CONDITIONS LEADING TO QUENCH CRACKING

OTHER THAN SEVERITY OF QUENCH

R.R. Blackwood1 L.M. Jarvis1, D.G. Hoffman2 and G.E. Totten3
1. Tenaxol Inc., Milwaukee, WI USA
2. Metallurgical Services Inc., Chicago, IL
3. Union Carbide Corporation, Tarrytown NY USA

ABSTRACT
One of the greatest concerns in the heat
treating process is cracking of finished and
semi-finished material during quenching. Many
times, the only source of cracking considered is
the quenchant. However, there are various
sources of steel cracking other than the quench
which must be considered. A tutorial on
microstructural identification of various sources
of cracking including: quench severity, prior
steel structures, transformation temperature
range, surface condition and others will be
provided here.

during the quenching cycle.

Besides the
monetary expense of the material involved, there
is a loss of production time which is in addition
to the monetary loss.

INTRODUCTION
One of the greatest phenomenon of
most ferrous materials is their ability to be
heated and cooled to produce higher physical
properties. This procedure consists of heating the
metal to a high temperature (austenitizing) for a
specified time to complete transformation to
austenite and diffusion of constituents and then
cooling in a quenching medium that produces
the desired microstructure and as-quenched
hardness.
This hardening treatment is most often
followed by a lower temperature heating process
(tempering) for stress relieving and finalizing
the required microstructure to achieve the
necessary physical properties. This sequence is
illustrated in Figure 1.
A major concern of the heat treater is
cracking of finished and semi-finished material

Figure 1 - Diagram of hardening and tempering

cycle.
Unfortunately, when cracking is
encountered, it is often attributed to the severity
of
the
quenching
medium
without
microstructural verification. Although excessive
quench severity is often the cause of quench
cracking, there are many other sources that must
also be considered. This paper will provide a
tutorial on microstructural identification of
various sources of steel cracking during heat
treatment including: quench severity, prior steel
structures, transformation temperature range,
surface condition and others.

DISCUSSION

A. Quench Cracking Related to Severity of

Quench
One major source of cracking is
excessive cooling rates during the quench
(quench severity). This is illustrated in Figure 2.
Note that the crack passes straight from the
surface to the core.
Excessive cooling rates (high quench
severity) will produce greater thermal stresses in
addition to greater transformation stresses. (Steel
cracking during transformation to martensite is
largely due to the volumetric increase that
accompanies martensite formation.) If the total
residual stresses in the part are sufficiently high,
quench cracking, as illustrated in Figure 2, will
occur.

Figure 2 Micrograph of AISI 4340 quenched

and tempered steel illustrating macroetched pure
quench crack.
B. Quench Cracking Related
Uniform Heat Transfer

to

Non-

It is important to note that quenchantrelated problems, other than excessive quench

severity, are also often major contributors to
steel cracking. These include: non-uniform fluid
flow around the part due to poor racking of the

parts prior to the quench, incompatible fluid

contamination (oil -in-water or water-in-oil),
excessive foaming and air entrainment, etc. All
of these phenomena are capable of producing
increased thermal gradients resulting in quench
cracking.
The effect of non-uniform quenching
was illustrated with forged AISI 1045
crankshafts.
Microstructural
examination
showed a mixture of non-uniform cross-sectional
microstructures. Areas of tempered martensite
adjacent to pearlite, bainite, acicular ferrite and
ferrite at prior austenite grain boundaries were
observed. . Some of the microstructures are
illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 3 - Micrograph of AISI 1045 steel asquenched and tempered, microstructure shows
bands with banded tempered martensite and
some bainite. The crack profile revealed
evidence of tempering oxide and secondary
cracking. (Magnification: 200 X; Etchant 2%
Nital.)

