Sampling and Pulse Code

Modulation
Chapter 6

Dr. Yun Q. Shi

Dept of Electrical & Computer Engineering
New Jersey Institute of Technology
shi@njit.edu

Sampling Theorem
• A Signal is said to be band-limited if
– g (t), its spectrum (FT) G(ω)
– G (ω) = 0 as | ω | > 2πB
• Sampling Theorem:
The signal can be reconstructed from its samples taken
uniformly at a rate
R > 2B.
– That is, the minimum sampling frequency is
fs = 2B [Ts = 1/2B] (Ts: sampling interval)
fs: Nyguist rate for g(t)
Ts: Nyguist interval for g(t)
Ts = 1/fs
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 2

1
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 3

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 4

2
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 5

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 6

3
 Signal Reconstruction:
Interpolation
1. Zero-order hold circuit (LPF)
Figure 6.2 ! " Simple interpolation using
zero-order hold circuit (LPF)
Frequency response of the LPF:
 ωT  1 ω 
H (ω ) = Ts sin c s  = sin c  (6.8)
 2  2B  4B 

Interpolation filter impulse response h(t):

g (t ) * h(t ) = g (t )
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 7

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 8

4
 Signal Reconstruction:
Interpolation…
2. Ideal interpolation (sinc function)
Figure 6.3 ! " Ideal interpolation

g (t ) = ∑ g ( kT s ) h ( t − kT s )

k

= ∑ g ( kT s ) sin c [ 2π B ( t − kT s )]  Eq . 6 . 10
k 
= ∑ g ( kT s ) sin c [ 2π Bt − k π )] 
k 

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 9

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 10

5
 Maximum Information Rate:
Statement
• Two pieces of information per second per
Hertz bandwidth.

• That is, a maximum of 2B independent pieces

of information per second can be transmitted
error-freely, over a noise-less channel of
bandwidth B Hz.

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 11

Maximum Information Rate:

Justification
• Noise free
– A channel of bandwidth B Hz can transmit a signal
of bandwidth B Hz error-freely.
• Sampling Theorem:
– A signal of bandwidth B can be reconstructed from
its Nyguist samples at a rate of 2B Hz.
– The signal can be reconstructed by 2B independent
pieces of information per second (lower bound).

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 12

6
 Pulse Modulation
• PAM Pulse – Amplitude Modulation
• PWM Pulse – Width Modulation
• PPM Pulse – Position Modulation
• PCM Pulse – Code Modulation
By far, the most popular among
pulse modulation.

– Figure 6.8 shown next

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 13

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 14

7
 Dr. Shi Digital Communications 15

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• One advantage of using pulse modulation:

– It permits the simultaneous transmission of
several signals on a time-sharing basis.
– Interweaving several signals along time
domain.
– Figure 6.9

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 16

8
 Dr. Shi Digital Communications 17

Quantization:
Discretization of magnitude of a signal

• Input-output characteristic of a uniform

midtread quantizer (Figure 2.4, Shi & Sun)
• Input-output characteristic of a uniform midrise
quantizer (Figure 2.5, Shi & Sun, 1999)
• Yi = Q(x) if x belongs to (d i , d i+1)
• di : decision levels
• i : index of intervals
• yi : reconstruction level (quantizing level)
• di+1 − di = ∆ : step size
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 18

9
 Quantization …
1. Except for possibly the right-most and left-
most intervals, all intervals (hence, decision
levels) along the x-axis are uniformly spaced
(same interval length).
2. Except for possibly the outer intervals, the
reconstruction levels are also uniformly
spaced. Each inner reconstruction level is the
arithmetic average of the two decision levels
of the corresponding interval along x-axis.
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 19

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 20

10
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 21

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 22

11
 Quantization Distortion
• Quant. noise, quant. error, e
q
eq = x − Q(x)
• Mean-square quant. error
N
MSEq = ∑ ∫
d i +1
( x − Q( x ))2 f x ( x )dx
di
i =1

– N: number of intervals
– f x (x): pdf
– (x− Q(x)) : eq2
2
.
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 23

Quantization Distortion …

• Assume that f x (x) is uniformly distributed

d2 1
MSEq = N ∫ ( x − Q( x)) 2 dx
di N∆
∆2
= ⇒ ∆ ↓→ MSEq ↓
12
MSEq = σ q2

• Variance of input x: σ 2
=
(N ∆ )2
x
12
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 24

12
 Quantization Distortion …

• Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR ms

σ x2
SNRms = 10 log10 2 = 10 log10 N 2
σq

If N = 2n

then SNRms = 20 log10 2n = 20 ⋅ n ⋅ log10 2 = 6.02ndb

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 25

Quantization Distortion …
• Meaning:
– If we use the Natural Binary Code to code the
reconstruction levels of a uniform quantizer with a
uniformly distributed input source, then every
increased bit in the coding brings out a 6.02 dB
increase in the SNR ms .
– That is, whenever the step size of the uniform
quantizer decreases by a half, the MSEq decreases
four times.

Dr. Shi Digital Communications 26

13
 Transmission Bandwidth

• Consider
a binary PCM, (uniform quantization + NBC),
– There are N quantization levels, N = 2 n.
– Using n binary digits (bits) to encode each quant.
level.
– A signal m(t): band-limited to B Hz requiring a
minimum of 2B samples per second.
⇒ a total of 2n B bits/sec (bps)
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 27

Transmission Bandwidth…

• Because:
– A unit bandwidth (1 Hz) can transmit a maximum of two
pieces of information per second,
Need a minimum channel bandwidth B T Hz.

⇒ BT = nB Hz

Theoretical minimum transmission channel bandwidth

required to transmit the PCM signal.

– Example 6.2
Dr. Shi Digital Communications 28

14