Professional Documents
Culture Documents
New Tire-Models
New Tire-Models
New Tire-Models
12 Adams/Tire
references.
Tire kinematic states, such as slip angle ( ), which Adams/Tire calculates.
The following table summarizes the input that the Fiala tire model uses to calculate force.
13
Tire Models
Description:
Mass of tire
Use by Fiala:
Source:
Damping
Vertical force (Fz)
Alpha
Slip angle
Ss
pen
Vpen
d/dt (penetration)
Vertical_damping
Damping
Vertical_stiffness
CSLIP
CALPHA
UMIN
Fx, Fy, Tz
UMAX
Fx, Fy, Tz
14 Adams/Tire
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the
wheel rotational velocity
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road
plane: V sy
= Vy
V sx
V sy
= -------- and tan = --------Vx
Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle
between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.
15
Tire Models
When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string will arise that depends on the slip angle size and the history
of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
v1
1 dv 1 ----+ - = tan + a
V x dt
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger than
10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the equation
dv 1
+ V x v 1 = V sy
dt
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal
du 1
+ V x u 1 = V sx
dt
direction: --------
16 Adams/Tire
u1
= ------ sgn ( V x )
v
-----1-
' = atan
These practical slip quantities
state tire behavior.
' and ' are used instead of the usual and definitions for steady-
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are read from the tire property file, see Fiala Tire Property
File Format Example
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness, also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined in
the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Property File Format
Example). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datap oints
with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire.
Note that you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property file, but it does not play any
role.
17
Tire Models
Longitudinal Force
The longitudinal force depends on the vertical force (Fz), the current coefficient of friction (U), the
longitudinal slip ratio (Ss), and the slip angle (Alpha). The current coefficient of friction depends on the
static (UMAX) and dynamic (UMIN) friction coefficients and the comprehensive slip ratio (SsAlpha).
UMAX specifies the tire/road coefficient of friction at zero slip and represents the static friction
coefficient. This is the y-intercept on the friction coefficient versus slip graph. Note that this value is an
unobtainable maximum friction value, because there is always slip within a footprint. This value is used
in conjunction with UMIN to define a linear friction versus slip relation. UMAX will normally be larger
than UMIN.
UMIN specifies the tire/road coefficient of friction for the full slip case and represents the sliding friction
coefficient. This is the friction coefficient at 100% slip, or pure sliding. This value is used in conjunction
with UMAZ to define a linear friction versus slip relationship.
The comprehensive slip ( S s ):
Ss =
S s + tan 2 ( )
U F z
S critical = -----------------------2 CSLIP
This is the value of longitudinal slip beyond which the tire is sliding.
<
S_critical
Fx = -CSLIP Ss
Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Ss|
>
Fx = -sign(Ss)(Fx1- Fx2)
where:
F x1 = U F z
( U F z ) 2
F x2 = ------------------------------------4 S s CSLIP
S_critical
18 Adams/Tire
Lateral Force
Like the longitudinal force, the lateral force depends on the vertical force (Fz) and the current coefficient
of friction (U). And similar to the longitudinal force calculation, Fiala defines a critical lateral slip
( critical ):
3 U F z
critical = atan -------------------------
CALPHA
The lateral force peaks at a value equal to U |Fz| when the slip angle (Alpha) equals the critical slip
angle ( critical ).
critical
CALPHA tan ( )
H = 1 -------------------------------------------------3 U F z
Case 2. Sliding State: |Alpha| Alpha_critical
Fy = -U|Fz|sign(Alpha)
Rolling Resistance Moment
When the tire is rolling forward: Ty = -rolling_resistance * Fz
When the tire is rolling backward: Ty = rolling_resistance * Fz
Aligning Moment
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Alpha|
critical
CALPHA tan ( )
H = 1 -------------------------------------------------3 U F z
Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Alpha|
Mz= 0.0
> critical
19
Tire Models
Smoothing
Adams/Tire can smooth initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The
longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See
STEP in the Adams/Solver online help).
Longitudinal Force FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force FLat = S*FLat
Aligning Torque Mz = S*Mz
The USE_MODE parameter in the tire property file allows you to switch smoothing on or off:
USE_MODE = 1, smoothing is off
USE_MODE = 2, smoothing is on
For example, suppose your tire has a radius of 300 mm and a width of 185 mm and that the tread is joined
to the side wall with a fillet of 12.5 mm radius. The tread then begins to curve to meet the side wall at
+/- 80 mm from the wheel center plane. If you define the shape table using six points with four points
along the fillet, the resulting table might look like the shape block that is at the end of the following
property format example.
20 Adams/Tire
21
Tire Models
10
20
30
2300.0
5000.0
8100.0
22 Adams/Tire
23
Tire Models
Other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth roads (wavelength of road
This results in more realistic dynamic tire model response at large slip, low speed, and standstill
(usemode > 20).
Parking torque and turn-slip have been introduced: the torque around the vertical axis due to
for driving under extreme conditions like roll-over events and racing applications.
The option to use a nonlinear spline for the vertical tire load-deflection instead of a linear tire
now be changed as a function of time, position, or any other variable in your model dataset. See
Online Scaling of Tire Properties.
24 Adams/Tire
The figure, Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model, presents the input and output
vectors of the PAC2002 tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) [3]. The input through the STI consists of:
Position and velocities of the wheel center
Orientation of the wheel
Tire model (MF) parameters
Road parameters
The tire model routine calculates the vertical load and slip quantities based on the position and speed of
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load (Fz), the
longitudinal and lateral slip ( , ), and inclination angle ( ) with the road. The output is the forces (Fx,
Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For calculating these
forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing data.
The forces and moments out of the Magic Formula are transferred to the wheel center and returned to
Adams/Solver through STI.
Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model
25
Tire Models
Axis Systems
The PAC2002 model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions, as described in the
TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
The STI interface between the PAC2002 model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
model in the C-axis coordinate system. In the tire model itself, a conversion is made to the W-axis system
because all the modeling of the tire behavior as described in this help assumes to deal with the slip
quantities, orientation, forces, and moments in the contact point with the TYDEX W-axis system. Both
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC2002, Source [2]
The C-axis system is fixed to the wheel carrier with the longitudinal xc-axis parallel to the road and in
the wheel plane (xc-zc-plane). The origin of the C-axis system is the wheel center.
The origin of the W-axis system is the road contact-point defined by the intersection of the wheel plane,
the plane through the wheel carrier, and the road tangent plane.
The forces and moments calculated by PAC2002 using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
system. A transformation is made in the source code to return the forces and moments through the STI
to Adams/Solver.
The inclination angle is defined as the angle between the wheel plane and the normal to the road tangent
plane (xw-yw-plane).
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC2002 are according
to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC2002 described in this guide have been developed for
use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire property file. Because
of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have to be changed.
26 Adams/Tire
However, the parameters in the tire property file must always be valid for the TYDEX W-axis system
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below.
SI Units Used in PAC2002
Variable type:
Angle
Force
Moment
Name:
Abbreviation:
Slip angle
Inclination angle
Longitudinal force
Fx
Lateral force
Fy
Vertical load
Fz
Overturning moment
Mx
Unit:
Radians
Newton
Newton.meter
Speed
Self-aligning moment
Mz
Longitudinal speed
Vx
Lateral speed
Vy
Vsx
Vsy
(1)
27
Tire Models
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
(2)
V sx
= -------Vx
(3)
V sy
tan = --------Vx
(4)
The rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re:
Vr = Re
(5)
Turn-slip is one of the two components that form the spin of the tire. Turn-slip
tire yaw velocity
W t = -----Vx
The total tire spin
(6)
is calculated using:
1
1 = ------ { ( 1 )sin }
Vx
The total tire spin has contributions of turn-slip and camber.
the camber to become comparable with turn-slip.
(7)
28 Adams/Tire
Contact Point
In the vertical direction, the tire is modeled as a parallel linear spring and damper having one point of
contact (C) with the road. This is valid for road obstacles with a wavelength larger than the tire radius
(for example, for car tires 1m).
For calculating the kinematics of the tire relative to the road, the road is approximated by its tangent plane
at the road point right below the wheel center (see the figure below).
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel Plane
The contact point is determined by the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the road tangent
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane through the wheel
spin axis. The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with the tire deflection
as follows:
29
Tire Models
Ro
F x 2
F y 2
------------- + q Fcyl 2
F z = 1 + q V2 ------
q
q
Fcxl
Fcyl
Vo
F z0
F z0
(8)
and
When you do not provide the coefficients qV2, qFcx, qFcy, qFz1, qFz2 and qFc in the tire property
file, the normal load calculation is compatible with previous versions of PAC2002, because, in that case,
the normal load is calculated using the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz and tire damping Kz according to:
(9)
F z = C z Cz + K z
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz (= qFz1Fz0/R0), you can define an arbitrary tire deflection
- load curve in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Example
of PAC2002 Tire Property File). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load
deflection data points with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the
vertical force of the tire. Note that you must specify Cz in the tire property file, but it does not play any
role.
Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius
With the loaded tire radius Rl defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of the tire
with the road, the tire deflection can be calculated using the free tire radius R0 and a correction for the
tire radius growth due to the rotational tire speed
R0 2
= R 0 R 1 + q V1 R 0 ------
V 0
:
(10)
The effective rolling radius Re (at free rolling of the tire), which is used to calculate the rotational speed
of the tire, is defined by:
Vx
R e = -----
(11)
For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation
because of the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
30 Adams/Tire
R 02
d
d
----------R f = R 0 + q V1 R 0
V 0 R Fz0 [ D Peff arc tan ( B Reff ) + F Reff ]
in which
(12)
31
Tire Models
F z0
Fz0 = ---------------C z Cz
and
(13)
= -------- Fz0
(14)
Example of Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius as Function of Vertical Load
Name:
Explanation:
Fz0
FNOMIN
Ro
UNLOADED_RADIUS
BREFF
DREFF
FREFF
Cz
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
32 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
Kz
VERTICAL_DAMPING
qFz1
QFZ1
qFz2
QFZ2
qFcx1
QFCX1
qFcy1
QFCY1
qFc 1
QFCG1
qV1
QV1
qV2
QV2
Wheel Bottoming
You can optionally supply a wheel-bottoming deflection, that is, a load curve in the tire property file in
the [BOTTOMING_CURVE] block. If the deflection of the wheel is so large that the rim will be hit
(defined by the BOTTOMING_RADIUS parameter in the [DIMENSION] section of the tire property
file), the tire vertical load will be increased according to the load curve defined in this section.
Note that the rim-to-road contact algorithm is a simple penetration method (such as the 2D contact) based
on the tire-to-road contact calculation, which is strictly valid for only rather smooth road surfaces (the
length of obstacles should have a wavelength longer than the tire circumference). The rim-to-road contact
algorithm is not based on the 3D-volume penetration method, but can be used in combination with the
3D Contact, which takes into account the volume penetration of the tire itself. If you omit the
[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block from a tire property file, no force due to rim road contact is added to the
tire vertical force.
You can choose a BOTTOMING_RADIUS larger than the rim radius to account for the tire's material
remaining in between the rim and the road, while you can adjust the bottoming load-deflection curve for
the change in stiffness.
33
Tire Models
If (Pentire - (Rtire - Rbottom) - width | tan(g) |) < 0, the left or right side of the rim has contact with
the road. Then, the rim deflection Penrim can be calculated using:
34 Adams/Tire
/| tan( ) |)/3
with Srim, the lateral offset of the force with respect to the wheel plane.
If the full rim has contact with the road, the rim deflection is:
Penrim = Pentire - (Rtire - Rbottom)
Srim = width2 | tan( ) | /(12 Penrim)
Using the load - deflection curve defined in the [BOTTOMING_CURVE] section of the tire property file,
the additional vertical force due to the bottoming is calculated, while Srim multiplied by the sign of the
inclination is used to calculate the contribution of the bottoming force to the overturning moment.
Further, the increase of the total wheel load Fz due to the bottoming (Fzrim) will not be taken into account
in the calculation for Fx, Fy, My, and Mz. Fzrim will only contribute to the overturning moment Mx using
the FzrimSrim.
Note:
Rtire is equal to the unloaded tire radius R0; Pentire is similar to effpen (= ).
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force Fy as a function of the lateral slip
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip , have a similar shape (see the figure,
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions). Because of the sine - arctangent
combination, the basic Magic Formula equation is capable of describing this shape:
(15)
35
Tire Models
The self-aligning moment Mz is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment Mzr. In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,
called pneumatic trail t, from the contact point. Because the pneumatic trail t as a function of the lateral
slip a has a cosine shape, a cosine version the Magic Formula is used:
(16)
The figure, The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters, illustrates the functionality of the B,
C, D, and E factor in the Magic Formula:
D-factor determines the peak of the characteristic, and is called the peak factor.
C-factor determines the part used of the sine and, therefore, mainly influences the shape of the
36 Adams/Tire
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force Fy will decrease due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force Fx will decrease due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip
conditions are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighing functions.
Again, these weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF equation.
The Magic Formula itself only describes steady-state tire behavior. For transient tire behavior (up to 8
Hz), the MF output is used in a stretched string model that considers tire belt deflections instead of slip
velocities to cope with standstill situations (zero speed).
37
Tire Models
Input Variables
The input variables to the Magic Formula are:
Longitudinal slip
[-]
Slip angle
[rad]
Inclination angle
[rad]
Fz
[N]
Output Variables
Longitudinal force
Fx
[N]
Lateral force
Fy
[N]
Overturning couple
Mx
[Nm]
Rolling resistance
moment
My
[Nm]
Aligning moment
Mz
[Nm]
Fz0
[N]
R0
[m]
mbelt
[kg]
As a measure for the vertical load, the normalized vertical load increment dfz is used:
F z F' z0
df z = -------------------F' z0
(17)
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor, z0 ):
F' z0 = F z0
F z0
(18)
38 Adams/Tire
i=
j=
k=
Definition:
Stiffness factor
Shape factor
Peak value
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
1, 2, ...
39
Tire Models
Name:
Explanation:
Fzo
LFZO
Cz
LCZ
Cx
LCX
LMUX
Ex
LEX
Kx
LKX
Hx
LHX
Vx
LVX
LGAX
Cy
LCY
LMUY
Ey
LEY
Ky
LKY
Hy
LHY
Vy
LVY
gy
LGAY
LTR
Mr
LRES
z z
LGAZ
Mx
LMX
VMxMx
LVMX
My
LMY
40 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
LXAL
LYKA
Vy
LVYKA
LS
Name:
Explanation:
sk
LSGKP
sa
LSGAL
gyr
LGYR
Note that the scaling factors change during the simulation according to any user-introduced function. See
the next section, Online Scaling of Tire Properties.
Online Scaling of Tire Properties
PAC2002 can provide online scaling of tire properties. For each scaling factor, a variable should be
introduced in the Adams .adm dataset. For example:
!lfz0 scaling
!
adams_view_name='TR_Front_Tires until wheel_lfz0_var'
VARIABLE/53
, IC = 1
, FUNCTION = 1.0
This lets you change the scaling factor during a simulation as a function of time or any other variable in
your model. Therefore, tire properties can change because of inflation pressure, road friction, road
temperature, and so on.
You can also use the scaling factors in co-simulations in MATLAB/Simulink.
For more detailed information, see Knowledge Base Article 12732.
41
Tire Models
F x = F x0 ( , F z, )
(19)
(20)
x = + S Hx
(21)
x =
(22)
C x = p Cx1
(23)
Cx
D x = x F z 1
(24)
2
(25)
Ex
with E x 1
(26)
Kx
(27)
F x0
at = 0
x
(28)
42 Adams/Tire
S Hx = ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 df z )
(29)
Hx
S Vx = F z ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 df z )
Vx
Hx
(30)
Name:
Explanation:
pCx1
PCX1
pDx1
PDX1
pDx2
PDX2
pDx3
PDX3
pEx1
PEX1
pEx2
PEX2
pEx3
PEX3
pEx4
PEX4
pKx1
PKX1
pKx2
PKX2
pKx3
PKX3
pHx1
PHX1
pHx2
PHX2
pVx1
PVX1
pVx2
PVX2
F y = F y0 ( , , F z )
(31)
(32)
y = + S Hy
(33)
y =
(34)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1
Cy
(35)
43
Tire Models
D y = y F z 2
(36)
2
(37)
(38)
Fz
P Ky2 F 0 Fz0
F z0
Ky
(39)
K y = K y0 ( 1 p Ky3 y ) 3
(40)
B y = K y ( C y D y )
(41)
S Hy = ( p Hy1 + p Hy2 df z )
Hy
+ p Hy3 y 0 + 4 1
S Vy = F z { ( p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z )
Vy
(42)
+ ( p Vy3 + p Vy4 df z ) y }
(43)
K y0 = P Hy3 K y0 + F z ( p y3 + p y4 df z )
(44)
Name:
Explanation:
pCy1
PCY1
pDy1
PDY1
pDy2
PDY2
pDy3
PDY3
pEy1
PEY1
pEy2
PEY2
pEy3
PEY3
pEy4
PEY4
pKy1
PKY1
pKy2
PKY2
pKy3
PKY3
pHy1
PHY1
44 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
pHy2
PHY2
pHy3
PHY3
pVy1
PVY1
pVy2
PVY2
pVy3
PVY3
pVy4
PVY4
M' z = M z0 ( , , F z )
(45)
M z0 = t F y0 + M zr
with the pneumatic trail t:
(46)
t = + S Ht
(47)
(48)
r = + S Hf
(49)
S Hf = S Hy + S Vy K y
(50)
z =
(51)
with coefficients:
2
Ky
(52)
C t = q Cz1
(53)
R0
2
D t = F z ( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ( 1 + q Dz3 z + q Dz4 z ) -------- t 5
F z0
(54)
45
Tire Models
(55)
(56)
Ky
--------- + q Bz10 B y C y 6
Br =
q
Bz9
(57)
Cr = 7
D r = F z [ ( q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z ) r + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z ) z ] R o
8 1
(58)
K z = t K y
M at = 0 )
(59)
Name:
Explanation:
qBz1
QBZ1
qBz2
QBZ2
qBz3
QBZ3
qBz4
QBZ4
qBz5
QBZ5
qBz9
QBZ9
qBz10
QBZ10
qCz1
QCZ1
qDz1
QDZ1
qDz2
QDZ2
qDz3
QDZ3
qDz4
QDZ4
qDz6
QDZ6
qDz7
QDZ7
qDz8
QDZ8
46 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
qDz9
QDZ9
qEz1
QEZ1
qEz2
QEZ2
qEz3
QEZ3
qEz4
QEZ4
qEz5
QEZ5
qHz1
QHZ1
qHz2
QHZ2
qHz3
QHZ3
qHz4
QHZ4
i = 1
i = 0.
1. 8
For larger values of spin, the reduction factors are given below.
The weighting function 1 is used to let the longitudinal force diminish with increasing spin, according
to:
R0 ) } ]
with:
47
Tire Models
2 2
C Hy
= p Hy
D Hy = ( p Hy 2 + p Hy 3 df z ) sin ( V x )
E Hy = P Hy
K yR 0
B Hy = ----------------------C y D y K y0
The spin force stiffness KyR0 is related to the camber stiffness Ky0:
K yR
K y0
= ------------1
= p 1 ( 1 + p 2 df z )
The reduction factors 0 and 4 for the vertical shift of the lateral force are given by:
0 = 0
4 = 1 + S Hy S Vy K y
The reduction factor for the residual moment reads:
8 = 1 + D r
The peak spin torque Dr is given by:
48 Adams/Tire
M z
D Dr = ----------------------------
--sin
2 C Dr
The moment at vanishing wheel speed at constant turning is given by:
M z
= q Cr 1 y R 0 F z F z F z0
C Dr = q Dr
E Dr = q Dr
K zr0
B Dr = -------------------------------------------C Dr D Dr ( 1 y )
in which:
M z
90
= M z
2
--- arc tan ( q Cr 2 R 0 ) G yx ( )
The spin moment at 90 slip angle is multiplied by the weighing function Gy to account for the action of
the longitudinal slip (see steady-state combined slip equations).
The reduction factor 7 is given by:
2
7 = --- arc cos [ M z
90
D Dr ]
49
Tire Models
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
p 1
PECP1
p 2
PECP2
pDx 1
PDXP1
pDx 2
PDXP2
pDx 3
PDXP3
pDy 1
PDYP1
pDy 2
PDYP2
pDy 3
PDYP3
pDy 4
PDYP4
pKy 1
PKYP1
pHy 1
PHYP1
pHy 2
PHYP2
pHy 3
PHYP3
pHy 4
PHYP4
qDt 1
QDTP1
qBr 1
QBRP1
qCr 1
QCRP1
qCr 2
QCRP2
qDr 1
QDRP1
qDr 2
QDRP2
The tire model parameters for turn-slip and parking are estimated automatically. In addition, you can
specify each parameter individually in the tire property file (see example).
