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Phys Electricity Magnetism Notes
Phys Electricity Magnetism Notes
Lecture Notes
Dr. Jason Chun Shing Pun
Department of Physics
The University of Hong Kong
January 2005
Contents
1 Vector Algebra
1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Components of Vectors . . . . . . . .
1.4 Multiplication of Vectors . . . . . . .
1.5 Vector Field (Physics Point of View)
1.6 Other Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Electric Force & Electric Field
2.1 Electric Force . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 The Electric Field . . . . . . . .
2.3 Continuous Charge Distribution
2.4 Electric Field Lines . . . . . . .
2.5 Point Charge in E-field . . . . .
2.6 Dipole in E-field . . . . . . . . .
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4 Electric Potential
4.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces . .
4.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric
4.4 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Capacitance and DC Circuits
5.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Calculating Capacitance . .
5.3 Capacitors in Combination .
5.4 Energy Storage in Capacitor
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. . . . . . .
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Potential V
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1
1
1
2
4
6
6
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8
8
9
12
18
21
22
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25
25
28
28
31
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36
36
40
45
48
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51
51
51
54
55
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Dielectric Constant . . . .
Capacitor with Dielectric .
Gauss Law in Dielectric .
Ohms Law and Resistance
DC Circuits . . . . . . . .
RC Circuits . . . . . . . .
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6 Magnetic Force
6.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . .
6.2 Motion of A Point Charge in
6.3 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Magnetic Force on Currents
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. . . . . . . . .
Magnetic Field
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7 Magnetic Field
7.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Parallel Currents . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Amp`eres Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Magnetic Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Magnetic Dipole in A Constant B-field
7.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials . . .
8 Faradays Law of Induction
8.1 Faradays Law . . . . . . .
8.2 Lenz Law . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Motional EMF . . . . . .
8.4 Induced Electric Field . .
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9 Inductance
9.1 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 LR Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Energy Stored in Inductors . . . . . . . .
9.4 LC Circuit (Electromagnetic Oscillator) .
9.5 RLC Circuit (Damped Oscillator) . . . .
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57
58
60
61
64
69
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73
73
75
76
78
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81
81
86
88
92
93
94
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98
98
99
100
104
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107
107
110
112
113
115
10 AC Circuits
10.1 Alternating Current (AC) Voltage . . . . .
10.2 Phase Relation Between i, V for R,L and C
10.3 Single Loop RLC AC Circuit . . . . . . . .
10.4 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Power in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 The Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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116
116
117
119
121
121
123
ii
Maxwells
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iii
Equations
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125
125
127
128
Chapter 1
Vector Algebra
1.1
Definitions
1.2
Vector Algebra
~a + ~b = ~b + ~a
~ = (~a + ~c) + d~
~a + (~c + d)
1.3
Components of Vectors
Usually vectors are expressed according to coordinate system. Each vector can
be expressed in terms of components.
The most common coordinate system: Cartesian
~a = ~ax + ~ay
q
a2x + a2y
a =
ax = a cos; ay = a sin
ay
tan =
ax
Figure 1.2: measured anti-clockwise
from position x-axis
Unit vectors have magnitude of 1
a
=
~a
= unit vector along ~a direction
|~a|
i j
l l
x y
k
l
z
~a = ax i + ay j + az k
1. Polar Coordinate:
~a = ar r + a
~a = ar r + a + az z
r originated from nearest point on
z-axis (Point O)
Figure 1.4: Cylindrical Coordinates
3. Spherical Coordinates:
~a = ar r + a + a
r originated from Origin O
1.4
Multiplication of Vectors
1. Scalar multiplication:
~b=m~a
~b,~a are vectors; m is a scalar
If
then
b=m a
(Relation between magnitude)
o
bx =m ax
Components also follow relation
by =m ay
i.e.
~a =
ax i +
ay j +
az
k
k
If
~c = ~a ~b,
then c = |~c| = a b sin
~a ~b 6= ~b ~a !!!
~a ~b = ~b ~a
~a ~b = ax
bx
j k
(ay bz az by ) i
ay az =
+(az bx ax bz ) j
by bz
+(ax by ay bx ) k
4. Vector identities:
~a (~b + ~c) = ~a ~b + ~a ~c
~a (~b ~c) = ~b (~c ~a) = ~c (~a ~b)
~a (~b ~c) = (~a ~c) ~b (~a ~b) ~c
1.5
~
A vector field F(x,
y, z) is a mathematical function which has a vector output
for a position input.
~ y, z))
(Scalar field U(x,
1.6
Other Topics
Tangential Vector
Figure 1.8: d~l is a vector that is always tangential to the curve C with infinitesimal
length dl
Surface Vector
Figure 1.9: d~a is a vector that is always perpendicular to the surface S with
infinitesimal area da
Some uncertainty!
Two conventions:
Area formed from a closed curve
Chapter 2
Electric Force & Electric Field
2.1
Electric Force
F~12 =
where r12 =
1
40
qr12q2 r12
12
~r12
is the unit vector which locates particle 1 relative to particle 2.
|~r12 |
i.e.
1
q2 q1
2 r21
40 r21
BUT:
r12 = r21 = distance between q1 , q2
~r2 ~r1
~r12
~r21
=
=
=
r12
r21 =
r21
r21
r12
F~1 =
N
X
F~1,j
j=2
2.2
While we need two charges to quantify the electric force, we define the electric
field for any single charge distribution to describe its effect on other charges.