Figure 4 - Micrograph of AISI 1045 steel as

quenched and tempered, illustrates representative
under-heated microstructure observed adjacent
to cracking. (Magnification: 400 X Etchant 2%
Nital.)
C. Prior Steel Structure
The structure of the steel prior to
hardening, e.g., extruded, cast, forged, coldformed, etc., may enhance the potential for
cracking during the quench. Each as-formed
structure requires a specific time and
temperature cycle to condition the material for
proper hardening. For example, cast structures
must be homogeneous, cold-formed structures
require normalization and annealing and forged
structures
must
be
grain-refined
by
normalization.
Cracking
may
be
caused
by
microstructures resulting non-uniform heating
or cooling. In Figure 5, microstructures obtained
on forged AISI 403 stainless steel valve stems
that exhibited longitudinal cracking after
quenching. Microstructural analysis suggested
that cracking was caused by thermal stresses
during forging or during heating prior to forging.
Figure 5 illustrates evidence of a coarse grain
condition associated with high-temperature
surface oxidation. Further examination revealed
evidence of high and low thermal oxidation
within the crack profile. The presence of this
condition suggests cracking occurred prior to, or
during, forging.

Figure 5 - Micrograph of AISI 403 stainless

steel as-forged; microstructure is predominantly
a mixture of carbide particles in a matrix of
ferrite. No evidence of quenching and tempering
was observed. High and low temperature
oxidation can be observed on the surface of the
sample and within the crack profile.
(Magnification 100X; Etchant Villelas)
D. Non-Uniform Heating
Cracking may also be due to localized
over-heating is provided in Figure 6 which is a
microstructure of AISI 4140 tube end sections.
Circumferential cracking at a mid-thickness
location of the sample was reported on the tube
end. The tubes were reportedly austenitized and
then spray-quenched.
Microstructural examination of the steel
revealed a coarse grain condition due to
overheating during austenitization prior to
quenching. The cracking occurred along the
coarse grain boundary as illustrated in Figure 6.
However, microstructural analysis of samples
from other regions of the tube indicated fine
grain martensite. Taken together, these data
suggest that the austenitization furnace contained
hot spots which caused localized overheating
and grain coarsening. The overheated locations
cracked in the presence of quench stresses.
Cracking occurred in the mid-thickness locations

due to the inherent weakness of the material

centers carried over from the original billet or
casting.

Figure 6 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered coarse grain martensite with
intergranular quench cracking along the prior
austenite grain boundaries.. (Magnification
100X; Etchant 2% Nital)
E. Excessive Heating Rate
One source of cracking, which may
appear similar to quench cracking, can also
occur due to excessive heating rate to the
austenitizing temperature. This is illustrated for
AISI 4140 steel illustrated in Figure 7. In this
case, surface oxidation and decarburization
within the crack, which would not have been
obtained if the cracking occurred during the
quench was observed.

Figure 7 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite with evidence of
decarburization and high-temperature oxidation
on the surface of the crack profile.
(Magnification 50X; Etchant 2% Nital)
F. Transformation Temperature Range
The steel transformation temperature
range (MS - Mf) may exhibit substantial effects
on cracking propensity. Table 1 provides a
listing of the MS and temperatures of a number
of selected steel alloys with varying
hardenability. [1] In general, as steel
hardenability increases, there is a greater depth
of transformation to martensite producing greater
transformational stresses. In addition, if the Mf
temperature
is
sufficiently
low,
the
transformation to martensite will be incomplete
and resulting in increases retained austenite.
There will be a corresponding increase in
residual stresses as the retained austenite slowly
transforms to martensite with time.

Table 1
Martensite Start (MS) and Martensite
Finish (Mf) Temperatures Obtained on
Selected AISI Steels
A.I.S.I.
Quench
Ms
M f - oF
No.
Temp oF
1065
1500
525
300
1090
1625
420
175
1335
1550
640
450
3140
1550
630
440
4130
1600
710
550
4140
1550
640
525
4340
1550
550
330
4640
1550
640
490
5140
1550
630
460
8630
1600
690
540
8695
1550
275
-9442
1575
620
410

Excessively
high
austenitizing
temperatures increase the surface-to-core
temperature differentials which results in a
corresponding increase in residual stress and
cracking potential.

Figure 8 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered: microstructure is
tempered martensite with quench crack in the
area of dimensional change. (Magnification:
100X; Etchant 2% Nital)

G. Stress Risers from Prior Machining, Laps

and Seams
Surface
conditions
from
prior
machining conditions will act as stress risers
which are areas of dimensional changes (Figure
8). Examples of such stress risers include: fillets
(Figure 9) , thread and gear roots, machining
marks (Figure 10 and 11), and rolling seams
(Figures 11, 12 and 13) and forging laps
(Figures 14. and 15) Forging laps are due to
concentrations of oxides which are folded in
during the forging process. The presence of
these oxides prevents the hot steel from welding
to itself during the forging process. This will
lead to cracking as shown (Note: the sample is
first viewed in the unetched condition to locate
the crack. Then the sample is etched, if desired,
for microstructural identification.)