Steady-State Combined Slip
PAC2002 has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies
the coefficients for the combined slip cosine 'weighing' functions, the combined slip is calculated
according to Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions (standard method). If no coefficients are
50 Adams/Tire
supplied, the so-called friction ellipse is used to estimate the combined slip forces and moments, see
section Combined Slip with friction ellipse
Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions
Longitudinal Force at Combined Slip
Lateral Force at Combined Slip
Aligning Moment at Combined Slip
Overturning Moment at Pure and Combined Slip
Rolling Resistance Moment at Pure and Combined Slip
F x = F x0 G x ( , , F z )
(60)
with Gx the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
(61)
s = + S Hx
(62)
with coefficients:
(63)
C x
(64)
F xo
D x = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos [ C x arc tan { B x S Hx E x ( B x S Hx arc tan ( B x S Hx ) ) } ]
(65)
(66)
S Hx = r Hx1
(67)
(68)
51
Tire Models
Name:
Explanation:
rBx1
RBX1
rBx2
RBX2
rCx1
RCX1
rEx1
REX1
rEx2
REX2
rHx1
RHX1
F y = F y0 G y ( , , , F z )
(69)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ' -induced' side force;
therefore, the lateral force can be written as:
(70)
s = + S Hy
(71)
C y = r Cy1
(72)
(73)
F yo
D y = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos [ C y arc tan { B y S Hy E y ( B y S Hy arc tan ( B y S Hy ) ) } ]
(74)
(75)
S Hy = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z
(76)
(77)
52 Adams/Tire
(78)
(79)
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
rBy1
RBY1
rBy2
RBY2
rBy3
RBY3
rCy1
RCY1
rEy1
REY1
rEy2
REY2
rHy1
RHY1
rHy2
RHY2
rVy1
RVY1
rVy2
RVY2
rVy3
RVY3
rVy4
RVY4
rVy5
RVY5
rVy6
RVY6
M' z = t F y' + M zr + s F x
(80)
with:
t = t ( t, eq )
(81)
53
Tire Models
(82)
(83)
(84)
(85)
Kx 2 2
2
t, eq = arc tan tan t + ------ sgn ( t )
K y
(86)
Kx 2 2
2
r, eq = arc tan tan r + ------ sgn ( r )
K y
(87)
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
ssz1
SSZ1
ssz2
SSZ2
ssz3
SSZ3
ssz4
SSZ4
M x = R o F z q Sx1
Fy
------
q
+
q
VMx
Sx2
Sx3 F -
z0
Mx
(88)
54 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
qsx1
QSX1
qsx2
QSX2
qsx3
QSX3
(89)
If qsy1 and qsy2 are both zero and FITTYP is equal to 5 (MF-Tyre 5.0), then the rolling resistance is
calculated according to an old equation:
M y = R 0 ( S Vx + K x S Hx )
(90)
Name:
Explanation:
qsy1
QSY1
qsy2
QSY2
qsy3
QSY3
qsy4
QSY4
Vref
LONGVL
Measurement speed
S Vx
c = + S Hx + --------Kx
55
Tire Models
S Vy
c = + S Hy + --------Ky
= sin ( c )
c
= acos -------------------------
2 + 2
c
The following friction coefficients are defined:
F x, 0 S Vx
x, act = ------------------------Fz
Dx
x, max = -----Fz
F y, 0 S Vy
y, act = ------------------------Fz
Dy
y, max = -----Fz
1
x = --------------------------------------------------------1 2 --------------tan -2
------------+
x, act y, max
tan
y = --------------------------------------------------------1 -2 ------------tan 2
--------------+
x, max y, act
The forces corrected for the combined slip conditions are:
x
F x = ------------- F x, 0
x, act
y
F y = ------------- F y, 0
y, act
56 Adams/Tire
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae (76) until and
including (85) are used with
S Vy =0.
57
Tire Models
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid:
v1
1 dv 1 ---------+ - = tan ( ) + a
Vx d t
(91)
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger
than 10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the
equation can be transformed to:
dv 1
+ V x v 1 = V sy
dt
(92)
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
du 1
+ V x u 1 = x V sx
dt
(93)
Both the longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are defined as of the vertical load:
Fz
(94)
F z0
(95)
u1
' = ------ sin ( V x )
x
(96)
v1
' = atan ------
(97)
Using these practical slip quantities, and , the Magic Formula equations can be used to calculate
the tire-road interaction forces and moments:
F x = F x ( ', ', F z )
(98)
58 Adams/Tire
F y = F y ( ', ', , F z )
(99)
(100)
Name:
Explanation:
pTx1
PTX1
pTx2
PTX2
pTx3
PTX3
pTy1
PTY1
pTy2
PTY2
qTz1
QTZ1
Mbelt
MBELT
m c ( V cx V cy c ) + k x u + c x u = F x
m c ( V cy V cx c ) + k y u + c y u = F y
Jc c + k + c = Mz
The contact patch body with mass mc and inertia Jc is connected to the wheel through springs cx, cy, and
c and dampers kx, ky, and k in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw direction, respectively.
The additional equations for the longitudinal u, lateral v, and yaw
u = V cx V sx
deflections are:
59
Tire Models
v = V cy V sy
= c
c are the sliding velocity of the contact body in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw
directions, respectively. Vsx, Vsy, and are the corresponding velocities of the lower part of the wheel.
in which Vcx, Vcy and
The transient slip equations for side slip, turn-slip, and camber are:
c d ' + V x ' = V cy V x + V x st
dt
c
d' t
+ V x ' t = V x '
dt
d ' c
+ Vx 'c =
dt
F2
d ' F2
+ V x ' cF2 =
dt
d ' 1
1dt
d ' 2
2dt
+ Vx '1 =
+ Vx '2 =
Mz
st = ------c
The tire total spin velocity is:
= c ( 1 )sin
With the transient slip equations, the composite transient turn-slip quantities are calculated:
12 ( ' 1
'2 )
60 Adams/Tire
c = a ( 1 )
t0
2 = ---- c
a
F2 = b F2 c
= b 1 c
= b 2 c
z
a = p A1 R 0 ------ + p A2 -----z-
R 0
R0
The composite tire parameter reads:
K y0
= --------------2y F x
and the equivalent slip:
1
= ------------- { ' + a
1 + '
K x02
--------- ' + 2
--- b ' c
'1 '2 } +
K y0
3
12
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
mc
MC
Ic
IC
kx
KX
Longitudinal damping
ky
KY
Lateral damping
KP
Yaw damping
cx
CX
Longitudinal stiffness
61
Tire Models
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
cy
CY
Lateral stiffness
CP
Yaw stiffness
pA1
PA1
pA2
PA2
EP
EP12
bF2
BF2
b 1
BP1
b 2
BP2
12
The remaining contact mass model parameters are estimated automatically based on longitudinal and
lateral stiffness specified in the tire property file.
dv
cos [ arc tan ( B r r, eq ) ]
dt
(101)
with the parameter (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1
gyr
(102)
and:
(103)
M z = M' z + M z, gyr
(104)
62 Adams/Tire
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
pTx1
PTX1
pTx2
PTX2
pTx3
PTX3
pTy1
PTY1
pTy2
PTY2
qTz1
QTZ1
Mbelt
MBELT
63
Tire Models
64 Adams/Tire
USE_MODE:
State:
Slip conditions:
PAC2002 output
(forces and
moments):
Steady state
0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Combined slip
11
Transient
12
Transient
13
Transient
14
Transient
Combined slip
15
Transient
21
Advanced transient
22
Advanced transient
23
Advanced transient
24
Advanced transient
Combined slip
25
Advanced transient
Note:
Do not change Fz0 (FNOMIN) and R0 (UNLOADED_RADIUS) in your tire property file.
It will change the complete tire characteristics because these two parameters are used to
make all parameters without dimension.
65
Tire Models
Rolling Resistance
For a realistic rolling resistance, the parameter qsy1 must be positive. For car tires, it can be in the order
of 0.006 - 0.01 (0.6% - 1.0%); for heavy commercial truck tires, it can be around 0.006 (0.6%).
Tire property files with the keyword FITTYP=5 determine the rolling resistance in a different way (see
equation (85)). To avoid the old rolling resistance calculation, remove the keyword FITTYP and add a
section like the following:
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01
QSY2 = 0
QSY3 = 0
QSY4 = 0
Camber (Inclination) Effects
Camber stiffness has not been explicitly defined in PAC2002; however, for car tires, positive inclination
should result in a negative lateral force at zero slip angle. If positive inclination results in an increase of
the lateral force, the coefficient may not be valid for the ISO but for the SAE coordinate system. Note
that PAC2002 only uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system.
Effect of Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System
66 Adams/Tire
Requirement:
Explanation:
LONGVL
1 m/s
VXLOW
Approximately 1 m/s
Dx
>0
pDx1/pDx2
<0
Kx
>0
Dy
>0
pDy1/pDy2
<0
Ky
<0
qsy1
>0
67
Tire Models
[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
FZMIN
= 225
$Minimum allowed wheel load
FZMAX
= 10125
$Maximum allowed wheel load
If one of the input parameters exceeds a minimum or maximum validity value, the calculation in the tire
model is performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
behavior. In that case, a message appears warning you that one of the inputs exceeds a validity value.
interface between tire measurements and tire models. The result was the TYDEX-Format [2] to
describe tire measurement data.
The second expert group's (Tire Modeling - Vehicle Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire models and simulation tools, which resulted in the Standard Tire Interface
(STI) [3]. The use of this interface should ensure that a wide range of simulation software can be
linked to a wide range of tire modeling software.
Definitions
General
Tire Kinematics
Slip Quantities
Force and Moments
68 Adams/Tire
General
General Definitions
Term:
Definition:
Plane with the normal unit vector (tangent to the road) in the tire-road contact
point C.
C-axis system
Wheel plane
The plane in the wheel center that is formed by the wheel when considered a
rigid disc with zero width.
Contact point C
Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
W-axis system
Tire Kinematics
Tire Kinematics Definitions
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
R0
[m]
[m]
Re
[m]
d
Fz0
[m]
[-]
[m]
mbelt
[kg]
[rads-1]
Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities Definitions
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
Vehicle speed
[ms-1]
Vsx
[ms-1]
Vsy
[ms-1]
Vs
[ms-1]
Vx
[ms-1]
69
Tire Models
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
Vy
[ms-1]
Vr
[ms-1]
Longitudinal slip
[-]
Slip angle
[rad]
Inclination angle
[rad]
Definition:
Units:
Fz
[N]
Fz0
Nominal load
[N]
dfz
[-]
Fx
Longitudinal force
[N]
Fy
Lateral force
[N]
Mx
Overturning moment
[Nm]
My
Braking/driving moment
[Nm]
Mz
Aligning moment
[Nm]
References
1. H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 5141 5.
2. H.-J. Unrau, J. Zamow, TYDEX-Format, Description and Reference Manual, Release 1.1,
Initiated by the International Tire Working Group, July 1995.
3. A. Riedel, Standard Tire Interface, Release 1.2, Initiated by the Tire Workgroup, June 1995.
4. J.J.M. van Oosten, H.-J. Unrau, G. Riedel, E. Bakker, TYDEX Workshop: Standardisation of
Data Exchange in Tyre Testing and Tyre Modelling, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Vehicle System Dynamics, Volume
27, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam/Lisse, 1996.
70 Adams/Tire
='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION :
PAC2002
! : COMMENT :
Tire
235/60R16
! : COMMENT :
Manufacturer
! : COMMENT :
Nom. section with
(m)
0.235
! : COMMENT :
Nom. aspect ratio
(-)
60
! : COMMENT :
Infl. pressure
(Pa)
200000
! : COMMENT :
Rim radius
(m)
0.19
! : COMMENT :
Measurement ID
! : COMMENT :
Test speed
(m/s) 16.6
! : COMMENT :
Road surface
! : COMMENT :
Road condition
Dry
! : FILE_FORMAT :
ASCII
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Fri Jan 23 14:30:06 2004
!
! USE_MODE specifies the type of calculation performed:
!
0: Fz only, no Magic Formula evaluation
!
1: Fx,My only
!
2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
3: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz uncombined force/moment calculation
!
4: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz combined force/moment calculation
!
+10: including relaxation behaviour
!
*-1: mirroring of tyre characteristics
!
!
example: USE_MODE = -12 implies:
!
-calculation of Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
-including relaxation effects
!
-mirrored tyre characteristics!
$---------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
71
Tire Models
LENGTH
='meter'
FORCE
='newton'
ANGLE
='radians'
MASS
='kg'
TIME
='second'
$---------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT='PAC2002'
USE_MODE
= 14
$Tyre use switch (IUSED)
VXLOW
= 1
LONGVL
= 16.6
$Measurement speed
TYRESIDE
= 'LEFT'
$Mounted side of tyre at vehicle/test bench
$----------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.344
$Free tyre radius
WIDTH
= 0.235
$Nominal section width of the tyre
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.6
$Nominal aspect ratio
RIM_RADIUS
= 0.19
$Nominal rim radius
RIM_WIDTH
= 0.16
$Rim width
$---------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.9
72 Adams/Tire
1.0
$-----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 2.1e+005
$Tyre vertical stiffness
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 50
$Tyre vertical damping
BREFF
= 8.4
$Low load stiffness e.r.r.
DREFF
= 0.27
$Peak value of e.r.r.
FREFF
= 0.07
$High load stiffness e.r.r.
FNOMIN
= 4850
$Nominal wheel load
$----------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
$-----------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN
= -1.5
$Minimum valid wheel slip
KPUMAX
= 1.5
$Maximum valid wheel slip
73
Tire Models
$----------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN
= -1.5708
$Minimum valid slip angle
ALPMAX
= 1.5708
$Maximum valid slip angle
$----------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
[INCLINATION_ANGLE_RANGE]
CAMMIN
= -0.26181
$Minimum valid camber angle
CAMMAX
= 0.26181
$Maximum valid camber angle
$------------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
FZMIN
= 225
$Minimum allowed wheel load
FZMAX
= 10125
$Maximum allowed wheel load
$-------------------------------------------------------------scaling
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
LFZO
= 1
$Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
LCX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx shape factor
LMUX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
LEX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
LKX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
LHX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
LVX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
LGAX
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fx
74 Adams/Tire
LCY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy shape factor
LMUY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
LEY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
LKY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
LHY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
LVY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
LGAY
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fy
LTR
= 1
$Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail
LRES
= 1
$Scale factor for offset of residual torque
LGAZ
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Mz
LXAL
= 1
$Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
LYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
LVYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
LS
= 1
$Scale factor of Moment arm of FxL
SGKP
= 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx
LSGAL
= 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy
LGYR
= 1
$Scale factor of gyroscopic torque
LMX
= 1
$Scale factor of overturning couple
75
Tire Models
LVMX
= 1
$Scale factor of Mx vertical shiftL
MY
= 1
$Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
$--------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCX1
= 1.6411
$Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
PDX1
= 1.1739
$Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
PDX2
= -0.16395
$Variation of friction Mux with load
PDX3
= 0
$Variation of friction Mux with camber
PEX1
= 0.46403
$Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
PEX2
= 0.25022
$Variation of curvature Efx with load
PEX3
= 0.067842
$Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
PEX4
= -3.7604e-005
$Factor in curvature Efx while driving
PKX1
= 22.303
$Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2
= 0.48896
$Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3
= 0.21253
$Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1
= 0.0012297
$Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
PHX2
= 0.0004318
$Variation of shift Shx with load
PVX1
= -8.8098e-006
$Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
PVX2
= 1.862e-005 $Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
RBX1
76 Adams/Tire
= 13.276
$Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction
RBX2
= -13.778
$Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
RCX1
= 1.2568
$Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
REX1
= 0.65225
$Curvature factor of combined Fx
REX2
= -0.24948
$Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
RHX1
= 0.0050722
$Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
PTX1
= 2.3657
$Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2
= 1.4112
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load
PTX3
= 0.56626
$Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
$---------------------------------------------------------overturning
[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSX1
= 0
$Lateral force induced overturning moment
QSX2
= 0
$Camber induced overturning couple
QSX3
= 0
$Fy induced overturning couple
$-------------------------------------------------------------lateral
[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCY1
= 1.3507
$Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
PDY1
= 1.0489
$Lateral friction Muy
PDY2
= -0.18033
$Variation of friction Muy with load
PDY3
= -2.8821
$Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
PEY1
77
Tire Models
78 Adams/Tire
= 0.32802
$Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
RHY1
= 5.7448e-006$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RHY2
= -3.1368e-005
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RVY1
= -0.027825
$Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
RVY2
= 0.053604
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
RVY3
= -0.27568
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
RVY4
= 12.12
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
RVY5
= 1.9$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
RVY6
= -10.704
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa)
PTY1
= 2.1439
$Peak value of relaxation length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2
= 1.9829
$Value of Fz/Fznom where SigAlp0 is extreme
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1
= 0.01
$Rolling resistance torque coefficient
QSY2
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx
QSY3
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed
QSY4
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed ^4
$------------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QBZ1
= 10.904
$Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
QBZ2
= -1.8412
$Variation of slope Bpt with load
79
Tire Models
QBZ3
= -0.52041
$Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
QBZ4
= 0.039211
$Variation of slope Bpt with camber
QBZ5
= 0.41511
$Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
QBZ9
= 8.9846
$Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
QBZ10
= 0
$Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
QCZ1
= 1.2136
$Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
QDZ1
= 0.093509
$Peak trail Dpt" = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2
= -0.0092183 $Variation of peak Dpt" with load
QDZ3
= -0.057061
$Variation of peak Dpt" with camber
QDZ4
= 0.73954
$Variation of peak Dpt" with camber squared
QDZ6
= -0.0067783 $Peak residual torque Dmr" = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7
= 0.0052254
$Variation of peak factor Dmr" with load
QDZ8
= -0.18175
$Variation of peak factor Dmr" with camber
QDZ9
= 0.029952
$Var. of peak factor Dmr" with camber and load
QEZ1
= -1.5697
$Trail curvature Ept at Fznom
QEZ2
= 0.33394
$Variation of curvature Ept with load
QEZ3
= 0
$Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
QEZ4
= 0.26711
$Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
QEZ5
= -3.594
80 Adams/Tire
81
Tire Models
PDYP1
= 0.4
$Peak Fy reduction due to spin
PDYP2
= 0.0
$Peak Fy reduction due to spin with load
PDYP3
= 0.0
$Peak Fy reduction due to spin with lateral slip
PDYP4
= 0.0
$Peak Fy reduction with square root of spin
PKYP1
= 1.0
$Cornering stiffness reduction due to spin
PHYP1
= 1.0
$Fy lateral shift shape factor
PHYP2
= 0.15
$Maximum Fy lateral shift
PHYP3
= 0.0
$Maximum Fy lateral shift with load
PHYP4
= -4.0
$Fy lateral shift curvature factor
QDTP1
= 10.0
$Pneumatic trail reduction factor
QBRP1
= 0.1
$Residual torque reduction factor with lateral slip
QCRP1
= 0.2
$Turning moment at constant turning with zero speed
QCRP2
= 0.1
$Turning moment at 90 deg lateral slip
QDRP1
82 Adams/Tire
= 1.0
$Maximum turning moment
QDRP2
= -1.5
$Location of maximum turning moment
$----------------------------------------------contact patch
parameters
[CONTACT_COEFFICIENTS]
PA1
= 0.4147
$Half contact length dependency on Fz)
PA2
= 1.9129
$Half contact length dependency on sqrt(Fz/R0)
$-----------------------------------------------contact patch slip
model
[DYNAMIC_COEFFICIENTS]
MC
= 1.0
$Contact mass
IC
= 0.05
$Contact moment of inertia
KX
= 409.0
$Contact longitudinal damping
KY
= 320.8
$Contact lateral damping
KP
= 11.9
$Contact yaw damping
CX
= 4.350e+005 $Contact longitudinal stiffness
CY
= 1.665e+005 $Contact lateral stiffness
CP
= 20319
$Contact yaw stiffness
83
Tire Models
EP
= 1.0
EP12
= 4.0
BF2
= 0.5
BP1
= 0.5
BP2
= 0.67
$--------------------------------------------------------loaded
radius
[LOADED_RADIUS_COEFFICIENTS]
QV1
= 0.000071
$Tire radius growth coefficient
QV2
= 2.489
$Tire stiffness variation coefficient with speed
QFCX1
= 0.1
$Tire stiffness interaction with Fx
QFCY1
= 0.3
$Tire stiffness interaction with Fy
QFCG1
= 0.0
$Tire stiffness interaction with camber
QFZ1
= 0.0
$Linear stiffness coefficient, if zero, VERTICAL_STIFFNESS is
taken
QFZ2
= 14.35
$Tire vertical stiffness coefficient (quadratic)
Contact Methods
The PAC2002 model supports the following roads:
2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model
3D Roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
Note that the PAC2002 model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength of
road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the contact
force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does not
generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
84 Adams/Tire
For ride and comfort analyses, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
85
Tire Models
86 Adams/Tire
measured F&M data points. From mathematical point of view the optimisation process for deriving MF
parameters is better conditioned with the new MF-TIME, resulting in less sensitivity to starting values
and better convergence to a global minimum. In addition the MF-TIME has improved extrapolation
performance compared to the standard MF models for areas where no F&M data points are available.
Next to the use for TIME F&M data, the new model is expected to have interesting prospects for
converting on-vehicle measured tyre data into a robust set of MF parameters.
In general, an MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
wavelengths longer than the tire radius) up to frequencies of 8 Hz. This makes the tire model applicable
for all generic vehicle handling and stability simulations, including:
Steady-state cornering
Single- or double-lane change
Braking or power-off in a turn
Split-mu braking tests
J-turn or other turning maneuvers
ABS braking, when stopping distance is important (not for tuning ABS control strategies)
Other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth roads (wavelength of road
87
Tire Models
Road parameters
The tire model routine calculates the vertical load and slip quantities based on the position and speed of
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load (Fz), the
longitudinal and lateral slip ( , ), and inclination angle ( ) with the road. The output is the forces
(Fx, Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For calculating
these forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing data.