10
F~0,i =
1
q0 qi
2 r0,i
40 r0,i
where r0,i is the unit vector along the direction from charge qi to q0 ,
r0,i = Unit vector from charge qi to point P
= ri (radical unit vector from qi )
~
~ = lim F
Recall E
q0 0 q0
E-field due to qi at point P:
~i =
E
1
qi
2 ri
40 ri
i.e.
11
~ =
E
~i =
E
1 X qi
ri
40 i ri2
p~ = q d~ = qdd
p = qd
Example:
Notice:
~+
E
(E-field
due to +q)
~
E
(E-field
due to q)
~ + and E
~ cancel out.
Horizontal E-field components of E
Net E-field points along the axis oppo-
12
E =2
}|
But r =
s
d 2
cos =
E =
1
q
2
40 r
2
cos
+ x2
d/2
r
p
1
40 [x2 + ( d2 )2 ] 32
(p = qd)
Special case:
When x d
3
d 3
d
[x2 + ( )2 ] 2 = x3 [1 + ( )2 ] 2
2
2x
Binomial Approximation:
(1 + y)n 1 + ny
E-field of dipole +
Compare with
if y 1
1
p
1
3 3
40 x
x
1
E-field for single charge
r2
Result also valid for point P along any axis with respect to dipole
2.3
dq
1
2 r
40 r
13
~ =
E
~ =
dE
V olume
V olume
1
40
dq
r2
(1) In many cases, we can take advantage of the symmetry of the system to
simplify the integral.
(2) To write down the small charge element dq:
1-D
2-D
3-D
Example 1:
dq = ds
dq = dA
dq = dV
charge per
unit length
=
(1) Symmetry considered: The E-field from +z and z directions cancel along
z-direction, Only horizontal E-field components need to be considered.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = dz
Horizontal E-field at point P due to element dz =
~ cos =
|dE|
1
dz
2 cos
40 r
{z
dEdz
E-field due to entire line charge at point P
L/2
E =
L/2
dz
1
2 cos
40 r
L/2
= 2
0
dz
2 cos
40 r
14
z = x tan
x = r cos
dz = x sec2 d
r 2 = x2 sec2
z=0 ,
(2) When
= 0
z = L/2 = 0
E = 2
40
= 2
40
40
= 2
40
= 2
40
= 2
E=
where tan 0 =
0
0
0
0
L/2
x
x sec2 d
cos
x2 sec2
1
cos d
x
0
1
(sin )
0
x
1
sin 0
x
1
L/2
q
x
x2 + ( L2 )2
1
L
q
40 x x2 + ( L )2
2
along x-direction
1. x L :
E+
2. L x :
E+
1
L
40 x L2
Ex =
20 x
15
Ring of Charge
(1) Symmetry considered: For every charge element dq considered, there exists
~ field components cancel.
dq0 where the horizontal E
Overall E-field lies along z-direction.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge
dq
Linear
charge density
ds
Circular
length element
dq = R d,
where is the angle
measured on the ring plane
dE =
dq
1
2 cos
40 r
16
Total E-field
dE
=
0
Note:
Here in this case,
convert r, to R, z.
1
R d
cos
40
r2
E=
BUT:
Example 3:
z
(cos = )
r
1
(2R)z
2
40 (z + R2 )3/2
d
0
along z-axis
17
1
dq z
2
40 (z + r2 )3/2
R
1
2r dr z
E =
40 0 (z 2 + r2 )3/2
R
r dr
1
2z 2
=
40 0
(z + r2 )3/2
Change of variable:
u = z 2 + r2
du = 2r dr
(z 2 + r2 )3/2 = u3/2
r dr = 21 du
r = 0 , u = z2
r = R , u = z 2 + R2
1
E =
2z
40
BUT:
u3/2 du =
z 2 +R2
z2
1 3/2
u
du
2
u1/2
= 2u1/2
1/2
E
z 2 +R2
1
z (u1/2 ) 2
z
20
!
1
1
1
z 2
+
=
20
z + R2 z
E=
20
"
z
1 2
z + R2
18
z
1 2
E =
20
z + R2
z
'
1
20
R
20
2.4
To visualize the electric field, we can use a graphical tool called the electric
field lines.
Conventions:
1. The start on position charges and end on negative charges.
2. Direction of E-field at any point is given by tangent of E-field line.
3. Magnitude of E-field at any point is proportional to number of E-field lines
per unit area perpendicular to the lines.
19
20
2.5
21
Example:
Ink particle has mass m, charge q (q < 0 here)
Assume that mass of inkdrop is small, whats the deflection y of the charge?
Solution:
First, the charge carried by the inkdrop is negtive, i.e. q < 0.
Note:
Horizontal motion:
Net force = 0
L = vt
(2.1)
22
~ |m~g |,
|q E|
q is negative,
Net force = qE = ma
a=
2.6
(2.2)
1 2
at
2
Dipole in E-field
Dipole moment:
p~ = q d~
Force due to the E-field on +ve
and ve charge are equal and
opposite in direction. Total external force on dipole = 0.
BUT:
Reminder:
23
torque
work done
Net torque ~
direction:
torque
clockwise
magnitude:
= +ve + ve
d
d
= F sin + F sin
2
2
= qE d sin
= pE sin
~
~ = p~ E
Energy Consideration:
When the dipole p~ rotates d, the E-field does work.
Work done by external E-field on the dipole:
dW = d
Negative sign here because torque by E-field acts to decrease .