Figure 9 - Micrograph of AISI 4142 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite with quench crack at fillet
radius. (Magnigication 100X; Etchant 3% Nital.)

Figure 10 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite with quench crack initiating
from machine groove.(Magnification: 100X;
Etchant: 2% Nital.)

Figure 11 - Micrograph of AISI 4118 carburized

steel as quenched and tempered; microstructure
is tempered martensite (unetched) with quench
crack propagating from machine burr
(Magnification 200X.)

Figure 12 - Micrograph of AISI 8630 steel as

quenched; microstructure is martensite where
cracking initiated from rolling seam.

Figure 13 - Micrograph of AISI Type 403

stainless steel as quenched and tempered;
microstructure is tempered; microstructure is
predominantly tempered martensite with
cracking promoted by the seam. (Magnification
100X; Etchant Vilelias.)

Elemental analysis shored that the

carbon content of the steel was higher than the
specification value (3.56% C versus 3.10-3.45 %
C). The surface hardness was 52HRC versus a
specification value of 45HRC. The hardness
was 94HRB.
Microstructural evidence
suggested quenching from an excessively high
austenitizing temperature which contributed to
the formation of excessive amounts of retained
austenite at the Core lobe surface and within the
induction hardened case, as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 14 - Micrograph of AISI 1030 steel as

direct
forge-quenched
and
tempered;
microstructure is tempered martensite (unetched)
with forged in scale adjacet to cracking.
(Magnification 100X.)
H. Grinding Cracks
An AISI G-3500 gray iron camshaft
was induction hardened to a depth of 0.0600.150 inches and a lobe hardness of HRC=45.
Cracking was observed by magnetic particle
inspection of the cam lobe after subsequent
machining.

Figure 16 Micrograph of induction hardened

AISI G-3500 gray iron illustrating retained
austenite at the lobe tip. (Magnification 200X,
3% Nital)
Grinding stresses, apparently caused
during machining of the cam lobe surface
apparently
caused
localized
martensitic
transformation of the retained austenite.
Cracking occurred due to the martensitic
conversion, as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 15 Micrograph of AISI 1045 as-forged

steel illustrating a forging lap. (Magnification
30x, 2% Nital)

Figure 17. Micrograph of induction hardened

AISI G-3500 gray iron illustrating crack
propagation into the induction hardened case.
(Magnification 100X, 3% Nital)
I. Alloy Inclusion Defects

Another common source of steel

cracking problems is alloy inclusions due to poor
homogenization of the steel composition. The
most common alloy inclusions are sulfides,
silicates, oxides and scale. Examples are
provided in Figures 18-22.
In addition to microstructural analysis,
elemental analysis may also provide an
invaluable insight into potential for inclusion
formation. For example, sulfide inclusions may
be obtained if insufficient manganese is present.
Generally, the manganese content should be
approximately five times the sulfur content to
convert sulfur to manganese sulfide.

Figure 18 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; micristructure is
tempered martensite (unetched) with cracking at
inclusions. (Magification 100X).

Figure 19 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite (unetched) with quench
cracking promoted by non-metallic inclusions.
(Magnification 100X.)

Figure 20 - Micrograph of AISI 1144 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite where cracking is promoted
by inclusion defects. (Magnification 200X;
Etchant 2% Nital.)

bainite appeared to originate from carbon and

manganese segragation. Within the material.
Which would lead to increased internal stresses.
Both surface and subsurface cracking was
observed. Figure 24 shows subsurface cracking
which appreared to be intergranular.

Figure 21 - Micrograph of AISI 1144 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
martensite (unetched) where cracking is
promoted by inclusion defects. (Magnification:
100X)
Figure 23 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure shows
bands of tempered martensite and tempered
martensite/bainite. (Magnification: 50 X, Etchant
2% Nital.)