The forces and moments out of the Magic Formula are transferred to the wheel center and returned to
Adams/Solver through STI.
Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model
Axis Systems
The PAC-TIME model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions, as described in
the TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
88 Adams/Tire
The STI interface between the MF-TIME model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
model in the C-axis coordinate system. In the tire model itself, a conversion is made to the W-axis system
because all the modeling of the tire behavior, as described in this help, assumes to deal with the slip
quantities, orientation, forces, and moments in the contact point with the TYDEX W-axis system. Both
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC-TIME , Source [2]
The C-axis system is fixed to the wheel carrier with the longitudinal xc-axis parallel to the road and in
the wheel plane (xc-zc-plane). The origin of the C-axis system is the wheel center.
The origin of the W-axis system is the road contact-point defined by the intersection of the wheel plane,
the plane through the wheel carrier, and the road tangent plane.
The forces and moments calculated by PAC-TIME using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
system. A transformation is made in the source code to return the forces and moments through the STI
to Adams/Solver.
The inclination angle is defined as the angle between the wheel plane and the normal to the road tangent
plane (xw-yw-plane).
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC-TIME are
according to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC-TIME described in this guide have been
developed for use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire
property file. Because of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have to be changed.
However, the parameters in the tire property file must always be valid for the TYDEX W-axis system
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below.
89
Tire Models
Force
Moment
Name:
Abbreviation:
Slip angle
Inclination angle
Longitudinal force
Fx
Lateral force
Fy
Vertical load
Fz
Overturning moment
Mx
Unit:
Radians
Newton
Newton.meter
Speed
Self-aligning moment
Mz
Longitudinal speed
Vx
Lateral speed
Vy
Vsx
Vsy
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact point (W-axis system, see Slip Quantities at Combined
Cornering and Braking/Traction) is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the wheel rotational
velocity
90 Adams/Tire
V sx = V x R e
(105)
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities (longitudinal slip) and
velocities in the contact point with:
(106)
V sx
= -------Vx
(107)
V sy
tan = --------Vx
(108)
The rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re:
Vr = Re
(109)
Contact Point
In the vertical direction, the tire is modeled as a parallel linear spring and damper having one point of
contact (C) with the road. This is valid for road obstacles with a wavelength larger than the tire radius
(for example, for car tires 1m).
For calculating the kinematics of the tire relative to the road, the road is approximated by its tangent plane
at the road point right below the wheel center (see the figure below).
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel Plane
91
Tire Models
The contact point is determined by the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the road tangent
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane though the wheel spin
axis.
The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with:
F z = C z + K z
where
(110)
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz, you can also define an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Example of PAC-TIME
Tire Property File). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection data
points with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of
the tire. Note that you must specify Cz in the tire property file, but it does not play any role.
Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius
With the loaded rolling tire radius R defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of
the tire with the road, where
the loaded tire radius Rl is:
R1 = R0
is the deflection of the tire, and R0 is the free (unloaded) tire radius, then
(111)
In this tire model, a constant (linear) vertical tire stiffness Cz is assumed; therefore, the tire deflection
can be calculated using:
92 Adams/Tire
Fz
= -----Cz
(112)
The effective rolling radius Re (at free rolling of the tire), which is used to calculate the rotational speed
of the tire, is defined by:
Vx
R e = -----
(113)
For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation
because of the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip
(114)
93
Tire Models
in which
F z0
Fz0 = -------Cz
and
(115)
d = -------- Fz0
(116)
Name:
Explanation:
Fz0
FNOMIN
Ro
UNLOADED_RADIUS
BREFF
DREFF
94 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
FREFF
Cz
Kz
VERTICAL_DAMPING
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force Fy as a function of the lateral slip
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip , have a similar shape. Because of the sine arctangent combination, the basic Magic Formula example is capable of describing this shape:
(117)
95
Tire Models
The self-aligning moment Mz is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment Mzr. In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,
called pneumatic trail t, from the contact point. Because the pneumatic trail t as a function of the lateral
slip
(118)
The figure, The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters, illustrates the functionality of the B,
C, D, and E factor in the Magic Formula:
D-factor determines the peak of the characteristic, and is called the peak factor.
C-factor determines the part used of the sine and, therefore, mainly influences the shape of the
96 Adams/Tire
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force Fy will decrease due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force Fx will decrease due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip
conditions are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighting functions.
Again, these weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF examples.
The Magic Formula itself only describes steady-state tire behavior. For transient tire behavior (up to 8
Hz), the MF output is used in a stretched string model that considers tire belt deflections instead of slip
velocities to cope with standstill situations (zero speed).
Inclination Effects in the Lateral Force
From a historical point of view, the camber stiffness always has been modeled implicit in the Magic
Formulas. For deriving coefficients of a Pacejka tire model usually so-called tire tests with slip angle
sweeps at various values of constant load and inclination are performed. In the resulting Force & Moment
measurement data, the effects of camber on the side force Fy are relatively small compared to side force
97
Tire Models
effects by slip angle, which can easily result in non-realistic camber stiffness properties. Because there
is no explicit definition of the camber stiffness, the effects on camber stiffness cannot be controlled in
the coefficient optimization process.
The TIME measurement procedure guarantees more realistic tire test data, because they are performed
under realistic tire operating conditions and specific parts of the test program concentrate on getting
accurate cornering and camber stiffness. Because the inputs to the test program (side and longitudinal
slip, inclination, and load) are not independent, for the parameter optimization process, a Pacejka tire
model was required that has a better definition of cornering and camber stiffness from mathematical
point of view (for a more detailed explanation, see [5]).
Therefore, the PAC-TIME tire model has an explicit definition of camber effects, similar to the tire
model for motorcycle tires (PAC_MC). The basic Magic Formula sine function for the lateral force Fy
has been extended with an argument for the inclination
as follows:
(119)
In the PAC-TIME tire model, C has been set to , and E is not used (zero value). This approach
results in an explicit definition of the camber stiffness, because:
F yo
K = B C D = -------- at = 0
(120)
Input Variables
The input variables to the Magic Formula are:
Input Variables
[rad]
Inclination angle
Fz
[N]
Longitudinal slip
Slip angle
[-]
[rad]
Output Variables
Its output variables are:
Output Variables.
Longitudinal force
Fx
[N]
Lateral force
Fy
[N]
98 Adams/Tire
Overturning couple
Mx
[Nm]
My
[Nm]
Aligning moment
Mz
[Nm]
Fz0
[N]
R0
[m]
mbelt
[kg]
As a measure for the vertical load, the normalized vertical load increment dfz is used:
F z F' z0
df z = -------------------F' z0
(121)
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor,
F' z0 = F z0
Fz0):
(122)
F z0
Definition:
99
Tire Models
Parameter:
i=
j=
k=
Definition:
Stiffness factor
Shape factor
Peak value
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
1, 2, ...
and
', are also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and Adams/3D Road. An
overview of all scaling factors is shown in the next tables.
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Pure Slip
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
Fzo
LFZO
Cx
LCX
LMUX
Ex
LEX
Kx
LKX
Vx
LVX
Hx
LHX
xx
LGAX
Cy
LCY
LMUY
100 Adams/Tire
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
EyEy
LEY
KyKy
LKY
VVy
LVY
HyHyy
LHY
K K
LKC
LGAY
LTR
Mr
LRES
LGAZ
Mx
LMX
VMx
LVMX
My
LMY
Name:
Explanation:
LXAL
LYKA
Vy
LVYKA
LS
Name:
gyr
Explanation:
LSGKP
LSGAL
LGYR
101
Tire Models
F x = F x0 ( , F z, )
(123)
(124)
x = + S Hx
(125)
x =
(126)
C x = p Cx1
(127)
cx
D x = x F z
(128)
(129)
Ex
with E x 1
(130)
(131)
F x0
at x = 0
x
B x = K x ( C x D x )
S Hx = ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 df z )
(132)
(133)
Hx
S Vx = F z ( p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z )
Vx
102 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
pCx1
PCX1
pDx1
PDX1
pDx2
PDX2
pDx3
PDX3
pEx1
PEX1
pEx2
PEX2
pEx3
PEX3
pEx4
PEX4
pKx1
PKX1
pKx2
PKX2
F y = F y0 ( , , F z )
(134)
1
F y0 = D y sin C y arc tan { B y y E y ( B y y arc tan ( B y y ) ) } + --- arc tan ( B y ) (135)
+ S Vy
2
y = + S Hy
(136)
y =
(137)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1
(138)
Cy
D y = y F z
y = ( p Dy1 + p Dy2 df z ) ( 1 p Dy3 y2 )
(139)
(140)
y
Ey
(141)
103
Tire Models
K
() y =
Fy
Fz
p Ky2 F z0 Fz0
Ky Fz0 (142)
with p Ky4 2
K =
Fy
= F z ( p Ky5 + p Ky5 df z )
(143)
Ky
Ky
B y = ------------Cy Dy
(144)
2K
B = --------Dy
(145)
S Hy = ( p Hy1 + p Hy2 df z )
(146)
Hy
S Hy = F z ( p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z )
Vy y
(147)
Name:
Explanation:
pCy1
PCY1
pDy1
PDY1
pDy2
PDY2
pDy3
PDY3
pEy1
PEY1
pEy2
PEY2
pEy3
PEY3
pEy4
PEY4
pKy1
PKY1
pKy2
PKY2
pKy3
PKY3
pKy4
PKY4
pKy5
PKY5
pKy6
PKY6
104 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
pHy1
PHY1
pHy2
PHY2
pVy1
PVY1
pVy2
PVY2
M' z = M z0 ( , , F z )
(148)
M z0 = t ( F y0 S Vy ) = 0 + Mzr
with the pneumatic trail t:
(149)
t = + S Ht
and the residual moment Mzr:
(150)
r = + S Ht
(151)
S Hr = 0
(152)
z =
(153)
with coefficients:
y )
(154)
(155)
(156)
105
Tire Models
2
E t = ( q Ez1 + q Ez2 df z ) 1 + q Ez4 --- arc tan ( B t C t t )
(157)
with E t 1
S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z + ( q Hz3 + q Hz4 df z )z
(158)
Br =
(159)
Kz
(160)
Mz
= tK y = F z ( q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z ) ( R 0 F z0 ) ( p Ky5 + p Ky6 df z )F z t
Ky
(161)
dM z
= ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z )R 0 F z
d
(162)
Name:
Explanation:
qBz1
QBZ1
qBz2
QBZ2
qBz4
QBZ4
qBz5
QBZ5
qCz1
QCZ1
qDz1
QDZ1
qDz2
QDZ2
qDz6
QDZ6
qDz7
QDZ7
qDz8
QDZ8
qDz9
QDZ9
qEz1
QEZ1
106 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
qEz2
QEZ2
qEz4
QEZ4
qHz1
QHZ1
qHz2
QHZ2
qHz3
QHZ3
qHz4
QHZ4
F x = F x0 G x ( , , F z )
(163)
with Gx the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
(164)
s = + S Hx
(165)
with coefficients:
(166)
(167)
107
Tire Models
F xo
D x = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos [ C x arc tan { B x S Hx E x ( B x S Hx arc tan ( B x S Hx ) ) } ]
(168)
(169)
S Hx = r Hx1
(170)
(171)
Name:
Explanation:
rBx1
RBX1
rBx2
RBX2
rCx1
RCX1
rEx1
REX1
rEx2
REX2
rHx1
RHX1
F y = F y0 G y ( , , , F z ) + S Vy
(172)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ' -induced' side force;
therefore, the lateral force can be written as:
(173)
s = + S Hy
(174)
(175)
(176)
108 Adams/Tire
F yo
D y = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos [ C y arc tan { B y S Hy E y ( B x S Hy arc tan ( B y S Hy ) ) } ]
(177)
(178)
S Hy = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z
(179)
(180)
(181)
Name:
Explanation:
rBy1
RBY1
rBy2
RBY2
rBy3
RBY3
rCy1
RCY1
rEy1
REY1
rEy2
REY2
rHy1
RHY1
rHy2
RHY2
rVy1
RVY1
rVy2
RVY2
rVy3
RVY3
rVy4
RVY4
rVy5
RVY5
rVy6
RVY6
M' z = t F' y + M zr + s F x
(182)
with:
t = t ( t, eq )
(183)
109
Tire Models
(184)
F' y, = 0 = F y S Vy
(185)
(186)
t = t ( t, eq )
with the arguments:
K x2
2
2
----- t, eq = arc tan tan t +
K y sgn ( t )
(187)
Kx 2
2
r, eq = arc tan tan r + ------ 2 sgn ( r )
K y
(188)
Name:
Explanation:
ssz1
SSZ1
ssz2
SSZ2
ssz3
SSZ3
ssz4
SSZ4
M x = R o F z q sx1
VMx
Fy
q sx2 + q sx3 --------
F z0
(189)
Mx
Name:
Explanation:
qsx1
QSX1
qsx2
QSX2
qsx3
QSX3
110 Adams/Tire
(190)
Name:
Explanation:
qsy1
QSY1
qsy2
QSY2
qsy3
QSY3
qsy4
QSY4
Vref
LONGVL
Measurement speed
S Vx
c = + S Hx + --------Kx
S Vy
c = + S Hy + --------Ky
= sin ( c )
c
= acos -------------------------
2 + 2
c
The following friction coefficients are defined:
F x, 0 S Vx
x, act = ------------------------Fz
Dx
x, max = -----Fz
F y, 0 S Vy
y, act = ------------------------Fz
Dy
y, max = -----Fz
111
Tire Models
1
x = --------------------------------------------------------1 2 --------------tan -2
------------+
x, act y, max
tan
y = --------------------------------------------------------1 -2 ------------tan 2
--------------+
x, max y, act
The forces corrected for the combined slip conditions are:
x
F x = ------------- F x, 0
x, act
y
F y = ------------- F y, 0
y, act
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae (76) until and
including (84) are used with
S Vy =0.
112 Adams/Tire
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid:
v1
1 dv 1 ---------+ - = tan ( ) + a
Vx d t
(191)
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger
than 10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the
equation can be transformed to:
dv 1
+ V x v 1 = V sy
dt
(192)
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
113
Tire Models
du 1
+ V x u 1 = x V sx
dt
(193)
Both the longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are defined as of the vertical load:
Fz
(194)
F z0
(195)
u1
' = ------ sin ( V x )
x
(196)
v
-----1-
' = atan
(197)
Using these practical slip quantities, ' and ' , the Magic Formula equations can be used to calculate
the tire-road interaction forces and moments:
F x = F x ( ', ', F z )
(198)
F y = F y ( ', ', , F z )
(199)
M z = M z ( ', ', , F z )
(200)
dv
cos [ arc tan ( B r r, eq ) ]
dt
(201)
with the parameters (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1
and:
gyr
(202)
114 Adams/Tire
(203)
M z = M z' + M z, gyr
Coefficients and Transient Response
Name:
Explanation:
pTx1
PTX1
pTx2
PTX2
pTx3
PTX3
pTy1
PTY1
pTy2
PTY2
qTz1
QTZ1
Mbelt
MBELT
115
Tire Models
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also set SYMMETRIC: then the tire
characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right side
corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
SYMMETRIC, the tire characteristics are changed to symmetric behavior.
116 Adams/Tire
The options for the USE_MODE and the output of the model have been listed in the table below.
USE_MODE Values of PAC-TIME and Related Tire Model Output
USE_MODE:
State:
Slip conditions:
PAC-TIME output
(forces and moments):
Steady state
0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Steady state
Combined slip
11
Transient
12
Transient
13
Transient
14
Transient
Combined slip
Note:
Do not change Fz0 (FNOMIN) and R0 (UNLOADED_RADIUS) in your tire property file.
It will change the complete tire characteristics because these two parameters are used to
make all parameters without dimension.
Rolling Resistance
For a realistic rolling resistance, the parameter qsy1 must be positive. For car tires, it can be in the order
of 0.006 - 0.01 (0.6% - 1.0%).
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01
QSY2 = 0
QSY3 = 0
117
Tire Models
QSY4 = 0
Camber (Inclination) Effects
Camber stiffness has been explicitly defined in PAC-TIME, so camber stiffness can be easily checked
by the tire model parameters itself, see the table, Checklist for PAC-TIME Parameters and Properties,
below. For car tires, positive inclination should result in a negative lateral force at zero slip angle (see
Effect of Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System below). If positive
inclination results in an increase of the lateral force, the coefficient may not be valid for the ISO, but for
the SAE coordinate system. Note that PAC-TIME only uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO)
system.
Effect of Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System
Requirement:
Explanation:
LONGVL
1 m/s
VXLOW
Dx
>0
118 Adams/Tire
Parameter/property:
Requirement:
Explanation:
pDx1/pDx2
<0
Kx
>0
Dy
>0
pDy1/pDy2
<0
Ky
<0
Kg
<0
qsy1
>0
119
Tire Models
interface between tire measurements and tire models. The result was the TYDEX-Format [2] to
describe tire measurement data.
The second expert group's (Tire Modeling - Vehicle Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire models and simulation tools, which resulted in the Standard Tire Interface
(STI) [3]. The use of this interface should ensure that a wide range of simulation software can be
linked to a wide range of tire modeling software.
Definitions
General
Tire Kinematics
Slip Quantities
Force and Moments
120 Adams/Tire
General
General Definitions
Term:
Definition:
Road tangent plane Plane with the normal unit vector (tangent to the road) in the tire-road contact
point C.
C-axis system
Coordinate system mounted on the wheel carrier at the wheel center according to
TYDEX, ISO orientation.
Wheel plane
The plane in the wheel center that is formed by the wheel when considered a rigid
disc with zero width.
Contact point C
Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
W-axis system
Tire Kinematics
Tire Kinematics Definitions
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
R0
[m]
[m]
Re
[m]
d
Fz0
[m]
[-]
[m]
mbelt
[kg]
[rads-1]
Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities Definitions
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
Vehicle speed
[ms-1]
Vsx
[ms-1]
Vsy
[ms-1]
Vs
[ms-1]
Vx
[ms-1]
121
Tire Models
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
Vy
[ms-1]
Vr
[ms-1]
Longitudinal slip
[-]
Slip angle
[rad]
Inclination angle
[rad]
Definition:
Units:
Fz
[N]
Fz0
Nominal load
[N]
dfz
[-]
Fx
Longitudinal force
[N]
Fy
Lateral force
[N]
Mx
Overturning moment
[Nm]
My
Braking/driving moment
[Nm]
Mz
Aligning moment
[Nm]
References
1. H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 5141 5.
2. H.-J. Unrau, J. Zamow, TYDEX-Format, Description and Reference Manual, Release 1.1,
Initiated by the International Tire Working Group, July 1995.
3. A. Riedel, Standard Tire Interface, Release 1.2, Initiated by the Tire Workgroup, June 1995.
4. J.J.M. van Oosten, H.-J. Unrau, G. Riedel, E. Bakker, TYDEX Workshop: Standardisation of
Data Exchange in Tyre Testing and Tyre Modelling, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Vehicle System Dynamics, Volume
27, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam/Lisse, 1996.
5. J.J.M. van Oosten, E. Kuiper, G. Leister, D. Bode, H. Schindler, J. Tischleder, S. Khne,A new
tyre model for TIME measurement data,Tire Technology Expo 2003, Hannover.
122 Adams/Tire
FILE_VERSION
=3.0
FILE_FORMAT
='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION :
PAC-TIME
! : COMMENT :
Tire
205/55 R16 90H
! : COMMENT :
Manufacturer
Continental
! : COMMENT :
Nom. section with
(m)
0.205
! : COMMENT :
Nom. aspect ratio
(-)
55
! : COMMENT :
Infl. pressure
(Pa)
250000
! : COMMENT :
Rim radius
(m)
0.2032
! : COMMENT :
Measurement ID
! : COMMENT :
Test speed
(m/s)
11.11
! : COMMENT :
Road surface
! : COMMENT :
Road condition
! : FILE_FORMAT :
ASCII
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Thu Oct 14 13:52:26 2004
!
! USE_MODE specifies the type of calculation performed:
!
0: Fz only, no Magic Formula evaluation
!
1: Fx,My only
!
2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
3: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz uncombined force/moment calculation
!
4: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz combined force/moment calculation
123
Tire Models
!
+10: including relaxation behaviour
!
*-1: mirroring of tyre characteristics
!
!
example: USE_MODE = -12 implies:
!
-calculation of Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
-including relaxation effects
!
-mirrored tyre characteristics
!
