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(Crystal, 1985)

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Main branches of linguistics

Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
Macrolinguistics
Psycholinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Anthropological
Computational

Linguistics
Language
Sounds words sentences meaning
Phonetics/phonology morphology syntax semantics/pragmatics

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One hot day, a thirsty crow flew all over

the fields looking for water. For a long
time, he could not find any. He felt very
weak, almost lost all hope. Suddenly, he
saw a water jug below the tree. He flew
straight down to see if there was any
water inside. Yes, he could see some
water inside the jug!

wn ht de, sti kr flu l v

fildz lk f wt. fr l tam, hi
kd nt fand ni. hi flt vri
wik, lmst lst l hp. sdnli, hi s
wt g bl tri. hi flu stret dan
tu si f e wz ni wtr nsad. js, hi
kd si sm wtr nsad g!

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The crow tried to push his head into the

jug. Sadly, he found that the neck of the
jug was too narrow. Then he tried to push
the jug to tilt for the water to flow out but
the jug was too heavy.

kr trad tu p hz hd ntu
g. sdli, hi fand t nk v
g wz tu nr. n hi trad tu p
g tu tlt f wt tu fl at bt
g wz tu hvi.

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The crow thought hard for a while. Then

looking around it, he saw some pebbles.
he suddenly had a good idea. he
started picking up the pebbles one by
one, dropping each into the jug. As
more and more pebbles filled the jug,
the water level kept rising. Soon it was
high enough for the crow to drink. His
plan had worked!

kr t hd fr wal. n lk
rand t, hi s sm pblz. hi sdnli
hd gd ad. hi sttd pk p
pblz wn ba wn, drp i ntu
g. z mr nd m pblz fld
g, wt lvl kpt raz. sun t
wz ha nf f kr tu drk. hz
pln hd wkt!

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Tamam insan azad aur aquq o izzat ke

etibar se barabar paida hue hai. Unhe
amir aur aqal wadiat hui hai. Is liye
unhe ek dusre ke sath bhai chare ka
saluk karna chahiye.

tmm nsn zd r hquq o zzt ke

etbr se brbr pd ue . n
zmir r ql dit hui h. s lie n
ek dusre ke st bai tre k sluk
krn tie

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Humans are lazy so compromize

articulation to reduce effort
Compromize in articulation changes
the sound
Rules are sometimes ordererd in a
language
(Hussain, nd)

Assimilation
Dissimilation
Insertion/ Epenthesis
Deletion
Metathesis

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(Hussain, nd)

(Hussain, nd)

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the order of two segments is changed

Example (various English dialects):
ask [ks]

From kids speech:

spaghetti

From adults speech:

comfortable

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A central peak of sonority (usually a vowel); and

Consonants that cluster around this central peak

Technically, a syllable:
must have a centre (called peak or nucleus) which is usually a vowel
could have an onset
could have a coda
the nucleus and the coda form the rhyme/ rime.

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(Hussain, nd)

Syllables
Consisted of a Nucleus, Onset and Coda
Nucleus + Coda = Rhyme

(symbol called sigma)

Onset (O)

Rhyme (R)
Nucleus (N)

Coda (C)

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12

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13

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are those which have onset and coda.

are those which dont have onset, coda.

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Light syllable
Heavy syllable
Super-heavy syllable

V
V:
Coda

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Clark, J. & Yallop, C. (1994). An Introduction to

Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and
Phonetics, 6th ed. USA: Blackwell publishing.
Gussenhoven, C. & Jacobs, H. (1994).
Understanding Phonology. London: Arnold.
Hussain, S. (nd). Phonetics and Phonology: an
introduction
Ladefoged, P. & Johnson, K. (2011). A course in
Phonetics. USA: Wadsworth.

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