ayOKe.
vi) End frames:- End frame Dore =i "`=~}=#
xOuOKH#@ ^#= J=~ H#@ gQ LO_@@
K_e. w< xiOKH# ^u: w< _=# `~ _=~
kQ xiOKe. <
#
@= K# q^=
Q wH"e. XH H~~
#O_ 1.25m ^~= Q~
\e. D q^=
Q W~
H QO`
K
e.

90

Structural designs of dirrerent Green House frame works

Side wall with Arch roof

Hoop type roof

Sidewall with gothic roof

Sidewall gutter connected roof

Gothic arch frame roof

vii) Foundation Q O` : 10cm J "O Hey 70cm `` Jx

Q~ ^Q~ QO` K
e. Polygrip Channels # Foundation Pipes
1.25m ^~= 6mm bolts P^~O` ayOKe. Jx Foundation Pipes
QO` ~\
#
`~` Polygrip Channels <
#
XH Z` LO_@@
K_e. 1:4:8 cement concrete 20cm ` =~ xOe. Q_ ~`
Q\Ke. =i ~O_ =_ ~A h\` `_ e. =_~A
`~` QO` =\` xO Q\Q K
e. `~ "` End frames #
~O_\
e. @= K# q^=
Q lateral supports # Ring side
foundation k
\ (Hoops ayOKH=
O^) WOHH z=~ End frame
ayOKe. Hoops (Jx\h
) Foundation pipe polygrip assembly
ayOz L
yOK Bolt P^~OQ x\e. 20m _=

# Ridge
line Hoops
#
\ 1.25m ^~= Cross connectors ` ayOKe.

#
polyethyle cover XH
H #O_ HC ` polygrip assembly ayOKe.

91

17.4.2) HC: Supporting structure # H# "_ ~^~H"# plastic #

Glazing H clading Jx JO\~. nx = ~~txH

i OK@O` @ =~=
Qe = "H U~_ Xu_ x"~} J=`Ok. ^~}=Q 200 "H#
=O^O Hey# polythene sheet # supporting structure
#

H polygrip assembly O` QeH KxyO_ ayOKe. Wk =~ =_ =~
=#` Ok.
17.4.3) "`=~} xO`} iH~: w< "H J#
"`=~} i` # HeyOK_xH =Y=Q shade nets, Mist chambers, ventilators LO\~.
i) Shade nets:- w
# eH
HC ^~

i Oz# ~~t f=`#
"H H=# "~ xOuOK_xH HC HO^ U~@ K
plastic ` K# =# 'shade nets' Jx JO\~. =# J=~x |\
25 #O_ 75 `= xO`} Hey# shade nets # J=~H"e.
ii) Mist:- w< "_x `yOK_xH Qe `=# OK_xH
g\x `O~Q "^[ mist # J=~x |\ U~@ KH"e.
iii)Ventilators:- w< "_Qex |@ O |\
"`=~}=x Kx
Qex eH O_x ventilation JO\~.
w < x~}O# |\ ventilation U~@ =~`~. ventilatioin w <
q~O Hh= 60`= LO_ *Q` =OKe. `= ^~
w< #\ ~O^
Q ~O =# =^ ^~ =i Z=
^~ ` xiOK w < XH"
J@ =iH "
fan Z^~ ^~Q
U~@ Ke.
17.4.4) h\ ~^ ^u: ^~}=Q w< "H |@

^
O QK#
HO > K ` = h~ i`Ok. ZO^=#O> "H
<#Oz Pqi ~O [iQ h\ #+=
K ` = H=# H h\ ~^
^` #
Drip H Micro sprinklar ^~ h~H@_
O K J#OQ LO@Ok.
Drip ^u ^~ "H PtOz# h~ JOkOK_O` @ "\H H=#
Z~= W`~ +H ^~# =~ JOkOK_xH g HQ`Ok. nx=
O_ Y~ `Q@
O` O@ Z~= =$^ HO_ =~=
O`OQ L
yOK
g HQ`Ok.
17.5 Greenhouse x~ }: w< ^~}OQ 30c #O_ 100c =~
Z=Q LO@Ok. H#H =Y=Q "q LQ` `yOKe LO@Ok. J^
KeH= J~` |@HO> LQ ` Z=Q#O_#. H|\ "H

~Q^ J#OQ LO@Ok. shade nets ^~ "q =i KeHO

LQ`# xOuOK=K. JO> shade nets# LyOK@=Qx,
`yOK_OQx Ke. "q "O@ "O@< drip ^u h~ @_O =
=i mist ^~ h~ O_= = LQ`# `yOK=K. p_ `Q
~O_ =O^ *Q` K~Q =O^# zHs Ke.
92