$---------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
='meter'
FORCE
='newton'
ANGLE
='radians'
MASS
='kg'
TIME
='second'
$---------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
='PAC-TIME'
USE_MODE
= 14
$Tyre use switch (IUSED)
VXLOW
= 2
LONGVL
= 30
$Measurement speed
TYRESIDE
= 'LEFT'
$Mounted side of tyre at vehicle/test bench
$----------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.317
$Free tyre radius
WIDTH
= 0.205
$Nominal section width of the tyre
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.55
$Nominal aspect ratio
RIM_RADIUS
= 0.203
124 Adams/Tire
125
Tire Models
126 Adams/Tire
FZMAX
= 10800
$Maximum allowed wheel load
$-------------------------------------------------------------scaling
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
LFZO
= 1
$Scale factor of nominal load
LCX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx shape factor
LMUX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
LEX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
LKX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
LHX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
LVX
= 1
$Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
LGAX
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fx
LCY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy shape factor
LMUY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
LEY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
LKY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
127
Tire Models
LHY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
LVY
= 1
$Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
LGAY
= 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fy
LKC
= 1
$Scale factor of camber stiffness
LTR
= 1
$Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail
LRES
= 1
$Scale factor of Peak of residual torque
LGAZ
= 1
$Scale factor of camber torque stiffness
LXAL
= 1
$Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
LYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of kappa influence on Fy
LVYKA
= 1
$Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
LS
= 1
$Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx
LSGKP
= 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx
LSGAL
= 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy
LGYR
128 Adams/Tire
= 1
$Scale factor of gyroscopic torque
LMX
= 1
$Scale factor of overturning couple
LVMX
= 1
$Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
LMY
= 1
$Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
$--------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCX1
= 1.3178
$Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
PDX1
= 1.0455
$Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
PDX2
= 0.063954
$Variation of friction Mux with load
PDX3
= 0
$Variation of friction Mux with camber
PEX1
= 0.15798
$Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
PEX2
= 0.41141
$Variation of curvature Efx with load
PEX3
= 0.1487
$Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
PEX4
= 3.0004
$Factor in curvature Efx while driving
PKX1
= 23.181
$Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
129
Tire Models
PKX2
= -0.037391
$Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3
= 0.80348
$Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1
= -0.00058264
$Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
PHX2
= -0.0037992
$Variation of shift Shx with load
PVX1
= 0.045118
$Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
PVX2
= 0.058244
$Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
RBX1
= 13.276
$Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction
RBX2
= -13.778
$Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
RCX1
= 1.0
$Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
REX1
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fx
REX2
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
RHX1
= 0
$Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
PTX1
= 0.85683
$Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2
= 0.00011176
130 Adams/Tire
131
Tire Models
PKY1
= -25.128
$Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
PKY2
= 3.2018
$Load with peak of cornering stiffness
PKY3
= 0
$Variation with camber squared of cornering
stiffness
PKY4
= 1.9998
$Shape factor for cornering stiffness with load
PKY5
= -0.50726
$Camber stiffness/Fznom
PKY6
= 0
$Camber stiffness depending on Fz squared
PHY1
= 0.0031414
$Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
PHY2
= 0
$Variation of shift Shy with load
PVY1
= 0.0068801
$Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
PVY2
= -0.0051
$Variation of shift Shv with load
RBY1
= 7.1433
$Slope factor for combined Fy reduction
RBY2
= 9.1916
$Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
RBY3
= -0.027856
$Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
132 Adams/Tire
RCY1
= 1.0
$Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
REY1
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fy
REY2
= 0
$Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
RHY1
= 0
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RHY2
= 0
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
RVY1
= 0
$Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
RVY2
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
RVY3
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
RVY4
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
RVY5
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
RVY6
= 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa)
PTY1
= 4.1114
$Peak value of relaxation length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2
= 6.1149
$Value of Fz/Fznom where SigAlp0 is extreme
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
133
Tire Models
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1
= 0.01
$Rolling resistance torque coefficient
QSY2
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx
QSY3
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed
QSY4
= 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on speed^4
$------------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QBZ1
= 5.6241
$Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
QBZ2
= -2.2687
$Variation of slope Bpt with load
QBZ4
= 6.891
$Variation of slope Bpt with camber
QBZ5
= -0.35587
$Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
QCZ1
= 1.0904
$Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
QDZ1
= 0.082871
$Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2
= -0.012677
$Variation of peak Dpt with load
QDZ6
= 0.00038069
$Peak residual torque Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7
= 0.00075331
134 Adams/Tire
135
Tire Models
QTZ1
= 0
$Gyroscopic torque constant
MBELT
= 0
$Belt mass of the wheel -kg-
Contact Methods
The PAC-TIME model supports the following roads:
2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model
3D Roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
Note that the PAC-TIME model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength
of road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the
contact force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does
not generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analyses, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
136 Adams/Tire
1st International Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Swets &
Zeitlinger B.V., Amsterdam/Lisse, 1993.
PAC2002 is technically superior, continuously kept up to date with latest Magic Formula developments,
and MSCs recommended handling model. However, because many Adams/Tire users have pre-existing
tire data or new data from tire suppliers and testing organizations in a format that is compatible with the
Pacejka '89 and '94 models, the Adams/Tire Handling module includes these models in addition to the
PAC2002.
The material in this help is intended to illustrate only the formulas used in the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire
models. For general information on the PAC2002 and the Magic Formula method, see the papers cited
above or the PAC2002 help.
History of the Pacejka Name in Adams/Tire
About Coordinate Systems
Normal Force
137
Tire Models
The Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models were developed before the implementation of the TYDEX STI. As
a result, Pacejka 89 conforms to a modified SAE-based tire coordinate system and sign conventions,
and Pacejka 94 conforms to the standard SAE tire coordinate system and sign conventions. MSC
maintains these conventions to ensure file compatibility for Adams/Tire customers.
Future tire models will adhere to one single coordinate system standard, the TYDEX C-axis and W-axis
system. For more information on the TYDEX standard, see Standard Tire Interface (STI).
Normal Force
The normal force Fz is calculated assuming a linear spring (stiffness: kz) and damper (damping constant
cz), so the next equation holds: F z
= kz + cz
If the tire loses contact with the road, the tire deflection and deflection velocity become zero, so the
resulting normal force Fzwill also be zero. For very small positive tire deflections, the value of the
damping constant is reduced and care is taken to ensure that the normal force Fz will not become
negative.
In stead of the linear vertical tire stiffness cz , also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE], see also the example tire
property files, Example of Pacejka 89 Property File and Example of Pacejka 94 Property File. If a
section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datapoints with a cubic
spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire. Note that
you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property, but it does not play any role.
Definition of Tire Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities at combined cornering and braking/traction
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the
wheel rotational velocity
138 Adams/Tire
V sx = V x R l
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities (longitudinal slip) and
velocities in the contact point:
V sx
V sy
= -------- and tan = --------Vx
Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle
between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.
When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string will arise that depends on the slip angle size and the history
of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
139
Tire Models
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid during braking slip:
v
1 dv
------ --------1 + -----1- = tan + a
V x dt
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger than
10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the equation
can be transformed to:
dv 1
-------- + V x v 1 = V sy
dt
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
du 1
-------- + V x u 1 = V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities,
u1
' = ------ sgn ( V x )
v1
' = atan ------
These practical slip quantities
state tire behavior.
' and ' are used instead of the usual and definitions for steady-
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are estimated with the longitudinal and lateral stiffness of
the non-rolling tire:
BCD x
= -------------------------------------------------------longitudinal_stiffness
and
BCD y
= ------------------------------------------lateral_stiffness
For BCDx and BCDy see section Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '89 or '94.
In case the longitudinal stiffness is not available in the tire property file the longitudinal stiffness is
estimated with:
140 Adams/Tire
longitudinal_stiffness = 4 lateral_stiffness
Using Pacejka '89 Handling Force Model
Learn about the Pacejka '89 handling force model:
Using Correct Coordinate System and Units
Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka 89
Example of Pacejka 89 Property File
The section [UNITS] in the tire property file does not apply to the Magic Formula
coefficients.
141
Tire Models
Description:
Normal load
Fz (kN)
Lateral force
Fy (N)
Longitudinal force
Fx (N)
Self-aligning torque
Mz (Nm)
Inclination angle
(deg)
Sideslip angle
(deg)
(%)
Longitudinal slip
* Opposite convention to standard SAE coordinate system shown in SAE Tire Coordinate System.
142 Adams/Tire
Horizontal Shift
Sh=B9*FZ+B10
Vertical Shift
Sv=0.0
Composite
X1=(k+Sh)
E Curvature Factor
E=(B6*FZ2+B7*FZ+B8)
FX Equation
FX=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Longitudinal Force
Parameters:
Description:
B0
Shape factor
B1, B2
Peak factor
B3, B4, B5
BCD calculation
B6, B,7 B8
Curvature factor
B9, B10
Horizontal shift
143
Tire Models
144 Adams/Tire
FY Equation
FY=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Lateral Force
Parameters:
Description:
A0
Shape factor
A1, A2
Peak factor
A3, A4, A5
BCD calculation
A6, A7
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
Self-Aligning Torque
C - Shape Factor
C=C0
D - Peak Factor
145
Tire Models
D=(C1*FZ2+C2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=(C3*FZ2+C4*FZ)*(1-C6*ABS(g))*EXP(-C5*FZ)
B - Stiffness Factor
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=C11*g+C12*FZ+C13
Vertical Shift
Sv= (C14*FZ2+C15*FZ)*g+C16*FZ+C17
Composite
X1=(a+Sh)
E - Curvature Factor
E=(C7*FZ2+C8*FZ+C9)*(1.0-C10*ABS(g))
MZ Equation
MZ=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Self-Aligning Torque
Parameters:
Description:
C0
Shape factor
C1, C2
Peak factor
BCD calculation
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
146 Adams/Tire
Overturning Moment
The lateral stiffness is used to calculate an approximate lateral deflection of the contact patch when there
is a lateral force present:
deflection = Fy / lateral_stiffness
This deflection, in turn, is used to calculate an overturning moment due to the vertical force:
Mx (overturning moment) = -Fz * deflection
And an incremental aligning torque due to longtiudinal force (Fx)
Mz = Mz,Magic Formula + Fx * deflection
Here Mz,Magic Formula is the magic formula for aligning torque and Fx * deflection is the contribution
due to the longitudinal force.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance moment My is opposite to the wheel angular velocity. The magnitude is given by:
My = Fz * Lrad * rolling_resistance
Where Fz equals the vertical force and Lrad is the tyre loaded radius. The rolling resistance coefficient
can be entered in the tire property file:
[PARAMETER]
ROLLING_RESISTANCE = 0.01
A value of 0.01 introduces a rolling resistance force that is 1% of the vertical load.
147
Tire Models
Smoothing
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of use mode in the tire property file, Adams/Tire
smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The longitudinal force,
lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See STEP in the
Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force
FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force
FLat = S*FLat
Overturning Moment
Mx = S*Mx
Rolling resistance moment
My = S*My
Aligning Torque
Mz = S*Mz
The USE_MODE parameter in the tire property file allows you to switch smoothing on or off:
USE_MODE = 1 or 2, smoothing is off
USE_MODE = 3 or 4, smoothing is on
148 Adams/Tire
[MODEL]
! use mode 123411121314
! ----------------------------------------------------------------------! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient
X
X
X
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'PAC89'
USE_MODE
= 12.0
TYRESIDE
= 'LEFT'
$------------------------------------------------------------DIMENSION
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 326.0
WIDTH
= 245.0
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.35
$------------------------------------------------------------PARAMETER
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 310.0
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 3.1
LATERAL_STIFFNESS
= 190.0
ROLLING_RESISTANCE
= 0.0
$--------------------------------------------------------------------LOAD_CURVE
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen
fz}
0
0.0
1
212.0
2
428.0
3
648.0
5
1100.0
10
2300.0
20
5000.0
30
8100.0
$------------------------------------------------------------LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS
[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
a0 = 1.65000
a1 = -34.0
a2 = 1250.00
a3 = 3036.00
a4 = 12.80
a5 = 0.00501
a6 = -0.02103
a7 = 0.77394
a8 = 0.0022890
a9 = 0.013442
a10 = 0.003709
a11 = 19.1656
a12 = 1.21356
149
Tire Models
a13 = 6.26206
$------------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
b0 = 1.67272
b1 = -9.46000
b2 = 1490.00
b3 = 30.000
b4 = 176.000
b5 = 0.08860
b6 = 0.00402
b7 = -0.06150
b8 = 0.20000
b9 = 0.02990
b10 = -0.17600
$------------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
c0 = 2.34000
c1 = 1.4950
c2 = 6.416654
c3 = -3.57403
c4 = -0.087737
c5 = 0.098410
c6 = 0.0027699
c7 = -0.0001151
c8 = 0.1000
c9 = -1.33329
c10 = 0.025501
c11 = -0.02357
c12 = 0.03027
c13 = -0.0647
c14 = 0.0211329
c15 = 0.89469
c16 = -0.099443
c17 = -3.336941
$-------------------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.2
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.6
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.8
1.0
0.85
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.0
150 Adams/Tire
The section [UNITS] in the tire property file does not apply to the Magic Formula
coefficients.
Description:
Normal load
Fz (kN)
Lateral force
Fy (N)
Longitudinal force
Fx (N)
Self-aligning torque
Mz (Nm)
Inclination angle
(deg)
Sideslip angle
(deg)
(%)
Longitudinal slip
151
Tire Models
Description:
B0
Shape factor
B1, B2
Peak factor
B3, B4, B5
BCD calculation
Curvature factor
B9, B10
Horizontal shift
B11, B12
Vertical shift
DLON, BCDLON
Scale factor
152 Adams/Tire
D - Peak Factor
D=((A1*FZ+A2) *(1-A15* 2)*FZ) * DLAT
BCD
BCD=(A3*SIN(ATAN(FZ/A4)*2.0)*(1-A5*ABS( )))* BCDLAT
B - Stiffness Factor
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=A8*FZ+A9+A10*
Vertical Shift
Sv=A11*FZ+A12+(A13*FZ2+A14*FZ)*
Composite
X1=(a+Sh)
E - Curvature Factor
E=(A6*FZ+A7)*(1-(((A16*g)+A17)*SIGN(1,X1))))
FY Equation
FY=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Lateral Force
Parameters:
Description:
A0
Shape factor
Peak factor
A3, A4, A5
BCD calculation
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
DLAT, BCDLAT
Scale factor
153
Tire Models
D=(C1*FZ2+C2*FZ)*(1-C18* 2)
BCD
BCD=(C3*FZ2+C4*FZ)*(1-(C6*ABS(g)))*EXP(-C5*FZ)
B - Stiffness Factor
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=C11*FZ+C12+C13*
Vertical Shift
Sv=C14*FZ+C15+(C16*FZ2+C17*FZ)*
Composite
X1=( +Sh)
E - Curvature Factor
E=(((C7*FZ2)+(C8*FZ)+C9)*(1-(((C19* )+C20)*SIGN(1,X1))))/(1-(C10*ABS( )))
MZ Equation
MZ=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Self-Aligning Torque
Parameters:
Description:
C0
Shape factor
Peak factor
BCD calculation
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
Overturning Moment
The lateral stiffness is used to calculate an approximate lateral deflection of the contact patch when there
is a lateral force present:
deflection = Fy / lateral_stiffness
This deflection, in turn, is used to calculate an overturning moment due to the vertical force:
Mx (overturning moment) = -Fz * deflection
154 Adams/Tire
tir
2
155
Tire Models
!:TIRE_VERSION:
PAC94
!:COMMENT:
New File Format v2.1
!:FILE_FORMAT:
ASCII
!:TIMESTAMP:
1996/02/15,13:22:12
!:USER:
ncos
$-------------------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
= 'inch'
FORCE
= 'pound_force'
ANGLE
= 'radians'
MASS
= 'pound_mass'
TIME
= 'second'
$------------------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! ----------------------------------------------------------------------! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient
X
X
X
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
= 'PAC94'
USE_MODE
= 12.0
TYRESIDE
= 'LEFT'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 12.95
WIDTH
= 10.0
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.30
$--------------------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 2500
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 250.0
LATERAL_STIFFNESS
= 1210.0
ROLLING_RESISTANCE
= 0.01
$--------------------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ Maximum of 100 points (optional)
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen
fz}
0.000
0
0.039
943
0.079
1904
0.118
2882
0.197
4893
0.394
10231
0.787
22241
1.181
36031
$----------------------------------------------------------------------scaling
156 Adams/Tire
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
DLAT
= 0.10000E+01
DLON
= 0.10000E+01
BCDLAT = 0.10000E+01
BCDLON = 0.10000E+01
$----------------------------------------------------------------------lateral
[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
A0
=
1.5535430E+00
A1
= -1.2854474E+01
A2
= -1.1133711E+03
A3
= -4.4104698E+03
A4
= -1.2518279E+01
A5
= -2.4000120E-03
A6
=
6.5642332E-02
A7
=
2.0865589E-01
A8
= -1.5717978E-02
A9
=
5.8287762E-02
A10
= -9.2761963E-02
A11
=
1.8649096E+01
A12
= -1.8642199E+02
A13
=
1.3462023E+00
A14
= -2.0845180E-01
A15
=
2.3183540E-03
A16
=
6.6483573E-01
A17
=
3.5017404E-01
$---------------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
B0
=
1.4900000E+00
B1
= -2.8808998E+01
B2
= -1.4016957E+03
B3
=
1.0133759E+02
B4
= -1.7259867E+02
B5
= -6.1757933E-02
B6
=
1.5667623E-02
B7
=
1.8554619E-01
B8
=
1.0000000E+00
B9
=
0.0000000E+00
B10
=
0.0000000E+00
B11
=
0.0000000E+00
B12
=
0.0000000E+00
B13
=
0.0000000E+00
$--------------------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
C0
=
2.2300000E+00
C1
=
3.1552342E+00
C2
= -7.1338826E-01
C3
=
8.7134880E+00
C4
=
1.3411892E+01
C5
= -1.0375348E-01
C6
= -5.0880786E-03
C7
= -1.3726071E-02
157
Tire Models
C8
= -1.0000000E-01
C9
= -6.1144302E-01
C10
=
3.6187314E-02
C11
= -2.3679781E-03
C12
=
1.7324400E-01
C13
= -1.7680388E-02
C14
= -3.4007351E-01
C15
= -1.6418691E+00
C16
=
4.1322424E-01
C17
= -2.3573702E-01
C18
=
6.0754417E-03
C19
= -4.2525059E-01
C20
= -2.1503067E-01
$-------------------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.2
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.6
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.8
1.0
0.85
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.0
Output:
Adjusted longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy to incorporate the reduction due to combined
slip:
* = + S hx
* = + S hy
SAG = sin ( * )
158 Adams/Tire
*
= arc cos ---------------------------------------
( * ) 2 + SAG 2
Friction coefficients:
F x S vx
x, act = -------------------Fz
F y S vy
y, act = -------------------Fz
Dx
x, max = -----Fz
Dy
y, max = -----Fz
1
x = --------------------------------------------------------1 2 --------------tan -2
------------+
x, act y, max
tan
y = -----------------------------------------------------------1 -2 --------------tan -2
--------------+
x, max y, max
x
F x, comb = ------------- ( F x + S vx )
x, act
y
F y, comb = ------------- ( F y + S vy )
y, act
Contact Methods
The Pacejka '89 and '94 models support the following roads:
2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
3D roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
These tire models use a one point of contact method; therefore, the wavelength of road obstacles must be
longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
159
Tire Models
can be found in About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs. The tire
deflection and deflection velocity are determined using either a point follower or durability contact
slip a and camber angle
model. For more information, see Road Models in Adams/Tire. A description of outputs, longitudinal
force Fx, lateral force Fy, normal force Fz, rolling resistance moment My and self aligning moment Mz
is given in About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs. The required tire model parameters are described
in Tire Model Parameters.
Inputs and Output of the UA-Tire Model
160 Adams/Tire
161
Tire Models
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx,
the wheel rotational velocity
V sx = V x R e
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities (longitudinal slip) and
velocities in the contact point:
V sx
= -------Vx
V sy
and tan = --------Vx
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculation the slip quantities during positive Vsx (driving) are
defined as:
V sx
= -------Vr
V sy
and tan = --------Vr
The rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re:
Vr = Re
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle
(=
162 Adams/Tire
When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string will arise that depends on the slip angle size and the history
of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid during braking slip:
v1
1 dv 1 ---------+ - = tan ( ) + a
Vx d t
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger
than 10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the
equation can be transformed to:
dv 1
+ V x v 1 = V sy
dt
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculations, at positive Vsx (traction) the Vx should be replaced
by Vr in these differential equations.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
163
Tire Models
dv 1
+ V x v 1 = V sx
dt
u1
' = ------ k Vlowx V sx sin ( V x )
v1
' = atan ------ k Vlowy v sy
These practical slip quantities ' and ' are used instead of the usual and definitions for steadystate tire behavior. kVlow_x and kVlow_y are the damping rates at low speed applied below the
LOW_SPEED_THRESHOLD speed. For the LOW_SPEED_DAMPING parameter in the tire property
file yields:
kVlow_x= 100 kVlow_y= LOW_SPEED_DAMPING
Note:
Symbol:
Name in tire
property file:
Units*:
L
Description:
r1
UNLOADED_R
ADIUS
kz
VERTICAL_STI F/L
FFNESS
Vertical stiffness
cz
VERTICAL_DA
MPING
FT/L
Vertical damping
Cr
ROLLING_RES
ISTANCE
Cs
CSLIP
CALPHA
F/A
CGAMMA
F/A
UMIN
UMIN
Fx
Fy
Fy
=0
Camber stiffness,
= 0
Cornering stiffness,
=0
164 Adams/Tire
Symbol:
Name in tire
property file:
Units*:
-
Description:
UMAX
UMAX
x
y
REL_LEN_LON L
REL_LEN_LAT
Normal Force
The normal force F z is calculated assuming a linear spring (stiffness: k z ) and damper (damping constant
c z ), so the next equation holds:
Fz = kz + cz
If the tire loses contact with the road, the tire deflection and deflection velocity become zero so the
resulting normal force F z will also be zero. For very small positive tire deflections the value of the
damping constant is reduced and care is taken to ensure that the normal force Fz will not become
negative.