BUT: Because E-field is a conservative force field
potential energy (U ) for the system, so that
1 2
dU = dW
For the dipole in external E-field:
dU = dW = pE sin d
U () =
dU =
pE sin d
= pE cos + U0
1
2
, we can define a
24
set U ( = 90 ) = 0,
0 = pE cos 90 + U0
U0 = 0
Potential energy:
~
U = pE cos = ~p E
Chapter 3
Electric Flux and Gauss Law
3.1
Electric Flux
Mathematically:
~ through surface S:
Electric flux of E
26
~ dA
~
dE = E
~ dA
~
E =
E
S
1
2q
q
2 r =
r
40 r
20 R2
~ = dA r
For a hemisphere, dA
q
E =
r (dA r)
2
S 20 R
q
=
dA
20 R2 S
( r r = 1)
| {z }
2R2
q
0
~
Recall: Direction of area vector dA
goes from inside to outside of closed
surface S.
27
~ dA
~
E
Example:
1 q
q
2 r =
r
40 r
40 R2
at the surface
~ = dA r
Again, dA
z
~
E
}|
~
dA
z }| {
q
=
r
dA r
2
S 40 R
q
dA
=
40 R2 S
| {z }
IMPORTANT POINT:
If we remove the spherical symmetry of closed surface S, the total number of
E-field lines crossing the surface remains the same.
The electric flux E
28
~ dA
~=
E
E =
S
3.2
S0
~ dA
~= q
E
0
Gauss Law
E =
~ dA
~= q
E
0
S
3.3
Gauss Law:
~ dA
~ = Total charge = L
E
0
0
S
~ dA
~=
E
~ dA
~+
E
S1
{z
~ A
~
Ekd
29
~ dA
~+
E
|
S2
{z
~ dA
~
E
S3
~
~
= 0 Ed
A
dA =
S
| 1{z }
L
0
20 r
~ =
E
r
20 r
Planar symmetry.
E-field directs perpendicular to
the sheet of charge.
Construct Gaussian surface S in
the shape of a cylinder (pill
box) of cross-sectional area A.
Gauss Law:
~ dA
~ = A
E
0
S
~ dA
~=0
E
S1
~ dA
~+
E
S2
~ dA
~ over whole surface S1
E
~ dA
~ = 2EA (E
~ k dA
~ 2, E
~ k dA
~ 3)
E
S3
2EA =
both
both
A
0
30
~ and dA
~ 2 point up
E
~ and dA
~ 3 point down
E
E=
20
~ dA
~=Q
E
Gauss Law:
0
S
Q
E dA =
0
S
Q
E
dA =
0
S
| {z }
~ =
E
Q
r ;
40 r2
for r > R
Volume enclosed by S 0
q
=
Q
Total volume of sphere
Gauss Law:
q
4/3 r3
=
Q
4/3 R3
31
q=
r3
Q
R3
~ dA
~= q
E
0
S0
dA =
E
0
| S{z }
r3 1
Q
R3 0
3.4
~ =
E
1
Q
3 r r ;
40 R
for r R
~ dA
~ = A
E
0
S
32
BUT
S1
~ dA
~=0 ( E
~ dA
~)
E
~ dA
~=0
E
~ = 0 inside conductor )
( E
S3
~ dA
~ = E
E
S2
~ k dA
~)
( E
dA
S2
| {z }
Area of S2
= EA
Gauss Law
EA =
A
0
On conductors surface E =
Notice:
Inside conductors E = 0
Always!
Example:
33
~ dA
~ = 0 ( no charge inside )
E
S2
E = 0 everywhere.
(ii) For r R:
Consider Gaussian surface S1 :
~ dA
~ = Q
E
0
S1
~ = Q
E
dA
0
S1
For a conductor
z }| {
~ k dA
~ k r )
( E
| {z }
4r2
E =
Q
40 r2
|{z}
Spherically symmetric
34
Total
E-field = 0 inside
Inner radius
Outer radius
a
b
Question:
Inner radius
Outer radius
c
d
For the inside hollow cylinder, charges distribute only on the surface.
35
Q
A
By principle of superposition
Region A:
Region B:
Region C:
E=0
Q
E=
0 A
E=0
E=0
Q
E=
0 A
E=0
Chapter 4
Electric Potential
4.1
Note:
W =
F~ d~s
Path A
= Path Integral
1
Path A
37
DEFINITION:
A force is conservative if the work done on a particle by
the force is independent of the path taken.
F~ d~s =
F~ d~s
Path A
Path B
Work done =
F~ d~s
Path A
2
F~ d~s
Path C
F~ d~s
F~ d~s
Path A
Path B
dU = W = F~ d~s
For particle moving from 1 to 2
dU = U2 U1 =
1
F~ d~s
38
Example:
Suppose charge q2
moves from point 1
to 2.
From definition: U2 U1 =
F~ d~r
r2
F dr
( F~ k d~r )
r1r2
1 q1 q2
dr
2
r1 40 r
r
dr
1
1 q1 q2 2
(
= +C )
=
r2
r
40 r r1
1
1
1
q1 q2
W = U =
40
r2 r1
=
Note:
(1) This result is generally true for 2-Dimension or 3-D motion.
(2) If q2 moves away from q1 ,
then r2 > r1 , we have
If q1 , q2 are of same sign,
then U < 0, W > 0
(W = Work done by electric repulsive force)
If q1 , q2 are of different sign,
then U > 0, W < 0
(W = Work done by electric attractive force)
(3) If q2 moves towards q1 ,
then r2 < r1 , we have
If q1 , q2 are of same sign,
then U 0, W 0
If q1 , q2 are of different sign,
then U 0, W 0
39
1
1 1
U U1 =
q1 q2
40
r2 r1
U (r) =
q1 q2
1
40
r
If q1 , q2 same sign,
then U (r) > 0 for all r
If q1 , q2 opposite sign, then U (r) < 0 for all r
(5) Conservation of Mechanical Energy:
For a system of charges with no external force,
E
K
.
