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The Cellular Concept System Design Fundamentals: Wireless Information Transmission System Lab
The Cellular Concept System Design Fundamentals: Wireless Information Transmission System Lab
The Cellular Concept System Design Fundamentals: Wireless Information Transmission System Lab
Table of Contents
Frequency Reuse
Channel Assignment Strategies
Handoff Strategies
Prioritizing Handoffs
Practical Handoff Considerations
Frequency Reuse
Hexagons
Hexagonal cell shape has been universally adopted.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the
footprint and is determined from field measurements or
propagation prediction models.
Base stations can be placed at:
The cell center center-excited cells omni-directional
antennas.
The cell vertices edge-excited cells sectored directional
antennas.
Reuse Factor
Due to the fact that the hexagonal geometry has exactly six equidistant neighbors
and that the lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are
separated by multiples of 60 degrees, there are only certain cluster sizes and cell
layouts which are possible.
11
12
14
Borrowing Strategy
Modified from fixed channel assignment strategies.
A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already
occupied.
The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and
ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not
disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in
the donor cell.
15
Handoff Strategies
Handoff / Handover
In a cellular network, the process to transfer the ownership of
a MS from a BS to another BS.
Handoff not only involves identifying a new BS, but also
requires that the notice and control signals be allocated to
channels associated with the new base station.
Usually, priority of handoff requests is higher than call
initiation requests when allocating unused channels.
Handoffs must be performed successfully and as infrequently
as possible and be imperceptible to the uses.
17
Handoff / Handover
Handover Occasions
Bad signal quality on current channel
noise or interference
18
Handoff / Handover
Need to specify an optimum signal level to initiate
a handoff.
Minimum useable signal for acceptable voice
quality at the base station receiver is normally
taken as between -90 dBm to -100 dBm.
= Prhandoff Prminimum useable
If is too large, unnecessary handoffs may occur.
If is too small, there may be insufficient time to
complete a handoff.
19
20
Handoff / Handover
During handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in
the measured signal level is not due to momentary
fading and that the mobile is actually moving away from
the serving base station.
The base station monitors the signal level for a certain
period of time before a hand-off is initiated.
The time over which a call may be maintained within a
cell, without hand-off, is called the dwell time.
22
23
24
Handoff or Handover
Mobile Assistant Handover more efficient.
GSM:
MS monitors all BSs
MS reports the measurements to the BS
MSC makes decision
USDC (IS-54/136):
BSs monitor all MSs.
When a MS is leaving the cell, the BS sends it a measurement order
The MS begins its measurement and reports
MSC makes the Handover decision.
25
26
Th_Add
Th_Drop
(1)
Neighbor
Set
(2) (3)
Candidate
Set
Time
27
Neighbor
Set
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
28
29
Relative Threshold HO
Ec/Io
AS_Th
AS_Th_Hyst
AS_Th_Hyst
Window_Drop
Time
T_Add
T_Drop
MS
AS
30
MS
31
CPICH 1
AS_Th + AS_Th_Hyst
AS_Th
-AS_Th_Hyst
AS_Rep_Hyst
CPICH 2
CPICH 3
Time
Event A
Add Cell 2
Cell 1 Connected
Event C
Remove Cell 3
Event B
Replace Cell 1 with Cell 3
32
Intersystem Handoff
Intersystem handoff happens when a mobile moves from
one cellular system to a different cellular system.
The MSCs involved in the two cellular systems are
different.
Compatibility between the two MSCs must be
determined.
33
Prioritizing Handover
Guard Channel Concept : Use reserved guard channel
for handover.
Disadvantage: Reducing the total carrier traffic.
34
36
Handoff Miscellaneous
Intra-frequency Handoff: handoffs in the same
system and carrier.
Inter-frequency Handoff: handoffs between same
systems and different carriers.
May be used for handoff between different cell layers of
the multi-layered cellular network, when the cell layers use
different carrier frequencies.
Power
Another UMTS
operator
4.2-5.0 MHz
5.0-5.4 MHz
Uplink:
Downlink:
4.2-5.0 MHz
3 cell layers
1920-1980 MHz
2110-2170 MHz
40
Another UMTS
operator
5.0-5.4 MHz
Frequency
Intra-Frequency Handoff
Hard Handoff: assign different radio channels during a
handoff.
Soft Handoff: the ability to select between the
instantaneous received signals from a variety of base
stations.
Soft handoff exploits macroscopic space diversity provided by the
different physical locations of the base stations.
Interference
The major source limiting cellular system capacity
comes from interferences (as oppose to noise).
Interference has been recognized as a major
bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often
responsible for dropped calls.