In stead of the linear vertical tire stiffness cz , also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE], see also the Property File
Format Example. If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection
datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force
of the tire. Note that you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property file but it does not
play any role.
Slip Ratios
For the calculation of the slip forces and moments a number of slip ratios will be introduced:
Longitudinal Slip Ratio: Ss
The absolute value of longitudinal slip ratio, Ss, is defined as:
Ss =
Where k is limited to be within the range -1 to 1.
165
Tire Models
S * =
tan
during braking
( 1 S s ) tan during traction
S = min ( 1.0, S * )
The lateral slip ratio due to inclination angle, S , is defined as:
S = sin
A combined lateral slip ratio due to slip and inclination angles, S , is defined as:
S *
l sin
tan -----------2r l
where
during braking
l sin
( 1 S s ) tan ------------ during traction
2r l
l =
S = min ( 1.0, S * )
Comprehensive Slip Ratio: Ssag
A comprehensive slip ratio due to longitudinal slip, slip angle, and inclination angle may be defined as:
S * s =
S s2 + S 2
S = min ( 1.0, S * )
166 Adams/Tire
Friction Coefficient
The resultant friction coefficient between the tire tread base and the terrain surface is determined as a
function of the resultant slip ratio (Ss ) and friction parameters (UMAX and UMIN ). The friction
parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property between the surfaces of
tire tread and the terrain.
A linear relationship between Ss and , the corresponding road-tire friction coefficient, is assumed.
The figure below depicts this relationship.
Linear Tire-Terrain Friction Model
y) but limits the maximum value for both coefficients to . See the figure below.
167
Tire Models
-----x + -----y = 1
or
where:
Ss
S
cos = ---------- and sin = ---------S s
S s
Slip Forces and Moments
To compute longitudinal force, lateral force, and self-aligning torque in the SAE coordinate system, you
must perform a test to determine the precise operating conditions. The conditions of interest are:
168 Adams/Tire
Case 1:
< 0
Case 2:
0 and C S < C S
Case 3:
The lateral force Fh can be decomposed into two components: Fha and Fhg. The two components are in
the same direction if a g < 0 and in opposite direction if
< 0.
Case 1. ag < 0
Before computing the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, some slip
parameters and a modified lateral friction coefficient should be determined. If a slip ratio due to the
critical inclination angle is denoted by S c, then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S c = -----C
If Ssc represents a slip ratio due to the critical (longitudinal) slip ratio, then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S sc = 3----Cs
If a slip ratio due to the critical slip angle is denoted by S c, then it can be determined as:
Cs
S
2 S 2 3C -----S c = ------- S sc
s
C
C
when Ss
Ssc.
The term critical stands for the maximum value which allows an elastic deformation of a tire during pure
slip due to pure slip ratio, slip angle, or inclination angle. Whenever any slip ratio becomes greater than
its corresponding critical value, an elastic deformation no longer exists, but instead complete sliding state
represents the contact condition between the tire tread base and the terrain surface.
A nondimensional slip ratio Sn is determined as:
B 2 + B 22 B 1 B 3
S n = ------------------------------------------B1
where:
169
Tire Models
B 1 = ( 3F z ) 2 ( 3C S ) 2
B 2 = 2C S C S
B3 = [ ( Cs Ss ) 2 + ( C S ) 2 ]
A nondimensional contact patch length is determined as:
ln = 1 Sn
A modified lateral friction coefficient
y( m ) is evaluated as:
C S
----------y( m ) = y
Fz
where
To determine the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, consider two subcases
separately. The first case is for the elastic deformation state, while the other is for the complete sliding
state without any elastic deformation of a tire. These two subcases are distinguished by slip ratios caused
by the critical values of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the inclination angle. Specifically, if all of slip
ratios are smaller than those of their corresponding critical values, then there exists an elastic
deformation state, otherwise there exists only complete sliding state between the tire tread base and the
terrain surface.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S <
S c, Ss
<
Ssc, and S
<
S c
In the elastic deformation state, the longitudinal force F , the lateral force F , and three components
of the self-aligning torque are written as functions of the elastic stiffness and the slip ratio as well as the
normal force and the friction coefficients, such as:
170 Adams/Tire
F = C s S s l n2 + x F z ( 1 3l n2 + 2l n3 )
F = C S s l n2 + y( m ) F z ( 1 3l n2 + 2l n3 ) + C S
1 2
3
M z = C S --- + --- l n + --- y( m ) F z S n2 ll n2
2 3 2
M zs
3x y F z2
2
3
= --- C s S s S l n + ---------------------- ( 1 10l n3 + 15l n4 6l n5 )
3
5C
M zs = F
where:
= S r l2 l' 2 4 is the offset between the wheel plane center and the tire tread base.
l =
Mz is the portion of the self-aligning torque generated by the slip angle . Mzs and Mzs are other
components of the self-aligning torque produced by the longitudinal force, which has an offset between
S c, Ss
Ssc, and S
S c
In the complete sliding state, the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and three components of the selfaligning torque are determined as functions of the normal force and the friction coefficients without any
elastic stiffness and slip ratio as:
171
Tire Models
F = x F z
F = y F z
M z = 0
3x y F z2 l
M z s = -----------------------5C
M zs = F
Case 2:
0 and C S
C S
As in Case 1, a slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip ratio can be obtained as:
Fz
S c = 3-----C
A slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip angle can be found as:
Cs
S
2 S 2 + 3C -----S c = ------- S sc
s
C C
when Ss
Ssc.
B 2 + B 22 B 1 B 3
S n = ------------------------------------------B1
where:
172 Adams/Tire
B 1 = ( 3F z ) 2 ( 3C S ) 2
B 2 = 2C S C S
B3 = [ ( Cs Ss ) 2 + ( C S ) 2 ]
The nondimensional contact patch length ln is found from the equation ln = 1 - Sn, and the modified
lateral friction coefficient
y( m ) is expressed as:
C S
y( m ) = y + -----------
Fz
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force and the self-aligning torque two subcases should also be
considered separately. A slip ratio due to the critical value of the inclination angle is not needed here since
the required condition for Case 2, C S
angle.
<
<
Sac
F = C s S s l n2 + x F z ( 1 3l n2 + 2l n3 )
F = C S s l n2 + y( m ) F z ( 1 3l n2 + 2l n3 ) + C S
1 2
3
M z = C S --- + --- l n + --- y( m ) F z S n2 ll n2
2 3 2
3x y F z2
2
M zs = --- C s S s S l n3 + ---------------------- ( 1 10l n3 + 15l n4 6l n5 )
5C
3
M zs = F
(ii) Complete Sliding State: Ss
Ssc and S
Sac
173
Tire Models
F = x F z
F = y F z
M z = 0
3x y F z2 l
M z s = -----------------------5C
M zs = F
Case 3:
0 and C S
<
C S
Similar to Cases 1 and 2, slip ratios due to the critical values of the inclination angle and the slip ratio
are obtained as:
3F z + C S
S c = -------------------------------3C
1
S sc = ----- ( 3F z ) 2 ( C S 3C S )
Cs
The nondimensional slip ratio Sn, is expressed as:
B 2 + B 22 B 1 B 3
S n = ------------------------------------------B1
where:
B 1 = ( 3F z ) 2 ( 3C S ) 2
B 2 = 2C S C S
B3 = [ ( Cs Ss ) 2 + ( C S ) 2 ]
174 Adams/Tire
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, two subcases should also be
considered similar to Cases 1 and 2. A slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip angle is not needed
here since the required condition for Case 3, C S
the slip angle.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S
<
<
S c and Ss
<
Ssc
F = C s S s l n2 + x F z ( 1 3l n2 + 2l n3 )
F = C S s l n2 + y( m ) F z ( 1 3l n2 + 2l n3 ) + C S
1 2 3 (m)
2
2
--- ----M z = C S
2 + 3 l n + 2 y F z S n ll n
3x y F z2
2
M zs = --- C s S s S l n3 + ---------------------- ( 1 10l n3 + 15l n4 6l n5 )
3
5C
M zs = F
(ii) Complete Sliding State: S
S c and Ss
Ssc
In the complete sliding state, F , F , Mz , Mzs , and Mzs can be determined by using:
F = x F z
F = y F z
M z = 0
3x y F z2 l
M z s = -----------------------5C
M zs = F
175
Tire Models
respectively. The longitudinal force F , the lateral force F , and three components of the self-aligning
torques, Mz , Mzs , and Mzs , always have positive values, but they can be transformed to have
positive or negative values depending on the slip ratio s, the slip angle
the SAE coordinate system.
longitudinal and lateral direction. See Lagged Longitudinal and Lateral Slip Quantities
(transient tire behavior).
The effect of the relaxation lengths will be most pronounced at low forward velocity and/or high
excitation frequencies.
USE_MODE = 2: Smoothing of forces and moments on startup of the simulation
176 Adams/Tire
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of use mode in the tire property file,
Adams/Tire smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation.
The longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function
of time. (See STEP in the Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force FLat = S*FLat
Aligning Torque Mz = S*Mz
For example, suppose your tire has a radius of 300 mm and a width of 185 mm and that the tread is joined
to the side wall with a fillet of 12.5 mm radius. The tread then begins to curve to meet the side wall at
>+/- 80 mm from the wheel center plane. If you define the shape table using six points with four points
along the fillet, the resulting table might look like the shape block that is at the end of the property format
example (see SHAPE).
177
Tire Models
ANGLE
= 'rad'
MASS
= 'kg'
TIME
= 'sec'
$-------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
!
use mode
1
2
3
!
!
-----------------------------------------relaxation lengths
X
smoothing
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
= 'UATIRE'
USE_MODE
= 2
$---------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.295
WIDTH
= 0.195
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.55
$---------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 190000
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 50
ROLLING_RESISTANCE
= 0.003
CSLIP
= 80000
CALPHA
= 60000
CGAMMA
= 3000
UMIN
= 0.8
UMAX
= 1.1
REL_LEN_LON
= 0.6
REL_LEN_LAT
= 0.5
178 Adams/Tire
$-------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.8
0.9 1.0
$--------------------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
Contact Methods
The UA-Tire Model supports the following roads
2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
3D roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
The UA-Tire Model uses a one point of contact method; therefore, the wavelength of road obstacles must
be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
179
Tire Models
PAC MC
Learn about using the University of Arizona (UA) tire model:
180 Adams/Tire
In the radial direction, the MF tire models consider the tire to behave as a parallel linear spring and linear
damper with one point of contact with the road surface. The contact point is determined by considering
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road the contact forces in
longitudinal and lateral direction strongly depend on the slip between the tire patch elements and the
road.
The figure, Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model, presents the input and output
vectors of the PAC MC tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) ([3]). The input through the STI consists of the:
Position and velocities of the wheel center
Orientation of the wheel
Tire model (MF) parameters
Road parameters
The tire model routine calculates the vertical load and slip quantities based on the position and speed of
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load ( F z ), the
longitudinal and lateral slip ( ,
), and inclination angle ( ) with the road. The output is the forces
( F x , F y ) and moments ( M x , M y , M z ) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For
calculating these forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing
data.
The forces and moments out of the Magic Formula are transferred to the wheel center and returned to
Adams/Solver through the STI.
Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model
181
Tire Models
Axis System
The PAC MC model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions as described in the
TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
The STI interface between the PAC MC model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
model in the C-axis coordinate system. In the tire model itself, a conversion is made to the W-axis system
because all the modeling of the tire behavior, as described in this help, assumes to deal with the slip
quantities, orientation, forces, and moments in the contact point with the TYDEX W-axis system. Both
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have a different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC MC, Source[2]
The C-axis system is fixed to the wheel carrier with the longitudinal xc-axis parallel to the road and in
the wheel plane (xc-zc-plane). The origin of the C-axis system is the wheel center.
The origin of the W-axis system is the road contact-point defined by the intersection of the wheel plane,
the plane through the wheel carrier, and the road tangent plane.
The forces and moments calculated by PAC MC using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
system. A transformation is made in the source code to return the forces and moments through the STI
to Adams/Solver.
The inclination angle is defined as the angle between the wheel plane and the normal to the road tangent
plane (xw-yw-plane).
182 Adams/Tire
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC MC are according
to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC MC described in this guide have been developed for
use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire property file. Because
of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have units to be changed.
However, the parameters in the tire property file must always be valid for the TYDEX W-axis system
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below.
SI Units Used in PAC MC
Variable Type:
Angle
Force
Moment
Name:
Radians
Inclination angle
Longitudinal force
Fx
Newton
Lateral force
Fy
Vertical load
Fz
Mx
Overturning moment
Self-aligning moment
Rotational speed
Unit:
Slip angle
Rolling resistance
moment
Speed
Abbreviation:
My
Mz
Longitudinal speed
Vx
Lateral speed
Vy
V sx
V sy
Newton.meter
183
Tire Models
V sx in the contact point (W-axis system, see the figure, Slip Quantities
at Combined Cornering) is defined using the longitudinal speed V x , the wheel rotational velocity ,
and the effective rolling radius R e :
V sx = V x R e
(204)
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities (longitudinal slip) and
velocities in the contact point with:
(205)
V sx
= -------Vx
(206)
V sy
tan ( ) = --------Vx
(207)
The rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re:
Vr = Re
(208)
Contact Point
In the vertical direction, the tire is modeled as a parallel linear spring and damper having one point of
contact (C) with the road. This is valid for road obstacles with a wavelength larger than the tire radius
(for example, for car tires 1m).
184 Adams/Tire
For calculating the kinematics of the tire relative to the road, the road is approximated by its tangent plane
at the road point right below the wheel center (see figure below).
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel Plane
The contact point is determined by the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the road tangent
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane though the wheel spin
axis.
The normal load F z of the tire is calculated with:
F z = C z + K z
where
(209)
To take into account the effect of the tire cross-section profile, you can choose a more advanced method
(see the Tire Cross Section Profile Contact Method).
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz, also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]. If a section called
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and
extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire. Note that you must specify C z
in the tire property file, but it does not play any role.
185
Tire Models
R1 = R0
In this tire model, a constant (linear) vertical tire stiffness
(210)
(211)
The effective rolling radius Re (at free rolling of the tire), which is used to calculate the rotational speed
of the tire, is defined by:
Vx
R e = -----
(212)
For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation due
to the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip
186 Adams/Tire
R e = R 0 Fz0 ( D atan ( ( B d ) + F d ) )
in which
F z0
Fz0 = -------Cz
and
(213)
(214)
d = -------- Fz0
(215)
187
Tire Models
Example of the Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius as a Function of the Vertical Load
F z0
R0
B
D
F
Cz
KZ
Explanation:
FNOMIN
UNLOADED_RADIUS
BREFF
DREFF
FREFF
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
VERTICAL_DAMPING
188 Adams/Tire
Pure longitudinal slip conditions: braking or driving the tire without cornering
Combined slip conditions: cornering and longitudinal slip simultaneously
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force F y as a function of the lateral slip
longitudinal force F x as a function of longitudinal slip , have a similar shape (see the figure,
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions). Because of the sine - arctangent
combination, the basic Magic Formula example is capable of describing this shape:
(216)
where Y(x) is either F x with x the longitudinal slip , or F y and x the lateral slip .
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions
added with the residual moment M zr . In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force F y ,
called pneumatic trail t, from the contact point. Because the pneumatic trail t as a function of the lateral
slip
(217)
The figure, The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters, illustrates the functionality of the B,
C, D, and E factor in the Magic Formula:
D-factor determines the peak of the characteristic, and is called the peak factor.
189
Tire Models
C-factor determines the part used of the sine and, therefore, mainly influences the shape of the
190 Adams/Tire
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force F y decreases due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force F x decreases due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip conditions
191
Tire Models
are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighting functions. Again, these
weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF examples.
The Magic Formula itself only describes steady-state tire behavior. For transient tire behavior (up to 8
Hz), the MF output is used in a stretched string model that considers tire belt deflections instead of slip
velocities to cope with standstill situations (zero speed).
Inclination Effects in the Lateral Force
From a historical point of view, the basic Magic Formulas have always been developed for car and truck
tires, which cope with inclinations angles of not more than 10 degrees. To be able to describe the effects
at large inclinations, an extension of the basic Magic Formula for the lateral force Fy has been developed.
A contribution of the inclination
(218)
This elegant formulation has the advantage of an explicit definition of the camber stiffness, because this
results now in:
K = B C D =
F yo at
y = 0
(219)
Input Variables
The input variables to the Magic Formula are:
Input Variables
[-]
Inclination angle
Fz
[N]
Longitudinal force
Fx
[N]
Lateral force
Fy
[N]
Longitudinal slip
Slip angle
[rad]
[rad]
Output Variables
Its output variables are:
Output Variables
192 Adams/Tire
Overturning couple
Mx
[Nm]
My
[Nm]
Aligning moment
Mz
[Nm]
Fz0
[N]
R0
[m]
mbelt
[kg]
As a measure for the vertical load, the normalized vertical load increment dfz is used:
F z F' z0
df z = -------------------F' z0
(220)
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor,
F' z0 = F z0
F z0 ):
(221)
F z0
Definition:
193
Tire Models
Parameter:
i=
j=
k=
Definition:
Stiffness factor
Shape factor
Peak value
Curvature factor
Horizontal shift
Vertical shift
1, 2, ...