(Kinetic Energy)
or
= Constant
&
(Potential Energy)
E = K + U = 0
U=
1 q1 q2
40 r12
1
U=
40
q1 q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
+
+
r12
r13
r23
4.2
40
Electric Potential
U
W
=
q0
q0
V olt(V ) = Joules/Coulomb
1
q
40 r
Energy Unit: U = qV
electron V olt(eV ) = 1.6
{z1019} J
|
charge of electron
Potential For A System of Charges
For a total of N point charges, the potential V at any point P can be derived
from the principle of superposition.
Recall that potential due to q1 at
q1
1
point P: V1 =
40 r1
= V1 + V2 + + VN (principle of superposition)
1
qN
q1 q2
=
+ + +
40 r1 r2
rN
41
V =
N
1 X
qi
40 i=1 ri
q
1
+q
V =
d +
40 x 2
x + d2
Special Limiting Case:
1
x
xd
d
2
"
d
1
1
1
1
=
d '
x 1 2x
x
2x
"
1
q
d
d
V =
1+
(1 )
40 x
2x
2x
p
(Recall p = qd)
V =
40 x2
1
1
For a point charge E 2 V
r
r
For a dipole
1
r3
1
r2
For a quadrupole
1
r4
1
r3
For any charge distribution, we write the electrical potential dV due to infinitesimal charge dq:
dV =
dq
1
40 r
42
V =
1
dq
40 r
charge
distribution
Similar to the previous examples on E-field, for the case of uniform charge
distribution:
1-D
2-D
3-D
long rod
charge sheet
uniformly charged body
Example (1):
dq = dx
dq = dA
dq = dV
Uniformly-charged ring
dV =
charge dq = ds
= R d
1
dq
1
R d
=
2
40 r
40
R + z2
V =
dV
ring
R d
1
2
40
R + z2
0
2
R
d
=
40 R2 + z 2 | 0 {z }
=
LIMITING CASE:
zR V =
40 R2 + z 2
Q
Q
=
2
40 |z|
40 z
43
Uniformly-charged disk
1
dq
dV =
40
r
disk
Ring of radius x:
dq = dA = (2xdx)
1
2x dx
2
x + z2
0 40
R
d(x2 + z 2 )
=
40 0 (x2 + z 2 )1/2
2
=
( z + R2 z 2 )
20
2
=
( z + R2 |z|)
20
=
Recall:
n
|x| =
+x;
x;
x0
x<0
Limiting Case:
(1) If |z| R
R2
z2
R2 1
= |z| 1 + 2 2
z
R2
' |z| 1 + 2
2z
z 2 + R2 =
z2 1 +
( (1 + x)n 1 + nx if x 1 )
(
|z|
1
=
)
2
z
|z|
R2
Q
=
(like a point charge)
20 2|z|
40 |z|
where Q = total charge on disk = R2
At large z, V '
44
(2) If |z| R
At z = 0, V =
R
;
20
z 2 12
R2
z2
' R 1+
2R2
z 2 + R2 = R 1 +
h
z2 i
V '
R |z| +
20
2R
Lets call this V0
R h
|z|
z2 i
1
+
20
R
2R2
h
|z|
z2 i
V (z) = V0 1
+
R
2R2
V (z) =
The key here is that it is the difference between potentials of two points
that is important.
A convenience reference point to compare in this example is the
potential of the charged disk.
z 2
|z|
V0 + 2 V0
R
2R
neglected as z R
V (z) V0 =
V0
|z|
R
4.3
45
~
(A) To get V from E:
Recall our definition of the potential V:
V =
W12
U
=
q0
q0
where U is the change in P.E.; W12 is the work done in bringing charge
q0 from point 1 to 2.
2
1 F~ d~s
V = V2 V1 =
q0
However, the definition of E-field:
~
F~ = q0 E
V = V2 V1 =
~ d~s
E
Note: The integral on the right hand side of the above can be calculated
along any path from point 1 to 2. (Path-Independent)
P
~ d~s
Convention: V = 0 VP =
E
~ from V :
(B) To get E
Again, use the definition of V :
U = q0 V = W
| {z }
Work done
However,
W =
~ ~s
qE
0
|{z}
Electric force
= q0 Es s
where Es is the E-field component along
the path ~s.
q0 V = q0 Es s
Es =
46
V
s
For infinitesimal s,
Es =
dV
ds
Note: (1) Therefore the E-field component along any direction is the negtive derivative of the potential along the same direction.
~ then V = 0
(2) If d~s E,
~
(3) V is biggest/smallest if d~s k E
~
Generally, for a potential V (x, y, z), the relation between E(x,
y, z) and V
is
V
V
V
Ex =
Ey =
Ez =
x
y
z
, ,
are partial derivatives
x y z
For
V (x, y, z), everything y, z are treated like a constant and we only
x
take derivative with respect to x.
Example:
If
V
x
V
y
V
z
V (x, y, z) = x2 y z
V (r, , z)
Er
V
r
1 V
E
=
Ez
V
z
47
(2) Spherical:
Er
V
r
1 V
E =
V (r, , )
1
V
r sin
z > 0,
|z| = z
Ez =
i
V
h
z
=
1 2
z
20
R + z2
(Compare with
Chap.2 notes)
i.e.
VP V =
~ d~s
E
0 s
=
(E ds)
0 s
= E
ds = Es
0
Convenient reference:
V = 0
VP = E s
(V = Potential of
ve plate)
~ d~s pointing
E,
opposite directions
4.4
48
Equipotential Surfaces
V (r) =
1
+q
= const
40 r
r = const
Note: (1) A charge can move freely on an equipotential surface without any
work done.