Figure 22 - Micrograph of AISI 4150 steel as

quenched and tempered; cracking initiates from
silicate and sulfide inclusions. (Magnification:
100X; Etchant 2% Nital.)
J. Chemical Segregation - Banding
As indicated above, steel cracking may
result from material chemical (segration which
was evident from banding as shown in Figure
23. Microstructural analysis showed that bands
of tempered martensite were associated with
bands of tempered martensite and bainite. The

Figure 24 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered, microstructure shows
bands with banded tempered martensite and
tempered
martensite/bainite
microstructure
illustrated in Figure 20. Here a representative
view of subsurface cracking that was obtained is
illustrated. (Magnification: 100 X, Etchant 2%
Nital.)

In a similar case, AISI

1144, a
resulfurized steel, pins were with subsequent
cracking at the pin tips accompanied with soft
spotting. (The pins were through-hardened prior
to induction hardening of the pin tip.)
Microstructural analysis showed that the
cracking and soft spotting condition was due to
stringer inclusions with bands of gross chemical
segregation, significantly greater than normally
observed with this grade of steel. The stringers
act as stress concentration sites for crack
initiation in the presence of quenching stresses.
(See Figure 25)
Figure 26 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite where cracking is promoted
by alloy depletion. (Magnification: 100X;
Etchant: 2% Nital.)
L. Porosity
Steel porosity, variation which is due to
voids steel castings due to trapped gases, is
another source of potential steel cracking. This
is illustrated in Figure 27.

Figure 25 - Micrograph of AISI 1144 steel as

quenched; microstructure shows shows ferrite
bands and inclusions exiting the pin tip.
(Magnification: 100 X; Etchant 3% Nital.)
K.. Alloy Depletion
Another source of non-homogeneous
steel composition is alloy depletion. As with
non-metallic inclusions, alloy depletion leads to
greater stresses and cracking as illustrated in
Figure 26. Examples of alloys particularly
susceptible to alloy depletion are AISI 4100,
4300 and 8600 series.

Figure 27 - Micrograph of AISI 8630 cast steel

as quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite, pearlite and ferrite showing
a potential cracking condition. (Magnigication
100X; Etchant: 2% Nital)
M. Improper Steel Chemistry
Steel hardenability is determined by its
chemistry. The quench conditions required to
obtain the desired properties are a funtion of the
hardenability. Therefore, if the steel chemistry is
incorrect, the selected quench process conditions
may, if too severe, lead to cracking.
Unfortunately, this problem is not uncommon.

An example illustrating this problem

was afforded by a quench cracking problem
obtained with AISI 1070 steel bearing raceways.
Metalographic analysis confirmed that quench
cracking had occurred. However, the steel
chemistry, see Table 2, was incorrect for a plain
AISI 1070 steel. The higher carbon, higher
hardenability stee with a high manganese
content, would be more susceptible to quench
cracking using the same quenchant that the 1070
heat treating process demands.

is recommended that metallurgical analyses be

conducted to determine the root cause of steel
cracking during heat treat processing.

REFERENCES
1.

Practical Data for Metallurgists, Book

available from The Timken Company,
Canton, OH.

2.

R.M. Brick and A. Phillips, Structure and

Properties of Alloys, 2nd Ed., 1949,
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, NY,. p. 52.

Table 2
Comparison of Steel Obtained and
Specification Range of Steel Chemistry of
AISI 1070 Steel Used for Bearing Raceways
Element
Carbon
Manganese
Phosphorous
Sulfur
Silicon
Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
Copper

Specification
Range for AISI
1070 (%)
0.65-0.75
0.60-0.90
0.11
0.026
0.10-0.20
-

Obtained
(%)
0.74
0.97
0.04
0.05
0.23
0.07
0.11
0.22
0.10

CONCLUSIONS
Although quench cracking of steel may
arise from insufficiently low quench severity,
there are numerous other potential contributors
to this problem. They include: non-uniform
quenching due to poor system design, racking
procedures which inhibit uniform quenchant
flow around the part during the quench or
contaminated quenchants.
However, other potential sources of
cracking are due to mechanical or material flaws
which include: non-metallic inclusions, laps or
seams, stress risers from prior machining, alloy
non-uniformity and porosity. These problems
are
not
readily
detectable
without
microstructural characterization. Therefore, it