Name:
Name
used in
tire
property
file:
Explanation:
F z0
LFZO
Cx
LCX
LMUX
Ex
LEX
Kx
LKX
Vx
LVX
LGAX
Cy
LCY
194 Adams/Tire
Name:
Name
used in
tire
property
file:
Explanation:
LMUY
Ey
LEY
Ky
LKY
LCC
LKC
LEC
Hyy
LHY
LGAY
LTR
Mr
LRES
gz
LGAZ
Mx
LMX
VMxMx
LVMX
My
LMY
Name:
Explanation:
LXAL
LYKA
Vy
LVYKA
LS
Name:
Explanation:
LXAL
LYKA
Vy
LVYKA
LS
195
Tire Models
Name:
gyr
Explanation:
LSGKP
LSGAL
LGYR
F x = F x0 ( , F z, )
(222)
(223)
x = + S Hx
(224)
x =
(225)
C x = p Cx1
(226)
Cx
D x = x F z 1
x = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z ) ( 1 p Dx3 x2 )
(227)
(228)
x
Ex
with E x 1
(229)
196 Adams/Tire
(K x = B x C x D x =
(230)
F x0
at x = 0 )
x
B x = K x ( C x D x )
S Hx = ( p sy1 F z
My
(231)
+ S Vx ) K x
S Vx = F z ( p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z )
(232)
Vx
(233)
Name:
Explanation:
pCx1
PCX1
pDx1
PDX1
pDx2
PDX2
pDx3
PDX3
pEx1
PEX1
pEx2
PEX2
pEx3
PEX3
pEx4
PEX4
pKx1
PKX1
pKx2
PKX2
pKx3
PKX3
pVx1
PVX1
pVx2
PVX2
F y = F y0 ( , , F z )
(234)
(235)
197
Tire Models
y = + S Hy
( Cy + C < 2 )
(236)
y =
(237)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1
(238)
Cy
D y = y F z 2
(239)
(240)
Ey
with E y 1
(241)
Fz
-
K y = p Ky1 F zo sin p Ky2 arc tan ---------------------------------------------------------2
( p Ky3 + p Ky4 y )F zo Fzo
( 1 p Ky5 y2 )
Fzo
(K y = B y C y D y =
(242)
Ky
F yo
at y = 0 )
y
B y = K y ( C y D y )
(243)
S Hy = p Hy1
(244)
C = p Cy2
Hy
(245)
K = ( p Ky6 + p Ky7 df z ) F z
E = p Ey5
with E 1
B = K ( C D )
(=B C D =
F yo
at y = 0
(246)
(247)
(248)
198 Adams/Tire
Name:
Name used in
tire property file:
Explanation:
pCy1
PCY1
pCy2
PCY2
pDy1
PDY1
pDy2
PDY2
pDy3
PDY3
pEy1
PEY1
pEy2
PEY2
pEy3
PEY3
pEy4
PEY4
pEy5
PEY5
pKy1
PKY1
pKy2
PKY2
pKy3
PKY3
pKy4
PKY4
pKy5
PKY5
pKy6
PKY6
pKy7
PKY7
pHy1
PHY1
M z' = M z0 ( , , F z )
M z0 = t F y0 + M zr
(249)
(250)
t = + S Ht
(251)
(252)
199
Tire Models
r = + S Hr
(253)
z =
(254)
with coefficients:
Ky
(255)
C t = q Cz1
(256)
(257)
(258)
(259)
S Ht = 0
(260)
B r = q Bz9
Ky
(261)
(263)
dM z at = 0 )
K z = t K y
(264)
Name:
Explanation:
qBz1
QBZ1
qBz2
QBZ2
qBz3
qBz3
qBz4
QBZ4
qBz5
QBZ5
200 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
qBz9
QBZ9
qCz1
QCZ1
qDz1
QDZ1
qDz2
QDZ2
qDz3
QDZ3
qDz4
QDZ4
qDz6
QDZ6
qDz7
QDZ7
qDz8
QDZ8
qDz9
QDZ9
qDz10
QDZ10
qDz11
QDZ11
qEz1
QEZ1
qEz2
QEZ2
qEz3
QEZ3
qEz4
QEZ4
qEz5
QEZ5
qHz1
QHZ1
qHz2
QHZ2
qHz3
QHZ3
qHz4
QHZ4
201
Tire Models
F x = F x0 G x ( , , F z )
(265)
with Gx o the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
(266)
s = + S Hx
(267)
with coefficients:
(268)
C x = r Cx1
(269)
F xo
D x = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos [ C x arc tan { B x S Hx E x ( B x S Hx arc tan ( B x S Hx ) ) } ]
(270)
(271)
S Hx = r Hx1
(272)
Name:
Explanation:
rBx1
RBX1
rBx2
RBX2
rBx3
RBX3
rCx1
RCX1
(273)
202 Adams/Tire
Name:
Explanation:
rEx1
REX1
rEx2
REX2
rHx1
RHX1
F x = F x0 G x ( , , F z )
(274)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ' -induced' side force;
therefore, the lateral force can be written as:
(275)
s = + S Hyk
(276)
(277)
C y = r Cy1
(278)
F yo
D y = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos [ C y arc tan { B y S Hy E y ( B y S Hy arc tan ( B y S Hy ) ) } ]
(279)
(280)
S Hy = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z
(281)
Vy
(282)
(283)
(284)
203
Tire Models
Name:
Explanation:
rBy1
RBY1
rBy2
RBY2
rBy3
RBY3
rCy1
RCY1
rEy1
REY1
rEy2
REY2
rHy1
RHY1
rHy2
RHY2
rVy1
RVY1
rVy2
RVY2
rVy3
RVY3
rVy4
RVY4
rVy5
RVY5
rVy6
RVY6
M z' = t F y' + M zr + s F x
(285)
with:
t = t ( t, eq )
(286)
(287)
F' y, = 0 = F y S Vy
(288)
(289)
(290)
204 Adams/Tire
Kx 2
2
t, eq = arc tan tan t + ------ 2 sgn ( t )
K y
(291)
Kx 2
2
r, eq = arc tan tan r + ------ 2 sgn ( r )
K y
(292)
Name:
Explanation:
ssz1
SSZ1
ssz2
SSZ2
ssz3
SSZ3
ssz4
SSZ4
M x = R 0 F z q sx1
VMx
Fy
q sx2 + q sx3 --------
F z0
(293)
Mx
Name:
Explanation:
qsx1
QSX1
Lateral force-induced
overturning couple
qsx2
QSX2
Inclination-induced
overturning couple
qsx3
QSX3
Fy-induced overturning
couple
205
Tire Models
(294)
Name:
Explanation:
qsy1
QSY1
qsy2
QSY2
qsy3
QSY3
qsy4
QSY4
Vref
LONGVL
Measurement speed
S Vx
c = + S Hx + --------Kx
S Vy
c = + S Hy + --------Ky
= sin ( c )
c
= acos -------------------------
2 + 2
c
The following friction coefficients are defined:
F x, 0 S Vx
x, act = ------------------------Fz
F y, 0 S Vy
y, act = ------------------------Fz
206 Adams/Tire
Dx
x, max = -----Fz
Dy
y, max = -----Fz
1
x = --------------------------------------------------------1 2 tan 2
------------+ ---------------x, act y, max
tan
y = --------------------------------------------------------1 2 tan 2
--------------- + ------------x, max y, act
The forces corrected for the combined slip conditions are:
x
F x = ------------- F x, 0
x, act
y
F y = ------------- F y, 0
y, act
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae (283) until and
including (291) are used with
S Vy =0.
207
Tire Models
For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the "stretched string" tire model (see also reference [1]).
The tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. The figure, Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior, shows a top-view of the string
model. When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding
assumed). Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the
history of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid:
v1
1 dv 1 ---------+ - = tan ( ) + a
Vx d t
(295)
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger
than 10 m. This differential example cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the
example can be transformed to:
208 Adams/Tire
dv 1
+ V x v 1 = V sy
dt
(296)
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
du 1
+ V x u 1 = x V sx
dt
(297)
Both the longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are defined as of the vertical load:
Fz
- ( 1 p Ky5 2 ) R 0
= p Ty1 sin p Ty2 arc tan -------------------------------------------------------2
( p Ty3 + p Ky4 )F z0 Fz0
Now the practical slip quantities,
(298)
F z0 (299)
u1
' = ------ sin ( V x )
x
(300)
v1
' = atan ------
(301)
Using these practical slip quantities, ' and ' , the Magic Formula examples can be used to calculate
the tire-road interaction forces and moments:
(302)
(303)
(304)
209
Tire Models
dv
cos [ arc tan ( B r r, eq ) ]
dt
(305)
with the parameters (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1
(306)
gyr
and:
(307)
M z = M z' + M z, gyr
(308)
Name:
Explanation:
pTx1
PTX1
Relaxation length
sigKap0/Fz at Fznom
pTx2
PTX2
Variation of sigKap0/Fz
with load
pTx3
PTX3
Variation of sigKap0/Fz
with exponent of load
pTy1
PTY1
pTy2
PTY2
pTy3
PTY3
qTz1
QTZ1
Mbelt
MBELT
210 Adams/Tire
for both the left and the right side of the vehicle model, the vehicle does not drive straight at zero steering
wheel angle.
The latest versions of tire property files contain a keyword TYRESIDE in the [MODEL] section that
indicates for which side of the vehicle the tire parameters in that file are valid (TIRESIDE = 'LEFT' or
TIRESIDE = 'RIGHT').
If this keyword is available, Adams/Car corrects for the conicity and plysteer and asymmetry when using
a tire property file on the opposite side of the vehicle. In fact, the tire characteristics are mirrored with
respect to slip angle zero.
In Adams/View this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the graphical user interface:
select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire (see figure of dialog box below).
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also select SYMMETRIC: then the
tire characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right
side corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
SYMMETRIC, the tire characteristics are changed to symmetric behavior.
Create Wheel and Tire Dialog Box in Adams/View
211
Tire Models
212 Adams/Tire
USE MODE:
State:
Slip conditions:
PAC MC output
(forces and
moments)
Steady state
Acts as a vertical
spring and damper
0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
Steady state
Pure longitudinal
slip
Steady state
Pure lateral
(cornering) slip
Steady state
Longitudinal and
lateral (not
combined)
Steady state
Combined slip
11
Transient
Pure longitudinal
slip
12
Transient
Pure lateral
(cornering) slip
13
Transient
Longitudinal and
lateral (not
combined)
14
Transient
Combined slip
Contact Methods
The PAC MC model supports the following roads:
2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model
3D Roads, see Adams/3D Road Model
By default the PAC-MC uses a one point of contact model similar to all the other Adams/Tire Handling
models. However the PAC-MC has an option to take the tire cross section shape into account:
Tire Cross-Section Profile Contact Method
In combination with the 2D Road Model and the 3D Road Model, you can improve the tire-road contact
calculation method by providing the tire's cross-section profile, which has an important influence on the
wheel center height at large inclination angles with the road.
213
Tire Models
If the tire model reads a section called [SECTION_PROFILE_TABLE] in the tire property file, the cross
section profile will be taken into account for the vertical load calculation of the tire. The method assumes
that the tire deformation will not influence the position of the point with largest penetration (P), which
is valid for motor cycle tires.
The vertical tire load Fz is calculated using the penetration (effpen =
road plane in the point C, see Figure above, according to:
F z = C z + K z
Because in this method the tangent to the cross section profile determines the point P, a high accuracy of
the cross section profile is required. The section height y as function of the tire width x must be a
continous and monotone increasing function. To avoid singularities and instability, it is highly
214 Adams/Tire
recommended to fit measured cross section data with a polynom (for example y = ax2 + bx4 + cx6 +
..) and provide the y cross section height data (y) from the polynom in the tire property file up to the
maximum width of the tire. The profile is assumed to be symmetric with respect to the wheel plane.
Note that the PAC MC model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength of
road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the contact
force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does not
generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analysis, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
Note:
Do not change Fz0 (FNOMIN) and R0 (UNLOADED_RADIUS) in your tire property file.
It will change the complete tire characteristics because these two parameters are used to
make all parameters without dimension.
215
Tire Models
Requirement:
Explanation:
LONGVL
> 1 m/s
VXLOW
Approximately 1m/s
Dx
>0
pDx1/pDx2
< 0
Kx
< 0
Dy
>0
pDy1/pDy2
< 0
216 Adams/Tire
Parameter/property:
Requirement:
Explanation:
Ky
< 0
qsy1
< 0
< 0
217
Tire Models
If one of the input parameters exceeds a minimum or maximum validity value, the calculation in the tire
model will be performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
behavior. In that case, a message appears warning you that one of the inputs exceeds a validity value.
interface between tire measurements and tire models. The result was the TYDEX-Format [2] to
describe tire measurement data.
The second expert group's (Tire Modeling - Vehicle Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire models and simulation tools, which resulted in the Standard Tire Interface
(STI) [3]. The use of this interface should ensure that a wide range of simulation software can be
linked to a wide range of tire modeling software.
Definitions
General
Tire Kinematics
Slip Quantities
Force and Moments
218 Adams/Tire
General
General Definitions
Term:
Definition:
C-axis system
Wheel plane
Contact point C
W-axis system
Tire Kinematics
Tire Kinematics Definitions
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
R0
[m]
[m]
Re
[m]
[m]
[-]
Fz0
[m]
mbelt
[kg]
[rads-1]
219
Tire Models
Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities Definitions
Parameter:
Definition:
Units:
Vehicle speed
[ms-1]
Vsx
[ms-1]
Vsy
[ms-1]
Vs
[ms-1]
Vx
Vy
[ms-1]
Vr
[ms-1]
Longitudinal slip
[-]
Slip angle
[rad]
Inclination angle
[rad]
Definition:
Units:
Fz
[N]
Fz0
Nominal load
[N]
dfz
Fx
Longitudinal force
[N]
Fy
Lateral force
[N]
Mx
Overturning moment
[Nm]
My
Braking/driving moment
[Nm]
Mz
Aligning moment
[Nm]
References
1. H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 5141 5.
2. H.-J. Unrau, J. Zamow, TYDEX-Format, Description and Reference Manual, Release 1.1,
Initiated by the International Tire Working Group, July 1995.
3. A. Riedel, Standard Tire Interface, Release 1.2, Initiated by the Tire Workgroup, June 1995.
220 Adams/Tire
4. J.J.M. van Oosten, H.-J. Unrau, G. Riedel, E. Bakker, TYDEX Workshop: Standardisation of
Data Exchange in Tyre Testing and Tyre Modelling, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Vehicle System Dynamics, Volume
27, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam/Lisse, 1996.
221
Tire Models
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='PAC_MC'
USE_MODE
= 14
$Tyre use switch (IUSED)
VXLOW
= 1
LONGVL
= 16.7
$Longitudinal speed during measurements $
TYRESIDE
= 'SYMMETRIC'
$Mounted side of tyre at vehicle/test bench
$----------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 0.322
$Free tyre radius $
WIDTH
= 0.18
$Nominal section width of the tyre $
RIM_RADIUS
= 0.216
$Nominal rim radius $
RIM_WIDTH
= 0.135
$Rim width $
$---------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
0.994 0.211
0.975 0.423
0.947 0.634
0.894 0.845
0.841 1.0
$-----------------------------------------------section_profile_table
$ For taking the tire's cross shape into account (optional), max 100
pnts
[SECTION_PROFILE_TABLE]
{x y }
0.00000
0.0000000
0.00300
0.0000468
0.00600
0.0001877
0.00900
0.0004235
0.01200
0.0007561
0.01500
222 Adams/Tire
0.0011877
0.01800
0.0017216
0.02100
0.0023613
0.02400
0.0031114
0.02700
0.0039770
0.03000
0.0049639
0.03300
0.0060785
0.03600
0.0073282
0.03900
0.0087207
0.04200
0.0102646
0.04500
0.0119694
0.04800
0.0138449
0.05100
0.0159018
0.05400
0.0181517
0.05700
0.0206065
0.06000
0.0232793
0.06300
0.0261836
0.06600
0.0293337
0.06900
0.0327447
0.07200
0.0364323
0.07500
0.0404132
0.07800
0.0447047
0.08100
0.0493248
0.08400
0.0542923
0.08700
0.0596270
$-----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2e+005
$Tyre vertical stiffness $
223
Tire Models
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 50
$Tyre vertical damping $
BREFF = 8.4
$Low load stiffness eff. rolling radius $
DREFF = 0.27
$Peak value of eff. rolling radius $
FREFF = 0.07
$High load stiffness eff. rolling radius $
FNOMIN = 1475
$Nominal wheel load
$----------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen
fz}
0.000
0.0
0.001
212.0
0.002
428.0
0.003
648.0
0.005
1100.0
0.010
2300.0
0.020
5000.0
0.030
8100.0
$-----------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN = -1.5
$Minimum valid wheel slip $
KPUMAX = 1.5
$Maximum valid wheel slip $
$----------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN = -1.5708
$Minimum valid slip angle $
ALPMAX = 1.5708
$Maximum valid slip angle $
$----------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
[INCLINATION_ANGLE_RANGE]
CAMMIN = -1.0996
$Minimum valid camber angle $
CAMMAX = 1.0996
$Maximum valid camber angle $
224 Adams/Tire
$------------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
FZMIN = 73.75
$Minimum allowed wheel load $
FZMAX = 3319.5
$Maximum allowed wheel load $
$-------------------------------------------------------------scaling
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
LFZO = 1
$Scale factor of nominal load $
LCX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx shape factor $
LMUX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx peak friction
coefficient $
LEX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx curvature factor $
LKX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness $
LVX = 1
$Scale factor of Fx vertical shift $
LGAX = 1
$Scale factor of camber for Fx $
LCY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy shape factor $
LMUY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy peak friction
coefficient $
LEY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy curvature factor $
LKY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy cornering
stiffness $
LCC = 1
$Scale factor of camber shape factor $
LKC = 1
$Scale factor of camber stiffness (Kfactor) $
LEC = 1
$Scale factor of camber curvature
factor $
LHY = 1
$Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift $
LGAY = 1
$Scale factor of camber force stiffness
$
LTR = 1
$Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic
trail $
LRES = 1
$Scale factor of Peak of residual
torque $
225
Tire Models
LGAZ = 1
$Scale factor of camber torque
stiffness $
LXAL = 1
$Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
$
LYKA = 1
$Scale factor of kappa influence on Fy
$
LVYKA = 1
$Scale factor of kappa induced Fy $
LS = 1
$Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx $
LSGKP = 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx
$
LSGAL = 1
$Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy
$
LGYR = 1
$Scale factor of gyroscopic torque $
LMX = 1
Scale factor of overturning couple $
LVMX = 1
$Scale factor of Mx vertical shift $
LMY = 1
$Scale factor of rolling resistance
torque $
$--------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCX1 = 1.7655
$Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force $
PDX1 = 1.2839
$Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom $
PDX2 = -0.0078226
$Variation of friction Mux with load $
PDX3 = 0
$Variation of friction Mux with camber
$
PEX1 = 0.4743
$Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom $
PEX2 = 9.3873e-005
$Variation of curvature Efx with load $
PEX3 = 0.066154
$Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
$
PEX4 = 0.00011999
$Factor in curvature Efx while driving $
PKX1 = 25.383
$Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
$
PKX2 = 1.0978
226 Adams/Tire
227
Tire Models
PDY3 = 0.21428
$Variation of friction Muy with squared
camber $
PEY1 = -0.80276
$Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom $
PEY2 = 0.89416
$Variation of curvature Efy with camber
squared $
PEY3 = 0
$Asymmetric curvature Efy at Fznom $
PEY4 = 0
$Asymmetric curvature Efy with camber $
PEY5 = -2.8159
$Camber curvature Efc $
PKY1 = -19.747
$Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom $
PKY2 = 1.3756
$Curvature of stiffness Kfy $
PKY3 = 1.3528
$Peak stiffness factor $
PKY4 = -1.2481
$Peak stiffness variation with camber squared
$
PKY5 = 0.3743
$Lateral stiffness depedency with camber
squared $
PKY6 = -0.91343
$Camber stiffness factor Kfc $
PKY7 = 0.2907
$Vertical load dependency of camber stiffn.
Kfc $
PHY1 = 0
$Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom $
RBY1 = 10.694
$Slope factor for combined Fy reduction $
RBY2 = 8.9413
$Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
$
RBY3 = 0
$Shift term for alpha in slope Fy
reduction $
RBY4 = -1.8256e-010
$Influence of camber on stiffness of Fy combined $
RCY1 = 1.0521
$Shape factor for combined Fy reduction $
REY1 = -0.0027402
$Curvature factor of combined Fy $
REY2 = -0.0094269
$Curvature factor of combined Fy with load $
RHY1 = -7.864e-005
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction $
RHY2 = -6.9003e-006
$Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
$
228 Adams/Tire
RVY1 = 0
$Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz
at Fznom $
RVY2 = 0
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load $
RVY3 = -0.00033208
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber $
RVY4 = -4.7907e+015
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha $
RVY5 = 1.9
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa $
RVY6 = -30.082
$Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa) $
PTY1 = 0.75
$Peak value of relaxation length Sig_alpha
$
PTY2 = 1
$Shape factor for Sig_alpha $
PTY3 = 0.6
$Value of Fz/Fznom where Sig_alpha is
maximum $
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01
$Rolling resistance torque coefficient $
QSY2 = 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on
Fx $
QSY3 = 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on
speed $
QSY4 = 0
$Rolling resistance torque depending on
speed^4 $
$------------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QBZ1 = 9.246
$Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
$
QBZ2 = -1.4442
$Variation of slope Bpt with load $
QBZ3 = -1.8323
$Variation of slope Bpt with load squared $
QBZ4 = 0
$Variation of slope Bpt with camber $
QBZ5 = 0.15703
$Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
$
QBZ9 = 8.3146
$Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr $
QCZ1 = 1.2813
$Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail $
229
Tire Models
QDZ1 = 0.063288
$Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0) $
QDZ2 = -0.015642
$Variation of peak Dpt with load $
QDZ3 = -0.060347
$Variation of peak Dpt with camber $
QDZ4 = -0.45022
$Variation of peak Dpt with camber squared $
QDZ6 = 0
$Peak residual torque Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
$QDZ7 = 0
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with load
$
QDZ8 = -0.08525
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber $
QDZ9 = -0.081035
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber and
load $
QDZ10 = 0.030766
$Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber
squared $
QDZ11 = 0.074309
$Variation of Dmr with camber squared and load
$
QEZ1 = -3.261
$Trail curvature Ept at Fznom $
QEZ2 = 0.63036
$Variation of curvature Ept with load $
QEZ3 = 0
$Variation of curvature Ept with load
squared $
QEZ4 = 0
$Variation of curvature Ept with sign
of Alpha-t $
QEZ5 = 0
$Variation of Ept with camber and sign
Alpha-t $
QHZ1 = 0
$Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom $
QHZ2 = 0
$Variation of shift Sht with load $
QHZ3 = 0
$Variation of shift Sht with camber $
QHZ4 = 0
$Variation of shift Sht with camber and
load $
SSZ1 = 0
$Nominal value of s/R0: effect of Fx on
Mz $
SSZ2 = 0.0033657
$Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom $
SSZ3 = 0.16833
$Variation of distance s/R0 with camber $
SSZ4 = 0.017856
230 Adams/Tire
231
Tire Models
521-Tire Model
Overview
The 521-Tire model is a simple model that requires a small set of parameters or experimental data to
simulate the behavior of tires.
This chapter includes the following sections:
About 521-Tire
Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behaviour
Force Calculations
Converting Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data
Contact Methods
521-Tire Tire and Road Property Files
About 521-Tire
The 521-Tire is the first tire model incorporated in Adams. The name 521 (actually 5.2.1) refers to
the version number of Adams/Tire when it was first released.
The slip forces and moments can be calculated in two ways:
Using the Equation method
Using the Interpolation method
232 Adams/Tire
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the
wheel rotational velocity , and the loaded rolling radius Rl:
V sx = V z R 1
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities (longitudinal slip) and (slip angle) are calculated with these slip
velocities in the contact point:
V sx
= -------Vx
and
V sy
tan = --------Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle is limited to 90 degrees and the longitudinal slip in
between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.
233
Tire Models
When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string will arise that depends on the slip angle size and the history
of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid during braking slip:
v
1 dv
-------------1 + ------1 = tan ( ) + a
V x dt
with the relaxation length in the lateral direction. The turnslip can be neglected at radii larger than
10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the equation
can be transformed to:
dv 1
-------- + V x v 1 = V sx
dt
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
du 1
-------- + V x u 1 = V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, and are defined based on the tire deformation:
234 Adams/Tire
u1
' = ------ sin ( V x )
v1
' = atan ------
These practical slip quantities and are used instead of the usual and definitions for steadystate tire behavior.