(2) The electric field lines must be perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces. (Why?)
On an equipotential surface, V = constant
~ d~l = 0, where d~l is tangent to equipotential surface
V = 0 E
~ must be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
E
Example: Uniformly charged surface (infinite)
Recall
V = V0
|z|
20
Potential at z = 0
|z| = C
20
|z| = constant
V = const V0
49
Recall:
(1) E-field inside = 0
(2) charge distributed on the
outside of conductors.
Q
40 r
50
q1
40 R1
q2
V2 =
40 R2
V1 =
V1 = V2
q1
q2
=
R1
R2
q1
R1
=
q2
R2
q1
4R12
| {z }
Surface area of radius R1 sphere
1
q1 R22
R2
=
2 =
2
q2 R 1
R1
Note:
Chapter 5
Capacitance and DC Circuits
5.1
Capacitors
Q
V
Unit: Farad(F)
where
Q = Charge on one plate
V = Potential difference between the plates
Note: The C of a capacitor is a constant that depends only on its shape and
material.
i.e. If we increase V for a capacitor, we can increase Q stored.
5.2
5.2.1
Calculating Capacitance
Parallel-Plate Capacitor
52
=
0
0 A
~ =
|E|
(2) Recall from Chapter 4 note,
V = V+ V =
~ d~s
E
~ d~s
E
=
+
Q
0 A
E ds
ds
+
| {z }
Length of path taken
(3)
5.2.2
Q
d
0 A
C=
Q
0 A
=
V
d
Cylindrical Capacitor
53
(1) Using Gauss Law, we determine that the E-field between the conductors
is (cf. Chap3 note)
~ =
E
1
Q
r =
r
20 r
20 Lr
V =
~ d~s
E
~
Again, we choose the path of integration so that d~s k r k E
r2
r2
Q
dr
V =
E dr =
20 L r1 r
r1
| {z }
r
ln( r2 )
1
5.2.3
C=
Q
L
= 20
V
ln(r2 /r1 )
Spherical Capacitor
1
Q
2;
40 r
~ d~s
E
+r2
Choose d~
s k r
Q
1
2 dr
r1 40 r
Q
1
1
=
40 r1 r2
=
C = 40
r1 r2
r2 r1
r 1 < r < r2
5.3
54
Capacitors in Combination
{z
}
|
Equivalent capacitance
Q
C1
Q
= Vc Vb =
C2
V1 = Va Vc =
P.D. across C1
V2
P.D. across C2
Potential difference
V
= Va Vb
= V1 + V2
1
1
Q
= Q(
+
)=
C1 C2
C
1
1
1
=
+
C
C1 C2
5.4
55
q
dq
C
Suppose we keep putting in a total charge Q to the capacitor, the total potential
energy
Q
q
U = dU =
dq
0 C
U=
Q2
1
= CV 2
2C
2
( Q=CV )
The energy stored in the capacitor is stored in the electric field between the
plates.
Note : In a parallel-plate capacitor, the E-field is constant between the plates.
U
Ad
|{z}
Rectangular volume
Recall
0 A
d
V
d
C
z }| {
V = Ed
(V )2
1
V olume
z}|{
z}|{
1 0 A
1
u= (
) ( Ed )2
2 d
Ad
56
Unew =
=
= 2Uold
2Cnew
2Cold /2
Q
V
u
Q
2V
u
C
E
U
C/2
E
2U
Q/2
V
u/4
C
E
U
C/2
E/2
U/2
(E = Vd )
(U = u volume)
5.5
57
Dielectric Constant
We first recall the case for a conductor being placed in an external E-field E0 .
58
The aligned dipoles will generate an induced E-field E 0 , where |E 0 | < |E0 |.
We can observe the aligned dipoles in the form of induced surface charge.
Dielectric Constant : When a dielectric is placed in an external E-field E0 ,
the E-field inside a dielectric is induced.
E-field in dielectric
E=
1
E0
Ke
Ke = dielectric constant
Example :
Vacuum
Porcelain
Water
Perfect conductor
Air
5.6
Ke
Ke
Ke
Ke
Ke
=1
= 6.5
80
=
= 1.00059
Case I :
V = Ed Vnew =
Ke
Q
C=
Cnew = Ke Cold
V
For a parallel-plate capacitor with dielectric:
C=
Ke 0 A
d
C=
= Ke 0
A
d
59
in general with
Unew =
Uold < Uold
Ke
0
Q
E =
0 A
E =
(Chapter 3 note)
( = charge per unit area = Q/A)
E
Q0
=
Ke
Ke 0 A
E0 = E
Q0
Q
=
Ke 0 A
0 A
Q0 = Ke Q > Q
5.7
60
C 0 Ke C
U 0 Ke U
The Gauss Law weve learned is applicable in vacuum only. Lets use the capacitor as an example to examine Gauss Law in dielectric.
Free charge
on plates
Q0
Induced charge
on dielectric
Gauss Law
Gauss Law: 0
Q
~ dA
~=
~ 0 dA
~ = QQ
E
E
0
0
S
S
0
Q
Q
Q
E0 =
(1)
E0 =
(2)
0 A
0 A
E0
However, we define
E0 =
(3)
Ke
Q
Q0
Q
=
Ke 0 A
0 A 0 A
Q0
1
= 1
<
A
Ke
~ 0 dA
~
0 E
=
S
Q0
E-field in dielectric
free charge
induced charge
61
h
i
~ 0 dA
~ =QQ 1 1
E
Ke
S
Q
~ 0 dA
~=
0 E
Ke
S
~ 0 dA
~=Q
Ke E
0
S
Gauss Law
in dielectric
Note :
E0
for dielectric
Ke
(2) Only free charges need to be considered, even for dielectric where there
are induced charges.