Major Types of Interference:
Co-Channel Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference
Intra-Cell Type
Inter-Cell Type
43
Hexagon
r =
R
r=
3
R
2
3
R
2
r
R
(r R )
3 3 2
Cell Area =
6 =
R = 2 3r 2
2
2
45
Hexagon
A cell centered at (u,v)
(u , v) = (2ri,2rj )
3
x = u cos(30 ) =
u
2
u
o
y = u sin(30 ) + v = + v
2
o
i=3
46
Hexagon Distance
Distance between (ua, va) and (ub, vb)
Dab2 = ( xa xb ) 2 + ( ya yb ) 2
2
2
3
3
u a ub
ua
ub + + va vb
=
2
2
2 2
= ( ua ub ) + ( va vb ) + ( ua ub ) ( va vb )
2
Hexagonal Cluster
Hexagonal Cluster
Each cluster is surrounded by six similar clusters with the
same orientation
Each cluster has a total area equivalent to what can be
called a super-hexagon
view a cluster as a hexagon
D = 2 r i 2 + j 2 + ij
48
Super-Hexagon Concept
D=Frequency Reuse Distance
D
R'=
2
ASuper Hexagon
N=
ACell
(
=
(2
)
)
2 3 R '2
3r 2
= i2 + j2 + i j
= Cluster Size
49
3
r=
R
2
= 2 r N
= R 3N
Q=
D
= 3N
R
50
Ii
i =1
Pt R n
i0
n
Pd
t i
( 3N )n
Rn
=
n
i0 D
i0
i =1
S
Rn
=
I 2( D R ) n + 2( D + R ) n + 2 D n
S
1
=
I 2( Q 1)4 + 2( Q +1)4 + 2Q4
54
55
Near-Far Effect
A nearby transmitter (which may or may not be of
the same type as that used by the cellular system)
captures the receiver of the subscriber.
Alternatively, the near-far effect occurs when a
mobile close to a base station transmits on a channel
close to one being used by a weak mobile. The base
station may have difficulty in discriminating the
desired mobile user from the close adjacent channel
mobile.
56
Power Control
58
60
61
62
Trunking System
Trunking system: A mechanism to allow many user to
share fewer number of channels.
Not every user calls at the same time.
65
66
68
Computation of GOS
Au=H
Au : each user generate a traffic intensity of Au Erlang
: average number of call request per unit time for each
user.
H : average duration of a call.
A=UAu
A: Total offered traffic intensity.
U: Total users in a system.
Ac=UAu/C
C : # of channels in a truncking system
Ac: traffic intensity per channel
69
Computation of GOS
There are two types of trunked systems:
No queueing for call requests:
for every user who requests service, it is assumed there is no setup time
and the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available.
If no channels are available, the requesting user is blocked without
access and is free to try again later.
Called blocked calls cleared.
GOS: Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is blocked.
AC
C 1
k
A
A
C
A + C! 1
C k =0 k!
72
H
CA
73
Erlang B Chart
74
Erlang C Chart
75
Trunking Efficiency
Trunking Efficiency is a measure of the number of users
which can be offered a particular GOS with a particular
configuration of fixed channels.
The way in which channels are grouped can
substantially alter the number of users handled by a
trunked system.
From Table 3.4, for GOS=0.01
10 trunked channels can support 4.46 Erlangs.
Two 5 trunked channels can support 2x1.36=2.72 Erlang.
10 trunked channels support 64% more traffic than two 5
channel trunks do.
76
78
Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested
cell into smaller cells, each with its own base station and
a corresponding reduction in antenna height and
transmitter power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system
since it increases the number of times that channels are
reused.
79
Cell Splitting
Cell splitting small cells (microcells)
Same
service
area
Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting
(Hot Spot)
81
Sectoring
The technique for decreasing co-channel interference
and thus increasing system capacity by using directional
antennas is called sectoring.
The factor by which the co-channel interference is
reduced depends on the amount of sectoring used.
# of antenna , # of handover , trunking efficiency
83
Sectoring
84
Sectoring
85
high SIR
87
88
89
Trunking Theory
Introduction
There are two major classes of trunked radio systems:
Lost Call Cleared (LCC)
Lost Call Delayed (LCD)
Introduction
Assumed that there are infinite number of users.
Assume that all blocked calls are instantly returned to an
infinite user pool, and may be retried at any time in the future.
Erlang B Formula
Basic Assumptions
Call requests are memoryless, implying that all users,
including blocked users, may request a channel at any
time.
The probability of a user occupying a channel (call the
service time) is exponentially distributed.
Traffic requests are described by a Poisson distribution
which implies exponentially distributed call inter-arrival
times.
Inter-arrival times of call requests are independent of
each other.
There infinite number of users and there are finite
number of channels available in the trunked pool.
94
Derivation of Erlang B
Consider a system with C channels and U users.