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are read from the tire property file, see Tire Property File
521_equation.tir and 521_interpol.tir
Force Calculations
You can use the 521-Tire model for handling and durability analyses.
Directional Vectors for the Application of Tire Forces and Torques at the Center of the Tire-Road
Surface Contact Patch
The forces act along the directional vectors. From the tire spin vector and various information you supply
in the tire property and the road profile data files, Adams/Tire determines the positions and orientations
of the tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directional vectors. Figure 3 shows these directional vectors.
The tire vertical force acts along the vertical directional vector, the tire aligning torque acts about the
same vector, the tire lateral force acts along the lateral directional vector, and the tire longitudinal force
acts along the longitudinal directional vector. At this point, Adams/Tire determines the force directions
as if it were going to apply the tire aligning torque and all of the tire forces at the center of the tire-road
surface contact patch.
235
Tire Models
The tire-road surface contact patch may deflect laterally. Adams/Tire calculates the lateral deflection in
the direction (and with the sign) of the lateral force. The magnitude of the deflection is equal to the lateral
force divided by the tire lateral stiffness you provide in the tire property data file.
The tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal forces are forces in the tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal
directions (as determined at the tire-road surface contact patch). The tire aligning torque is a torque about
the tire vertical vector. The vehicle durability force has components in both the tire vertical and the tire
longitudinal directions.
Normal Force
The tire normal force Fz is calculated based on the tire deflection and radial velocity. A progressive
spring and linear damping constant are employed:
F z = F stiff F damp
where Fstiff is tire stiffness force and Fdamp is tire damping force. The vertical stiffness force is calculated
from:
F stiff = K z
F damp = C z RadialVelocity
where Cz is the tire damping constant.
The damping constant is reduced for small tire deflections, which are below 5% of the unloaded tire
radius.
The tire vertical stiffness can also be described using a spline function (force versus deflection) in the
Adams dataset. The user array is used to switch between tire property file stiffness and spline stiffness.
If the first value in the user array is equal to '5215', the spline vertical stiffness is used. The second value
of the user array refers to the ID of the spline. The message, 'Using spline data for the vertical spring', is
shown in the message file. If the first value in the user array is not equal to '5215', the tire property file
stiffness is used.
The following is an example of using the spline vertical stiffness:
! adams_view_name='spline_vertical_stiffness'
SPLINE/10
, X = -1,0,10,30
, Y = 0,0,2000,6000
!
! adams_view_name='wheel_user_array'
ARRAY/102
236 Adams/Tire
, NUM=5215,10
Another option for having a non-linear tire stiffness is to introduce a deflection-load table in the tire
property file in a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]. See 521-Tire Tire and Road Property
Files on page 20. If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection
datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force
of the tire.
Longitudinal Force
The tire longitudinal force Fx can have up to three contributions:
Traction/braking force
Rolling resistance force
Durability force (in case of durability contact)
Traction/Braking Force
Traction force is developed if the vehicle is starting to move and a braking force if the vehicle is
beginning to stop. In either case, the absolute magnitude of the force is calculated from:
F x = F z
where the friction coefficient is a function of the longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact patch.
Note that this is somewhat unusual, since all the other Handling tire models in Adams/Tire assume that
the longitudinal force Fx is a function of the slip ratio.
Schematic of Friction Coefficient Versus Local Slip Velocity
237
Tire Models
The curve as a function of longitudinal slip velocity is created using standard Adams STEP functions
(see body 4 on page 10). You have to specify two points on the curve to define this characteristic:
The coordinates of the curve at static: (velocity static, static)
The coordinates of the curve at dynamic: (velocity dynamic, dynamic)
The friction values may be available to you as function of slip ratio instead of slip velocity. Converting
Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data on page 16 explains how the slip ratios can be converted to slip
velocities.
Rolling Resistance Force
Rolling resistance Moment My is calculated from:
M y = coef rr F z
where coefrr is the rolling resistance coefficient that should be supplied in the tire property data file.
Durability Force
Durability force, sometimes known as radial planar force, is a special kind of tire vertical force. It is the
durability force that resists the action of road bumps. This force acts along the instantaneous vertical
directional vector calculated by Adams/Tire. The Adams/Tire durability tire forces are limited to twodimensional forces that lie in the plane of the tire and are directed toward the wheel-center marker.
Adams/Tire superimposes these forces upon any traction or lateral forces developed in the tire-road
surface interaction.
238 Adams/Tire
You must select the Equivalent Plane Method for generating these durability forces.
Interpolation Method
The AKIMA spline is employed to calculate Fy and Mz as a function of the slip angle , camber angle ,
and vertical load Fz. You should provide the data in the SAE axis system.
Note that the slip angle and vertical load Fz input for the force and moment calculation of Fx, Fy, Mx,
My, and Mz are limited to minimum and maximum values in the input to avoid unrealistic extrapolated
values.
Equation Method
The Equation Method uses the following equation to generate the lateral force Fy:
F y = ( stat F z ( 1 e
) sign ( ) )
M z = t F y
while the pneumatic trails are calculated with half the contact length a:
K
1
t = --- a e
3
a =
R0 R1
with R0 and Rl are, respectively, the unloaded and loaded tire radius.
Overturning Moment
In both methods, the overturning moment Mx calculation is based on the lateral tire force Fy, the lateral
tire stiffness Ky, and the vertical load:
239
Tire Models
Fy
M x = ------ F z
Ky
Tire Lateral Force as a Function of Slip Angle
stat F z K a .
Longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy calculated using the equations of 521-Tire
The vertical shift of Fy,a=0 is Fy calculated at zero slip angle
Output:
Adjusted longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy incorporates the reduction due to combined
slip:
k
= acos ------------------------------
k 2 + sin 2
Friction coefficients:
240 Adams/Tire
Fx
x, act = ----Fz
F y F y, = 0
y, act = -----------------------------Fz
1
tan
x = ---------------------------------------------------- y = --------------------------------------------------1 2 tan 2
1 2 tan 2
--------------------- + ------------+ ----------x, act stat
stat y, act
Forces corrected for combined slip conditions:
x
y
F x, comb = ------------- F x F y, comb = ------------- ( F y + F y,
x, act
y, act
= 0)
Due to the lateral deflection of the tire patch, the aligning moment under combined slip conditions
increases by the effect of the longitudinal force Fx and the lateral tire stiffness Ky:
F y, comb
M z, comb = M z, pure + F x, comb -----------------Ky
and the overturning moment uses the lateral force for combined slip:
F y, comb
M x, comb = ------------------ F z
Ky
Smoothing
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of USE_MODE in the tire property file, Adams/Tire
smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of the simulation. The longitudinal
force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See STEP in the
Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force Fx = SFx.
Lateral Force Fy = SFy
Overturning moment torque Mx = SMz
Aligning torque Mz = SMz
241
Tire Models
By selecting a value of USE_MODE between 1 and 4, smoothing and combined slip correction can be
switched on and off, as shown in Table 1. The smoothing time equals 0.1 seconds for these values of
USE-MODE.
USE_MODE:
Smoothing:
off
off
off
on
on
off
on
on
a f
= -----------------f
where:
= Slip ratio
Kinematic relationships between translational and rotational velocities and the effective rolling radius
give:
V x V sx
a = --------------------Re
Vx
f = -----Re
where:
242 Adams/Tire
Substituting these relationships into the original slip ratio equation with some cancelling of variables
gives:
V sx
= -------Vx
Therefore:
V sx = V x
During testing for the coefficient of friction as a function of slip ratio, the longitudinal velocity Vx is held
constant. Therefore, you can obtain Vsx, the relative velocity of the contact patch with respect to the road
surface, from the test data curves for the static and dynamic values of friction.
Contact Methods
For handling analyses (which use a flat road surface profile), the 521-Tire model uses the point-follower
contact method. For durability analyses (which use uneven road surface profiles), the Equivalent Plane
Method yields the instantaneous tire radius directly, while finding the new road surface orientation
vector.
243
Tire Models
Both the deflected tire area and its centroid remain unchanged. The vector between the deflected area
centroid and the wheel-center marker then determines the orientation of the. vertical vector
perpendicular to the road surface.
The Equivalent Plane method is best suited for relatively large obstacles because it assumes the tire
encompasses the obstacle uniformly. In reality, the pneumatics and the bending stiffness of the tire
carcass prevent this. The result is an uneven pressure distribution and possibly gaps between the tire and
the road. If the obstacle is larger than the tire contact patch (such as a pothole or curb), the uniform
assumption is good. If the obstacle is much smaller than the tire patch, however (such as a tar strip or
expansion joint), the assumption is poor, and the Equivalent Plane method may greatly underestimate the
durability force.
Definition of Equivalent Plane Parameters
244 Adams/Tire
When using the Equivalent Plane method the following parameters need to be specified in the tire
property file:
Equivalent_plane_angle
Specifies the subtended angle (in degrees) bisected by the z-axis of the wheel-center marker, as shown
in Figure 7. This angle determines the extent of the road the tire can envelop. The value of the
equivalent_plane_angle must be between 0 and 180 degrees.
Equivalent_plane_increments
Specifies the number of increments into which the shadow of the tire subtended section is divided, as
shown in Figure 7.
The first two files are tire property files, and the last two are road files. The file 521_equation.tir
illustrates the required format and parameters when you use the Equation method. The file
521_interpol.tir illustrates the Interpolation method. The two *.rdf files show how road data files must
be specified when either of the contact methods is used.
Tire Property File 521_equation.tir and 521_interpol.tir
You can select the method for calculating the normal force by setting the
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD parameter to either POINT_FOLLOWER (for the Point Follower
245
Tire Models
method) or EQUIVALENT_PLANE (for the Equivalent Plane method). See Contact Methods on page
17 for details on these methods.
You can select the method for calculating the lateral force by setting the LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD
parameter to either INTERPOLATION or symbol. See Lateral Force and Aligning Torque on page 11
for details on these calculation methods.
The following table specifies how some of the parameter names used in the tire property file correspond
to parameters introduced in the equations that were presented in the previous sections.
Parameter in file:
Used in equation:
As parameter:
vertical_stiffness
[10]
Kz
vertical_damping
[11]
Cz
lateral_stiffness
[18]
Ky
cornering_stiffness_coefficient
[6]
Mu_Static
Figure 4
static
Mu_Dynamic
Figure 4
dynamic
Mu_Static_velocity
Figure 4
velocity static
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity
Figure 4
velocity dynamic
rolling_resistance_coefficient
[13]
coeffrr
vertical_stiffness_exponent
[141]
Note:
521-equation.tir
The 521-equation.tir example tire property file starts here.
$--------------------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE
= 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 3.0
FILE_FORMAT
= 'ASCII'
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire
- XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test Date - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
= 'mm'
246 Adams/Tire
FORCE
= 'newton'
ANGLE
= 'rad'
MASS
= 'kg'
TIME
= 'second'
$------------------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! ----------------------------------------------------------------------! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient
X
X
X
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
= '5.2.1'
FUNCTION_NAME
= 'TYR913'
USE_MODE
= 12
$--------------------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 310.0
WIDTH
= 195.0
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.70
RIM_RADIUS
= 195,0
RIM_WIDTH
= 139.7
$--------------------------------------------------------------------parameters
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD = EQUIVALENT_PLANE
LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD = EQUATION
!
vertical_stiffness = 206.0
vertical_stiffness_exponent = 1.1
vertical_damping
= 2.06
!
lateral_stiffness = 50
cornering_stiffness_coefficient = 50
!
Mu_Static
= 0.95
Mu_Dynamic
= 0.75
Mu_Static_Velocity = 3000
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity = 6000
!
rolling_resistance_coefficient = 0.01
!
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_ANGLE= 100
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_INCREMENTS= 50
!
RELAX_LENGTH_X
= 0.10
RELAX_LENGTH_Y
= 0.30
247
Tire Models
521_equation.tir
The 521-interpol.tir example tire property file starts here. In addition to the file for 521_equation.tir, it
contains data that is used for calculating the lateral force and aligning moment, instead of using formula
6 to 9. Note that the [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] can also be used in the tire property file for the
Equation method.
$--------------------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE
= 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 3.0
FILE_FORMAT
'ASCII'
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire
- XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test Date - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
= 'mm'
FORCE
= 'newton'
ANGLE
= 'rad'
MASS
= 'kg'
TIME
= 'second'
$------------------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! ----------------------------------------------------------------------! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient
X
X
X
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
= '5.2.1'
FUNCTION_NAME
= 'TYR913'
USE_MODE
= 12
$--------------------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 310.0
WIDTH
= 195.0
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.70
RIM_RADIUS
= 195,0
RIM_WIDTH
= 139.7
$--------------------------------------------------------------------parameters
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD = POINT_FOLLOWER ! or EQUIVALENT_PLANE
248 Adams/Tire
LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD
= INTERPOLATION
! or EQUATION
!
vertical_stiffness = 206.0
vertical_stiffness_exponent = 1.1
vertical_damping
=
2.06
lateral_stiffness = 50
cornering_stiffness_coefficient = 50
!
Mu_Static
Mu_Dynamic
Mu_Static_Velocity
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity
=
=
=
=
0.95
0.75
3000
6000
!
rolling_resistance_coefficient = 0.01
!
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_ANGLE= 100
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_INCREMENTS= 50
!
!
RELAX_LENGTH_X
= 0.10
RELAX_LENGTH_Y
= 0.30
!------------------CAMBER ANGLE VALUES----------------------------------------!
Conversion
!
No. of pnts
factor(D to R)
pnt1 pnt2 pnt3 pnt4
pnt5
!
CAMBER_ANGLE_DATA_LIST
5
0.017453292 -3.0
0.0
3.0
6.0
10.0
!
!------------------SLIP ANGLE VALUES------------------------------------------!
Conversion
!
No. of pnts
factor(D to R)
pnt1
......
pnt9
!
SLIP_ANGLE_DATA_LIST
9
0.017453292
-15.0
-10.0
-5.0
-2.5
0.0
2.5
5.0
10.0
15.0
!
!-----------------VERTICAL FORCE VALUES---------------------------------------!
Conversion
!
No. of pnts
factor
!
pnt1
pnt2
pnt3
pnt4
pnt5
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_DATA_LIST
5
4.448
200.0
600.0
1100.0
1500.0
1900.0
!
!-----------------ALLIGNING TORQUE VALUES-------------------------------------!
No. of pnts
Conversion
!
factor
!
249
Tire Models
!
!
pnt1
....
pnt225
ALIGNING_TORQUE_DATA_LIST
225
-1355.7504
5.31
0.11
0.47
0.04
0.80
1.75
2.54
-1.28
1.59
6.52
2.84
-12.44
-21.38
-3.70
17.43
11.08
0.02
-3.77
0.06
14.23
5.95
5.54
-1.29
-9.45
-5.05 -17.73
0.46
-2.48
4.71
26.10
4.26
16.60
2.41
4.28
-0.92
0.22
22.88
5.49
-37.99
-69.04
-27.94
52.20
40.53
14.82
-17.17
26.41
-3.92
-67.22
-111.44
-44.25
81.97
73.54
2.93
6.60
30.58
-14.04
-116.07
-168.11
-53.74
145.78
95.55
10.35
-11.91
22.93
11.45
15.74
13.72
-1.65
-15.64
-26.98
-57.25 -107.71
-62.62 -109.03 -161.88
-19.48
-33.54
-49.52
60.80
90.85
119.51
52.46
93.32
141.34
2.21
9.11
30.44
12.61
2.51
-18.77
0.43
6.70
-2.20
-1.39
2.87
6.99
7.10
1.63
-0.78
-4.62
15.92
-5.53
-17.28
-0.38
24.54
18.78
2.91
10.13
15.36
0.14
-13.28
-52.17
-14.27
66.06
58.20
8.33
-9.94
7.16
-4.20
-47.48
-102.80
-29.03
93.27
104.51
20.32
-13.02
11.70
-11.81
-92.88
-161.71
-42.42
126.38
156.39
42.09
-11.95
5.62
2.31
7.87
1.40
2.10
5.60
3.56
-0.08
1.38
4.36
6.41
1.33
-10.04
0.56
26.48
20.63
1.81
-2.13
23.16
14.10
-16.31
-50.94
-16.15
62.92
60.74
14.39
-2.42
38.03
6.03
-40.24
-93.06
-27.15
90.16
108.26
34.98
-4.08
8.73
-11.66
-82.58
-157.50
-40.13
122.03
162.97
59.72
-2.72
3.69
3.09
6.08
0.76
0.70
5.92
4.36
-2.03
0.39
1.71
7.15
0.38
-7.65
4.37
34.39
29.81
5.94
-5.52
29.06
-7.92
-2.69
-37.28
-7.59
72.55
76.70
26.18
-6.06
10.05
13.53
-32.10
-89.05
-23.71
92.88
118.91
53.59
10.16
11.38
-5.78
-62.17
-145.09
-28.49
129.34
180.59
89.76
7.81
250 Adams/Tire
585.56
628.82
565.29
452.18
50.58
-367.42
-588.24
-612.70
-597.29
1000.29
1040.78
974.49
752.21
199.87
-618.68
-1001.01
-1059.55
-988.14
1307.77
1331.72
1198.82
885.23
199.50
-683.16
-1235.88
-1344.53
-1343.86
1603.78
1624.83
1387.74
960.13
208.75
-857.81
-1488.88
-1658.66
-1689.35
234.40
239.27
252.34
167.55
32.23
-122.59
-208.93
-261.05
-241.50
572.75
647.77
603.75
481.45
78.77
-423.13
-576.28
-634.90
-607.16
981.30
1007.37
1033.50
826.41
231.31
-552.58
-948.45
-1064.15
-1021.87
1352.37
1357.22
1288.76
962.64
250.14
-613.52
-1149.44
-1338.52
-1322.30
1698.90
1666.30
1483.64
1028.74
254.32
-607.61
-1314.69
-1581.84
-1598.25
210.20
237.91
226.60
154.74
34.37
-130.29
-226.48
-270.70
-254.64
578.56
600.60
629.48
496.21
74.19
-339.00
-557.52
-595.22
-602.76
968.72
1025.67
1084.97
878.72
240.00
-509.04
-884.91
-1059.76
-1032.71
1344.05
1377.57
1354.12
1028.03
284.42
-543.75
-1083.18
-1314.74
-1313.22
1730.40
1733.03
1575.22
1095.59
283.85
-555.05
-1175.12
-1564.43
-1609.96
238.28
227.13
221.76
195.50
28.51
-145.10
-230.33
-230.62
-218.36
531.25
594.51
633.49
505.90
68.59
-319.56
-548.99
-597.10
-570.13
945.70
1038.87
1135.31
899.88
241.99
-464.11
-815.88
-1009.76
-1049.72
1305.28
1365.33
1375.28
1059.92
311.15
-499.27
-991.78
-1261.43
-1344.94
1786.96
1733.29
1619.82
1135.28
331.84
-500.83
-1108.36
-1504.09
-1589.60
228.49
221.19
224.63
178.96
42.58
564.69
595.52
590.58
474.70
65.26
954.06
1019.74
1108.01
918.87
230.69
1332.84
1378.35
1408.87
1125.97
306.58
1687.50
1749.40
1707.09
1242.75
428.45
251
Tire Models
-144.43 -290.91
-368.02
-398.98
-394.66
-224.99 -494.65
-761.78
-886.03
-941.20
-246.51 -563.13
-980.33 -1249.57 -1462.88
-239.34 -567.10 -1050.56 -1348.66 -1611.11
$-------------------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen fz}
0.0 0.0
1.0 212.0
2.0 428.0
3.0 648.0
5.0 1100.0
10.0 2300.0
20.0 5000.0
30.0 8100.0
521-Tire Road Data Files
The road data files used with the 521-Tire are unique and cannot be used with any other tire model. The
data files are fully described by the following two examples.
Road Data File 521_pnt_follow.rdf
This example file shows that, if you use the Point Follower method and indicate it in the associated tire
property file, the road_profile_type parameter must be set to FLAT.
1. $-----------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
2. FILE_TYPE
= rdf
3. FILE_VERSION = 2.0
4. FILE_FORMAT = ASCII
5. (COMMENTS)
6. {comment_string}
7. Example of 521-Tire, point follower flat road
8. $----------------------------------------------------------------units
9. [UNITS]
10. LENGTH
= mm
11. FORCE
= newton
12. ANGLE
= radians
13. MASS
= kg
14. TIME
= sec
15. $-----------------------------------------------------------definition
252 Adams/Tire
16. [MODEL]
17. METHOD
= 5.2.1
18. $-----------------------------------------------------------parameters
19. road_profile_type = FLAT
20. initial_height = 0
21. Road Data File 521_equiv_plane.rdf
The following example shows which data the road data file must contain if the Equivalent Plane method
is used and specified in the associated tire property file. The main difference with the road data file used
in association with the Point Follower method is that here the ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE parameter is set
to INPUT and a ROAD_INPUT_DATA_LIST is specified.
22. $---------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
23. FILE_TYPE
= rdf
= mm
32. FORCE
= newton
33. ANGLE
= radians
34. MASS
= kg
35. TIME
= sec
36. $---------------------------------------------------------definition
37. [MODEL]
38. METHOD
= 5.2.1
39. $---------------------------------------------------------parameters
40. ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE = INPUT
41. INITIAL_HEIGHT
! or FLAT
= 0.000
42. !