(1) This goes back to the Gauss Law in vacuum with E =
where
~ dA
~=Q
E
~ is E-field in dielectric,
E
= Ke 0 is Permittivity
1
CV 2
2
Ke 0 A
C=
d
U=
V = Ed
Energy stored per unit volume:
ue =
U
1
= Ke 0 E 2
Ad
2
5.8
i=
dQ
dt
62
Convention :
(1) Direction of current is the direction of flow of positive charge.
(2) Current is NOT a vector, but the current density is a vector.
~j = charge flow per unit time per unit area
~
~j dA
i=
Drift Velocity :
| {z }
Volume of charge
passing through
Current:
Current Density:
i=
Q
= nqAvd
t
~j = nq~vd
Note : For metal, the charge carriers are the free electrons inside.
~j = ne~
vd for metals
63
~ = ~j
E
~ d~s = E L
V = E
Current density:
j=
E=
V
L
i
A
E
j
V
1
=
L i/A
=
V
L
=R=
i
A
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
Note: V = iR is NOT a statement of Ohms Law. Its just a definition for
resistance.
5.9. DC CIRCUITS
64
ENERGY IN CURRENT:
Assuming a charge Q enters
with potential V1 and leaves with
potential V2 :
For a resistor R,
5.9
P = i2 R =
P = i V =
Power dissipated
in conductor
V 2
R
DC Circuits
E = Work done/charge = V2 V1
5.9. DC CIRCUITS
65
Example :
Va = Vc
Vb = Vd
By Definition: Vc Vd = iR
Va Vb = E
E
R
zero resistance inside battery.
E = iR
i=
Resistance in combination :
Equivalent Resistance
R = R1 + R2
1
1
1
=
+
R
R1 R2
5.9. DC CIRCUITS
66
Example :
E = i(R + r)
E
i =
R+r
dR
(R + r)2 (R + r)3
Setting
dP
E2
=0
[(R + r) 2R] = 0
dR
(R + r)3
rR=0
R=r
5.9. DC CIRCUITS
67
Va > Vb
Potential difference = iR
Vb > Va
Potential difference = +E
5.9. DC CIRCUITS
68
By junction rule:
i1 = i2 + i3
(5.1)
Loop A 2E0 i1 R i2 R + E0 i1 R = 0
Loop B i3 R E0 i3 R E0 + i2 R = 0
Loop C 2E0 i1 R i3 R E0 i3 R i1 R = 0
(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)
By loop rule:
BUT:
(5.4) = (5.2) + (5.3)
General rule: Need only 3 equations for 3 current
i1 = i2 + i3
3E0 2i1 R i2 R = 0
2E0 + i2 R 2i3 R = 0
(5.1)
(5.2)
(5.3)
i2 =
5 E0
4 R
E0
R 2i3 R = 0
4 R
(5.4)
5.10. RC CIRCUITS
69
3 E0
i3 =
8 R
3 E0
7 E0
=
8 R
8 R
Note: A negative current means that it is flowing in opposite direction from the
one assumed.
5.10
RC Circuits
iR
=0
|{z}
C
|{z}
P.D.
across R P.D.
across C
z}|{
dQ Q
1st order
+
differential eqn.
dt C
dt
dQ
=
EC Q
RC
E =R
5.10. RC CIRCUITS
70
Q
ln(EC Q) =
0
t t
RC 0
ln(EC Q) + ln(EC) =
1
t
=
Q
RC
1 EC
1
t/RC
Q = e
1 EC
Q
= 1 et/RC
EC
Q(t) = EC(1 et/RC )
t
RC
ln
= Initial current = i0
i(t = 0)
=
R
i(t ) = 0
(4) At time = 0, the capacitor acts like short circuit when there is
zero charge on the capacitor.
(5) As time , the capacitor is fully charged and current = 0, it
acts like a open circuit.
5.10. RC CIRCUITS
71
(6) c = RC is called the time constant. Its the time it takes for
the charge to reach (1 1e ) Q0 ' 0.63Q0
(B) Discharging a charged capacitor:
i=
dQ
dt
Loop Rule:
Vc iR = 0
Q dQ
+
R=0
C
dt
dQ
1
=
Q
dt
RC
Integrate both sides and use the initial condition:
t = 0, Q on capacitor = Q0
Q
t
dQ
1
=
dt
RC 0
Q0 Q
t
ln Q ln Q0 =
RC
Q
t
ln
=
Q0
RC
Q
= et/RC
Q0
Q(t) = Q0 et/RC
dQ
Q0 t/RC
(i = )
i(t) =
e
dt
RC
1 Q0
(At t = 0)
i(t = 0) =
R |{z}
C
Initial P.D. across capacitor
i0 =
V0
R
5.10. RC CIRCUITS
At t = RC =
72
Q(t = RC) =
1
Q0 ' 0.37Q0
e
Chapter 6
Magnetic Force
6.1
Magnetic Field
~ (electric force)
F~E = q E
~ (magnetic force)
F~B = q~v B
104 T
~ = (3i + 4k)
20k)ms
in a magnetic field B
~
F~ = q~v B
74
(3i + 4k)
104 N
= +0.1 (10j 20k)
= 105 (30 k + 40i + 60j + 0)N
Effects of magnetic field is usually quite small.