Let be the total mean call arrival rate per unit time for the
entire trunked system (average number of call requests per unit
time over all channels and all users).
Let H be the average call holding time (average call duration).
If A is the offered load for the trunked system, A=H.
The probability that a call requested by a user will be blocked is
given by:
Pr[Blocking]=Pr[None of the C channels are free]
Calls arrive according to the Poisson
distribution:
e
n
Pr {a ( t + ) a ( t ) = n} =
( ) for n = 0, 1, 2...
n!
95
Derivation of Erlang B
a(t) is the number of call requests (arrivals) that have occurred
since t = 0.
The Poisson process implies that the time of the nth call arrival
and the interarrival times between successive call requests are
mutually independent.
The interarrival times between call requests are exponentially
distributed and mutually independent, and the probability that the
interarrival time will be less than some time s is given by
Pr(ns)=1-e-s, s0 where n is the interarrival time of the nth
arrival and n=tn+1-tn, where tn is the time at which the nth call
request arrived.
The probability density function forn is:
p ( n ) = e n , n 0.
96
Derivation of Erlang B
For every t 0 and0
Pr {a ( t + ) a ( t ) = 0} = 1 + O ( )
Pr {a ( t + ) a ( t ) = 1} = + O ( )
(A)
Pr {a ( t + ) a ( t ) 2} = O ( )
Derivation of Erlang B
The user service time is the duration of a particular call that has
successfully accessed the trunked system.
Service times are assumed to be exponentially distributed with
mean call duration H, where =1/H is the mean service rate.
The probability density function of the service time is
p ( sn ) = e s
n
Derivation of Erlang B
Consider a discrete time stochastic process {Xn|n=0, 1, 2,} that
takes values from the set of nonnegative integers, so that the
possible states of the process are i=0,1, 2, . The process is
said to be a Markov chain if its transition from the present state i
to the next i+1 depends solely on the state i and not on previous
states.
At time k, the number of calls (occupied channels) Nk in the
system may be represented as Nk = N(k), where N is a discrete
random process representing the number of occupied channels.
The transition probability Pi,j, which describes the probability of
channel occupancies over a small observation interval, is given
by
Pi , j = Pr { N k +1 = j | N k = i}
99
Derivation of Erlang B
Using Equation (A) and letting 0, we obtain:
Poo = 1 + O ( )
Pii = 1 + O ( ) i 1
Pi ,i +1 = + O ( ) i 0
Pi ,i 1 = + O ( ) i 1
Pi , j = O ( ) j i, j i + 1, j i 1
100
Derivation of Erlang B
At steady state, we have the Global Balance Equation:
Pn 1 = n Pn , n C
As a result, we have:
Pn 1 = Pn n
P0
P1 =
1
1
P2 =
P1 = P0
2
2
n
n =0
=1
i
1
1
Pn = P0
P0 = Pn n ! = 1 Pi = 1 P0
i =1
i =1 i !
n!
1
P0 =
n
C
1
n!
n =0
101
Derivation of Erlang B
The probability of blocking for C trunked channels is:
C
1
C
C!
1
= n
Pc = P0
C! C 1
n!
n=0
n!
n =0
102
Erlang C Formula
Derivation of Erlang C
Assumption: if an offered call cant be assigned a channel, it
is placed in a queue which has an infinite length.
The Erlang C formula is derived by assuming that the trunked
system is a M/M/C/D queue, where C denotes the maximum
number of simultaneous users and D is the maximum number
of calls that may be held in the queue for service.
104
Derivation of Erlang C
From the state diagram:
1
Pk 1 = k Pk for k C Pk = Pk 1 for k C
k
1
Pk 1 = C Pk for k C Pk = Pk 1 for k C
C
k 1
P0
k !
Pk =
k
1 1
C ! C k C P0
k C
k C
105
Derivation of Erlang C
C +1
1
1
+ .... = 1
P0 1 + + ...... +
( C +1) C
C ! C
C 1 k 1 1 k 1
P0 1 +
+ k C = 1
k =1 k ! k =c C ! C
1
P0 =
k
C
C 1
1 1
1
k ! + k !
k =1
1
C
106
Derivation of Erlang C
1 1
= k C P0
k =C C ! C
1
= P0
C !
k =C
k C
1
1
= P0
C !
1 C
107
1
C k C
<1
C
Derivation of Erlang C
Substituting for P0
1
C !
1
channels
are
busy
Pr [C
]=
k
C
1 C C 1
1 1
+
k =0 k ! k !
1 C
k
C 1
C
1
+ C !1
C k =0 k !
108
Derivation of Erlang C
With A=/=H, the Erlang C formula is given by:
Pr [C channels are busy ] =
AC
A C 1 Ak
A + C ! 1
C k =0 k !
C
109