43. ! if "ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE = INPUT" the road must be specified with a table
44. !
45. ROAD_INPUT_DATA_LIST
46.
23, 1
253
Tire Models
1740.00, 0.00
49.
1740.94, 1.92
1892.40, 0.00
254 Adams/Tire
This help describes the Flexible Ring Tire Model (FTire), as it is invoked from Adams.
Michael Gipser, Cosin Consulting
About FTire
The tire model, FTire (Flexible ring tire model), is a sophisticated tire force element. You can use it in
MBS-models for vehicle-ride comfort investigations and other vehicle dynamics simulations on even or
uneven roadways.
255
Tire Models
level.
High accuracy when passing single obstacles, such as cleats and potholes.
Applicable in extreme situations like many kinds of tire misuse and sudden pressure loss.
Sufficiently accurate in predicting steady-state tire characteristics.
In contrast to other tire models, FTire does not need any complicated road data preprocessing. Rather, it
takes and resolves road irregularities, and even extremely high and sharp-edged obstacles, just as they
are defined.
We recommend that you visit www.ftire.com, to learn more about FTire theory, validation, data supply,
and application. Also, at the FTire Web site, you will be kept informed about the latest FTire
improvements, and how to receive them. In the download section, you will find a set of auxiliary
programs, called FTire/tools for Windows. These tools help to analyze and parameterize an FTire
256 Adams/Tire
Model. FTire/tools is free for FTire licensees. It comprises static, steady-date, and modal analysis,
linearization, data estimation, identification and validation tools, road data visualization, and more. In the
site's documentation section, you will find a more detailed and permanently updated FTire
documentation, together with as some additional literature.
Modeling Approach
FTire uses the following modeling approach:
The tire belt is described as an extensible and flexible ring carrying bending stiffnesses,
elastically founded on the rim by distributed, partially dynamic stiffnesses in radial, tangential,
and lateral directions. The degrees of freedom of the ring are such that rim in-plane as well as
out-of-plane movements are possible. The ring is numerically approximated by a finite number
of discrete masses, the belt elements. These belt elements are coupled with their direct neighbors
by stiff springs and by bending stiffnesses both in-plane and out-of-plane.
Belt In-Plane and Out-Of-Plane Bending Stiffness outlines in-plane and out-of-plane bending
stiffness placing. In-plane bending stiffness is realized by means of torsional springs about the
lateral axis. The torsional deflection of these springs is determined by the angle between three
consecutive belt elements, projected onto the rim mid-plane. Similarly, the out-of-plane bending
stiffness is described by means of torsional springs about the radial axis. Here, the torsional
deflection is determined by the angle between three consecutive belt elements, projected onto the
belt tangential plane. Note that in the figure, the yellow plates do not represent the belt elements
themselves, but rather the connecting lines between the elements.
Belt In-Plane (left) and Out-Of-Plane (right) Bending Stiffness
FTire calculates all stiffnesses, bending stiffnesses, and damping factors during preprocessing,
257
Tire Models
A number of massless tread blocks (5 to 50, for example) are associated with every belt element.
These blocks carry nonlinear stiffness and damping properties in the radial, tangential, and
lateral direction. The radial deflections of the blocks depend on the road profile, focus, and
orientation of the associated belt elements. FTire determines tangential and lateral deflections
using the sliding velocity on the ground and the local values of the sliding coefficient. The latter
depends on ground pressure and sliding velocity.
Note:
Radial, tangential, and lateral are relative to the orientation of the belt element,
whereas sliding velocity is the block end-point velocity projected onto the road
profile tangent plane. By polynomial interpolation, certain precautions have been
taken not to let the ground pressure distribution mirror the polygonal shape of the
belt chain.
FTire calculates all six components of tire forces and moments acting on the rim by integrating
258 Adams/Tire
You should chose the full 3D variant, which takes about 30% more computing time, in situations where
a considerable excitation of tire vibrations in lateral direction is expected. This, for example, will happen
when the tire runs over cleats that are placed in an oblique direction relative to the tire rolling direction.
Similarly, such an excitation will happen when the tire is running over obstacles with large camber angle.
Optionally, FTire can take into account tire non-uniformity, that is, a harmonic variation of vertical or
longitudinal stiffness, as well as static and dynamic imbalance, conicity, ply-steer, and geometrical runout.
All stiffness values may depend on the actual inflation pressure. To take full advantage of that option, it
is necessary to provide basic FTire input data, such as radial stiffness data and natural frequencies at two
different pressure values. Actual inflation pressure is one of the operating conditions variables, which
can be made time-dependent, and therefore, can be changed even during a simulation.
There are two more operating conditions: tread depth and model level. The latter signal allows you to
switch between the reduced variant of FTire (all contact elements are arranged in one single line near the
rim mid-plane), and the full 3D variant (contact elements cover the whole contact patch).
The kernel of the FTire implementation is an implicit integration algorithm (BDF) that calculates the belt
shape. The integrator runs parallel but synchronized with the Adams main integrator. By using this
specialized implicit BDF integrator, you can choose the belt extensibility so it is extremely small. This
also allows the simulation of an inextensible belt without any numerical drawbacks.
259
Tire Models
260 Adams/Tire
FTire Parameters
About FTire Parameters
Procedure for Parameterizing FTire
Listing of FTire Parameters
For convenience, FTire tries to use data that can be measured as easy as possible. As a consequence, the
number of basic data might be larger than the number of internal parameters defined by these basic
parameters.
For example, the following four parameters together, after preprocessing, actually result in only two
values used in FTire: compression and shear stiffness of the idealized blocks that represent tread rubber:
tread_depth
tread_base_height
stiffness_tread_rubber
tread_positive
Also, sometimes different combinations of parameters are possible. This is true especially for data of the
second group, which determine the structural stiffness and damping properties of FTire. Your choice of
which combination of parameters to supply depends on the types of measurements that are available and
their accuracy.
Moreover, it is possible to prescribe over-determined subsets of parameters. For example, you may define
the belt in-plane bending stiffness by prescribing the frequency of the first bending mode, and at the same
time the radial stiffness on a transversal cleat. Both parameters are strongly influenced by the bending
stiffness, but might contradict each other.
In such a case, FTire automatically recognizes that the system of equations to be solved is overdetermined, and applies an appropriate solver (Householder QR factorization) to determine the solution
in the sense of least squares fit. That means, FTire is looking for a compromise to meet both conditions
as much as possible. Users can control the compromise by optionally defining weights for the
contradicting conditions.
261
Tire Models
Note that, among others, FTire uses modal data to calculate internal structural stiffness and damping
coefficients. They are processed in such a way that the mathematical model, for small excitations, shows
exactly the measured behavior in the frequency domain. FTire is not a modal model, nor is it linear.
First Six Vibration Modes Of An Unloaded Tire With Fixed Rim
When parametrizing FTire, the bending mode frequencies rather sensitively influence the respective
bending stiffness. As an alternative, determining the radial stiffness both on a flat surface and on a short
obstacle (cleat) is an inexpensive and very accurate way to get both the vertical stiffness between belt
nodes and rim and the in-plane bending stiffness.
Other ways to determine the bending stiffness (and other data, as well) are to use the software tools
FTire/fit (time- and frequency-domain parameter identification) and FTire/estim (qualified parameter
estimation by comparison with a reference tire). For more information, see www.ftire.com.
Unfortunately, there is no direct analogy of the radial stiffness on cleat measuring procedure to get the
out-of-plane bending stiffness. But this parameter does not seem to be as relevant as the in-plane bending
stiffness for ride comfort and durability. An indirect, but also very accurate, way to validate the out-ofplane bending stiffness is to check resulting side-force and self-aligning characteristic. The cornering
stiffness, the pneumatic trail, as well as the difference between maximum side force and side force for
very large side-slip angles, are very sensitively determined both by the tread rubber friction characteristic
and by the out-of-plane bending stiffness. Similarly, the fourth mode (see figure, First Six Vibration
Modes Of An Unloaded Tire With Fixed Rim), being itself determined by the stiffness between belt nodes
and rim in lateral direction, very strongly influences the side-slip angle where maximum side force
occurs.
262 Adams/Tire
Tread depth
Rubber height over steel belt
Shore-A stiffness or Young's modulus of tread rubber
Tread pattern positive
2. Determine the natural frequencies and damping moduli of the first six modes, for an unloaded,
inflated tire, where the rim is fixed. Normally, you do this by exciting the tire structure with an
impulse hammer, measuring the time histories of at least four acceleration sensors in all three
directions, distributed along the tire circumference, and processing these using an FFT signal
analyzer. Optionally, repeat this step for a second inflation pressure value.
3. Determine the tire radial stiffness on a flat surface and on a short obstacle, for one or two inflation
pressure value(s).
4. Determine (or estimate) the lateral belt curvature radius from the unloaded tire's cross-section.
Determine the belt lateral bending stiffness to get a reasonable pressure distribution in the lateral
direction.
5. Determine (or estimate) tread rubber adhesion and sliding friction coefficients for ground
pressure values 0.5 bar, 2 bar, and 10 bar.
6. Take natural frequencies and damping moduli of modes 1, 2, and 4, together with the radial
stiffness on flat surface and on a cleat, for one or two inflation pressure value(s), as well as the
remaining basic data. These values result in a first, complete FTire input file for the basic variant
(belt circumferential rotation, twisting, and bending not taken in to account; all contact elements
are arranged in one line).
7. Let FTire preprocess these data. Compare the resulting additional modal properties of the model
with the modal data that are not used so far (modes 3, 5, and 6). If necessary, adjust the
preprocessed data to find a compromise with respect to accuracy.
8. If respective measurements are available, validate the data determined so far by means of side
force and aligning torque characteristics, and by measurements of vertical and longitudinal
force variations induced during rolling over cleats both with low and high speed. The validation
can be extended to a full parameter fitting procedure by using TIRE/fit, as mentioned earlier.
9. Estimate the following additional data that are only relevant for 'out-of-plane' excitation:
Belt element torsional stiffness relative to rim (represented by red torsion springs between
Start with the respective values of the sample data file. Then, adjust the values by fitting the model's
response to obliquely oriented cleats and handling characteristics for large camber angles at the same
time. This identification procedure can be made easier by using the the additional tool FTire/fit.
263
Tire Models
Clearly, the performance of this procedure is not very easy in practice. On the other hand, every tire
model that is accurate enough for ride comfort and durability calculations will need as much or even
more data.
Means:
tire_section_width
tire_aspect_ratio
rim_diameter
rim_width
load_index
tread_width
rolling_circumference
tire_mass
inflation_pressure
264 Adams/Tire
The parameter:
Means:
inflation_pressure_2
stat_wheel_load_at_10mm_defl
stat_wheel_load_at_20mm_defl
Instead of using:
stat_wheel_load_at_10mm_defl
and
stat_wheel_load_at_20mm_defl
Note:
Note:
dynamical_stiffening
speed_at_half_dyn_stiffening
belt_extension_at_200_kmh
interior_volume
265
Tire Models
The parameter:
volume_gradient
Means:
Relative decrease in volume, of a small tire
segment, when that segment is deflected
vertically.
Note:
rel_long_belt_memb_tension
f1
First natural frequency: in-plane, rigidbody rotation around wheel spin axis. Rim
is fixed. See the figure, First Six Vibration
Modes.
f2
f4
f3 (out-of-plane, rigid-body
movement) is not needed because
it is closely related to f4.
266 Adams/Tire
The parameter:
Means:
belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cleat
weight_f5
weight_in_plane_bend_stiffn
weight_wheel_load_cleat
cleat_width
267
Tire Models
The parameter:
cleat_bevel_edge_width
Means:
Bevel edge width (measured after
projection to x-y-plane) of cleat that was
used to determine all parameters that
require a cleat:
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cleat
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cl_lo
and so on.
Note:
belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn
weight_f6
weight_out_of_plane_bend_st
D1
D2
Damping of f2.
D4
Damping of f4.
Note:
268 Adams/Tire
The parameter:
belt_twist_stiffn
Means:
Belt-twisting stiffness: if the mean torsion
angle relative to the rim is 0, the value is the
moment in longitudinal direction per 1
degree twist angle for a unit length belt
segment. This value is independent on the
number of belt segments.
Note:
belt_torsion_stiffn
belt_torsion_lat_displ_coupl
belt_lat_bend_stiffn
belt_lat_curvature_radius
269
Tire Models
The parameter:
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_lo_cl
Means:
Wheel load at 10 mm deflection on
longitudinal cleat. Static wheel load of the
inflated tire, when it is deflected by 10 mm,
with zero camber angle, on a cleat as
specified above, during stand-still. Cleat
must be high enough that the tire does not
touch the ground apart from the cleat. The
cleat is oriented in longitudinal direction,
along foot-print centerline.
Note:
weight_lat_bend_st
weight_wheel_load_lo_cl
belt_lat_bend_damp
270 Adams/Tire
The parameter:
f1_p2
f2_p2
f4_p2
f5_p2
f6_p2
D1_p2
D2_p2
D4_p2
belt_in_plane_bend_st_p2
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cl_p2
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_cl_p2
belt_out_of_plane_bend_st_p2
belt_lat_bend_stiffn_p2
belt_twist_st_p2
belt_torsion_st_p2
Means:
If measurements for a second inflation
pressure (inflation_pressure_2) are
available, these are the respective values of
the following taken at that pressure:
f1
f2
f4
f5
f6
D1
D2
D4
belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cleat
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_cleat
belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn
belt_lat_bend_stiffn
belt_twist_stiffn
belt_torsion_stiffn
Note:
tread_depth
tread_base_height
stiffness_tread_rubber
tread_positive
271
Tire Models
The parameter:
damping_tread_rubber
Means:
Quotient of tread rubber damping modulus
and tread rubber elasticity modulus.
Note:
Deflection/force phase-lag of
elastomers is often assumed to be
independent of excitation
frequency. This behavior is not
yet implemented in FTire;
instead, viscous damping is used.
The parameter
damping_tread_rubber is nothing
but the quotient of damper
coefficient and spring stiffness of
the coupling of blocks and belt.
For that reason, the parameter
carries the unit time.
sliding_velocity
blocking_velocity
low_ground_pressure
med_ground_pressure
high_ground_pressure
my_adhesion_at_low_p
272 Adams/Tire
The parameter:
Means:
my_sliding_at_low_p
my_blocking_at_low_p
my_adhesion_at_med_p
my_sliding_at_med_p
static_balance_weight
static_balance_ang_position
dynamic_balance_weight
radial_non_unif_ang_position
Parameter is optional.
radial_non_uniformity
Parameter is optional.
dynamic_balance_ang_position
Parameter is optional.
Parameter is optional.
273
Tire Models
The parameter:
tang_non_uniformity
Means:
Amplitude of the harmonic tangential
stiffness variation as percentage of the
mean tangential stiffness.
Note:
tang_non_unif_ang_position
conicity
Parameter is optional.
ply_steer_percentage
Parameter is optional.
run_out
run_out_ang_position
number_belt_segments
number_blocks_per_belt_segm
274 Adams/Tire
The parameter:
number_tread_strips
Means:
Number of strips, into which the contact
points are arranged in the full 3D variant,
using an equal spacing.
Note:
maximum_time_step
275
Tire Models
The parameter:
BDF_parameter
Means:
Numerical parameter to control the internal
FTire implicit (BDF) integration scheme,
which is independent of the Adams
integrator.
0 = Euler explicit
0.5 = Trapezoidal rule
1 = Euler implicit
Theoretically, every value between 0 and 1
are allowed. 0.505 or greater is
recommended.
276 Adams/Tire
277
Tire Models
0
$ [0/1] additional_output_file =
0
$ [0/1]
verbose =
0
$ [0/1]
$----------------------------------------------OPERATING_CONDITIONS
[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
inflation_pressure =
2.0
$ [bar]
tread_depth =
8.0
$ [m]
model_level =
7
$ [-]
$---------------------------------------------------------PARAMETER
[FTIRE_DATA]
$basic data and geometry *******************************************
tire_section_width =
195
$ [mm]
tire_aspect_ratio =
65
$ [%]
rim_diameter =
381
$ [mm]
rim_width =
152.4
$ [mm]
load_index =
91
$ [-]
rolling_circumference =
1975
$ [mm] tread_lat_curvature_radius =
800
$ [mm]
tread_width =
160
$ [mm]
tire_mass =
9000
$ [g]
interior_volume =
0.03e9 $ [mm^3]
volume_gradient =
1.0
$ [%/mm] belt_torsion_lat_displ_coupl =
0.0
$ [deg/mm]
$
278 Adams/Tire
279
Tire Models
100.0
$ [N/deg]
$
rim_flange_contact_stiffness = 3000.0
$ [N/mm] rim_to_flat_tire_distance =
30.0
$ [mm]
$
$tread properties **************************************************
tread_depth =
8.0
$ [mm]
tread_base_height =
3.0
$ [mm] stiffness_tread_rubber =
64
$ [Shore A]
tread_positive =
65
$ [%]
damping_tread_rubber =
0.025
$
[ms]
$
sliding_velocity =
0.1
$ [mm/ms]
blocking_velocity =
50.0
$ [mm/ms]
low_ground_pressure =
0.01
$ [bar]
med_ground_pressure =
2.0
$ [bar]
high_ground_pressure =
10.0
$ [bar]
mu_adhesion_at_low_p =
1.3
$ [-]
mu_sliding_at_low_p =
1.1
$ [-]
mu_blocking_at_low_p =
0.8
$ [-]
mu_adhesion_at_med_p =
1.3
$ [-]
mu_sliding_at_med_p =
1.0
280 Adams/Tire
$ [-]
mu_blocking_at_med_p =
0.8
$ [-]
mu_adhesion_at_high_p =
1.3
$ [-]
mu_sliding_at_high_p =
1.0
$ [-]
mu_blocking_at_high_p =
0.8
$ [-]
$
$tire imperfections ************************************************
static_balance_weight =
0.0
$ [g] static_balance_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg] dynamic_balance_weight =
0.0
$ [g] dynamic_balance_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
radial_non_uniformity =
0.0
$ [%] radial_non_unif_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
tang_non_uniformity =
0.0
$ [%] tang_non_unif_ang_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
ply_steer_percentage =
0.0
$ [%] conicity =
0.0
$ [deg]
run_out =
0.0
$ [mm] run_out_angular_position =
0.0
$ [deg]
$
$measuring conditions **********************************************
inflation_pressure =
2.0
$ [bar]
rim_inertia =
0.25e9 $ [g*mm^2]
$
281
Tire Models
possibly time-dependent inflation pressure, whereas the [FTIRE_DATA] value describes the
inflation pressure at which the remainder of the data measurements had been taken.
Tread depth -The operating condition value of tread_depth defines the actual, possibly time-
dependent tread depth, whereas the [FTIRE_DATA] value describes the tread depth at which the
remainder of the data measurements had been taken.
Model level - The operating condition value of model_level defines what variant of FTire is to
be used: the basic version (=6) or the full 3D version (=7). The list of possible variants will be
extended in the next release.
Also in the next FTire release, ambient temperature, will be added to the list of operating conditions.
To determine the actual operating conditions, FTire looks for the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
in the basic or preprocessed tire data file. If it does not find this section, or it does not contain the
respective definitions, FTire uses the data in the sections [FTIRE_DATA] or
[FTIRE_PREPROCESSED_DATA] as the measurement conditions.
In case the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS] is defined, FTire first tries to read a constant value
for each operating condition. This value may either be the same for all tires using the data file, or it can
have individual values for each such tire instance.
You can enter constant operating conditions as shown the table below.
282 Adams/Tire
Means:
inflation_pressure
inflation_pressure_wheel_i
tread_depth
tread_depth_wheel_i
model_level
If no constant value is found, FTire looks for a table that is defining data points for operating condition
versus time. These data points then will be piecewise linearly interpolated with respect to simulation
time.
283
Tire Models
You enter such look-up tables as subsections of the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS]. These
subsections can each contain up to 200 data pairs, one pair per line. Every data pair consists of a value
for time and a corresponding value for the operating condition. Units are the same as for constant values.
Similarly as for constant values, tables which are valid for all tires, or individual tables for each instance
are allowed.
The names of these table subsections, with obvious meanings, are:
(TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE)
(TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_ i)
(TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH)
(TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH_WHEEL_ i)
(TIME_TABLE_MODEL_LEVEL)
(TIME_TABLE_MODEL_LEVEL_WHEEL_ i)
The following examples defines a sudden pressure loss (between 5 and 5.2 s of simulation time) in tire
with GFORCE ID 2. In addition, it specifies constant inflation pressure (2.2 bar) for the other tires, and
a certain, equal and constant extreme tread wear (0.1 mm every100 s) for all tires. Model level is chosen
to be the full 3D variant for all tires at any time:
$-----------------------------------------------------OPERATING_CONDITIONS
[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
MODEL_LEVEL = 7
INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_1 = 2.2
INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_3 = 2.2
INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_4 = 2.2
(TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH)
0
8.0
100
7.9
(TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_2)
0
2.2
5
2.2
5.2
1.2
284 Adams/Tire
Note:
If you use the preprocessed data file in subsequent simulations, don't forget to copy the
[operating_conditions] section from the basic data file manually into the preprocessed data
file. This is not done automatically, because tire operating conditions are not considered to
be part of the tire data.