~
F~ = q~v B
|F~ | = qvB sin ,
~
where is the angle between ~v and B
~
Magnetic force is maximum when = 90 (i.e. ~v B)
~
Magnetic force is minimum (0) when = 0 , 180 (i.e. ~v k B)
Note:
6.2
75
Since F~B ~v , therefore B-field only changes the direction of the velocity but not
its magnitude.
~ = q v B ,
Generally, F~B = q~v B
We only need to consider the motion
component to B-field.
v2
r
v2
|q| vB = m
r
mv
r =
|q|B
FB = m
2r
2m
=
v
qB
Cyclotron Period
Generally, charged particles with constant velocity moves in helix in the presence of constant B-field.
76
Note :
(1) B-field does NO work on particles.
(2) B-field does NOT change K.E. of particles.
Particle Motion in Presence of E-field & B-field:
~ + q~v B
~
F~ = q E
Special Case :
Lorentz Force
~ B
~
E
v=
E
B
For charged particles moving at v = E/B, they will pass through the
crossed E and B fields without vertical displacement.
velocity selector
Applications :
Cyclotron (Lawrence & Livingston 1934)
Measuring e/m for electrons (Thomson 1897)
Mass Spectrometer (Aston 1919)
6.3
Hall Effect
Charges travelling in a conducting wire will be pushed to one side of the wire by
the external magnetic field. This separation of charge in the wire is called the
Hall Effect.
77
The separation will stop when FB experienced by the current carrier is balanced
by the force F~H caused by the E-field set up by the separated charges.
Define :
VH = Hall Voltage
= Potential difference across the conducting strip
VH
E-field from separated charges: EH =
W
where W = width of conducting strip
In equilibrium:
~ H + q~vd B
~ = 0, where ~vd is drift velocity
qE
VH
= vd B
W
n=
VH
i
=
B
W
nqW t
iB
qtVH
To determine density
of charge carriers
net
VH
i
6.4
78
~ )
Total magnetic force = ( q~vd B
| {z }
force on one
charge carrier
n
| A
{z L}
Total number of
charge carrier
Recall i = nqvd A
~ B
~
Magnetic force on current F~ = iL
d~l = Infinitesimal
~
arc length element B
dl = R d
dF = iRB d
By symmetry argument, we only need to consider vertical forces, dF sin
Net force F =
dF sin
0
= iRB
sin d
0
F = 2iRB
(downward)
79
F~ =
dF~
"
= iRB
sin d j +
cos d i
= 2iRB j
Example 2: Current loop in B-field
For segment2:
(pointing downward)
For segment4:
(pointing upward)
80
N iA n
= ~ = Magnetic dipole moment of loop
~
~ = ~ B
Chapter 7
Magnetic Field
7.1
Magnetic Field
A moving charge
maximum when = 90
minimum when = 0 /180
~ at P0 = 0 = B
~ at P1
B
~
~
B at P2 < B at P3
However, a single moving charge will NOT generate a steady magnetic field.
stationary charges generate steady E-field.
steady currents
generate steady B-field.
82
Notice:
dq ~v = dq
~ =
dB
0 dq ~v r
4
r2
d~s
= i d~s
dt
~ =
dB
0 i d~s r
4
r2
Biot-Savart Law
~ =
~ =
B
dB
entire
circuit
entire
circuit
0 i d~s r
4
r2
83
|d~
s r|
= dz sin
= dz sin( )
(Trigonometry Identity)
d dz
d
= dz = 2
r
d + z2
0 i dz d
0 i
d
dz
2 =
2
4 r
r
4 (d + z 2 )3/2
L/2
0 id +L/2
dz
B=
dB =
2
4 L/2 (d + z 2 )3/2
L/2
dB =
0 i
4d
0 i
B =
4d
B =
+L/2
z
(z 2 + d2 )1/2 L/2
L
L2
( 4 + d2 )1/2
Recall : E =
B=
+ d2
1/2
L2 1/2
2
L
0 i
direction of B-field determined
; from right-hand screw rule
2d
84
~1
Notice that for every current element id~s1 , generating a magnetic field dB
at point P , there is an opposite current element id~s2 , generating B-field
~ 2 so that
dB
~ 1 sin = dB
~ 2 sin
dB
z}|{
0 i ds sin 90
dB =
4
r2
B-field at point P :
B=
dB
cos
| {z }
consider vertical
component
around
circuit
0 i cos
|{z}
ds
4r2
Rd
0
2
0 i R
=
ds
4 r3
0
B =
| {z }
Integrate around circumference of circle = 2R
B=
B =
0 iR2
2r3
0 iR2
direction of B-field determined
; from right-hand screw rule
2
2
3/2
2(R + z )
Limiting Cases :
(1) B-field at center of loop:
z=0
B=
0 i
2R
(2) For z R,
B=
0 iR2
2z 3 1 +
R2
z2
3/2
0 iR2
1
3
3
2z
z
p
40 x3
A circular current loop is also called a magnetic dipole.
E=
85
B =
dB cos
| {z }
around
circuit
z=0
= 0 here.
R = length of arc
z }| {
0 i R
=
3
4 |{z}
r
R=r
when = 0
B =
ds
|{z}
Rd
0 i
4R
Total current = ni dz
86
Using the result from one coil in Example 2, we get B-field from coils of
length dz at distance z from center:
dB =
0 (ni dz)R2
2r3
However r =
R2 + (z d)2
+L/2
B =
dB
L/2
0 niR2
=
2
+L/2
L/2
dz
[R2 + (z d)2 ]3/2
L
L
+d
d
0 ni
2
2
q
q
B =
+
2
R2 + ( L2 + d)2
R2 + ( L2 d)2
along negative z direction
Ideal Solenoid :
then
LR
0 ni
B=
[1 + 1]
2
direction of B-field determined
7.2
Parallel Currents
~ due to two
Magnetic field at point P B
currents i1 and i2 is the vector sum of
~ fields B
~ 1, B
~ 2 due to individual curthe B
rents. (Principle of Superposition)
B=
0 ni
2
87
~ 2 = 0 i1
B
2d
(pointing up)
~ B
~ 1 = 0 Li1 i2 = |F~12 |
|F~21 | = i2 L
(Def n of ampere, A)
2d
Parallel currents attract, anti-parallel currents repel.
0 di
2r
dx
where di = i
B=
+a/2
dB cos =
a/2
a/2
0 i dx
cos
2a r
`
7.3. AMPERES
LAW
88
d = r cos r = d sec
x = d tan dx = d sec2 d
Limits of integration: 0 to 0 ,
0 i
B =
2a
where tan 0 =
0
0
a
2d
d sec2 d
cos
d sec
0 i
d
2a 0
a
0 i0
0 i
B =
=
tan1
a
a
2d
=
Limiting Cases :
(1) d a
a
2d
0 i
B=
2a
tan =
a
2d
B-field due to
infinite long wire
a
2d
B=
0 i
2a
Constant!
7.3
Amp`eres Law
In our study of electricity, we notice that the inverse square force law leads
to Gauss Law, which is useful for finding E-field for systems with high level of
symmetry.
For magnetism, Gauss Law is simple
`
7.3. AMPERES
LAW
89
~=0
~ dA
B
S
A more useful law for calculating B-field for highly symmetric situations is the
Amp`
eres Law:
~ d~s = 0 i
B
C
(Amperian curve)
i = Net current that penetrates the area bounded by curve C (topological property)
Convention : Use the right-hand screw rule to determine the sign of current.
~ d~s = 0 (i1 i3 + i4 i4 )
B
C
= 0 (i1 i3 )
Construct an Amperian
curve of radius d:
~
By symmetry argument, we know B-field
only has tangential component
~ d~s = 0 i
B
C
`
7.3. AMPERES
LAW
90
~
B
d~s = B ds
B
ds = 0 i
| C{z }
Circumference
of circle = 2d
B=
B(2d) = 0 i
0 i
2d
~
B d~s = B ds = B(2r) = 0 iincluded
C
iincluded
r2
=
i
R2
r2
iincluded =
i
R2
B=
0 i
r r
2R2
`
7.3. AMPERES
LAW
91
~ d~s =
B
=0
~
B
s+
d~
~ d~s +
B
1
=0
~
B
s+
d~
~
B
s
d~
~ = 0 outside solenoid
B
~ d~s = B
~ d~s = Bl = 0 itot
B
Note :
~ = 0 outside the ideal solenoid is only
(i) The assumption that B
approximate. (Halliday, Pg.763)
(ii) B-field everywhere inside the solenoid is a constant. (for ideal
solenoid)
(4) Toroid (A circular solenoid)
~
B d~s = B ds = B 2r = 0 (N i)
C
B=
0 N i
2r
inside toroid
92
Note :
(i) B 6= constant inside toroid
(ii) Outside toroid:
Take Amperian curve to be circle of radius r > R.
~
B d~s = B ds = B 2r = 0 iincl = 0
C
B=0
7.4
Magnetic Dipole
~ =
B
0 iR2 n
0 ~
=
2
2
3/2
2
2(R + z )
2(R + z 2 )3/2
93
At distance z R,
~ = 0 ~
B
2z 3
due to magnetic dipole
(for z R)
p~
40 z 3
due to electric dipole
(for z d)
~ =
E
"
Also, notice
Unit: Am2
J/T
7.5
94
Similar to electric dipole in a E-field, we can consider the work done in rotating the magnetic dipole. (refer to Chapter 2)
dW = dU,
Note :
(1) We cannot define the potential energy of a magnetic field in general.
However, we can define the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a
constant magnetic field.
(2) In a non-uniform external B-field, the magnetic dipole will experience
a net force (not only net torque)
7.6
Current i =
e
,
P
95
2r
, where v is velocity of electron
v
=
2m
In quantum mechanics, we know that
P =
l is quantized, i.e. l = N
h
2
eh
N
|4m
{z }
Ke 1
~M
B
B-field produced
by induced dipoles
applied
B-field
~ net = B
~ 0 + m B
~0
B
~0
= (1 + m ) B
~ net = m B
~0 ;
B
m = 1 + m
where
~ is magnetic dipole
moment, V is volume
96
97
Chapter 8
Faradays Law of Induction
8.1
Faradays Law
In the previous chapter, we have shown that steady electric current can give
steady magnetic field because of the symmetry between electricity & magnetism.
We can ask:
Steady magnetic field can give steady electric current.
~ dA
~
B
m =
S
Unit of m :
Weber (Wb)
1Wb = 1Tm2
(2) Graphical:
m = Number of magnetic field lines passing through surface S
Faradays law of induction:
d
m
dt
where
~ = Constant
B
~ = Constant
A
E =0
99
~ = Constant
B
A = Constant
dA/dt 6= 0
|E| > 0
= Constant
B
dB/dt 6= 0
~
A = Constant
|E| > 0
~ = Constant
B
A = Constant
dA/dt
6= 0
|E| > 0
Note : The induced emf drives a current throughout the circuit, similar to the
function of a battery. However, the difference here is that the induced emf
is distributed throughout the circuit. The consequence is that we cannot
define a potential difference between any two points in the circuit.
Suppose there is an induced current in the loop, can we
define VAB ?
Recall:
VAB = VA VB = iR > 0
VA > VB
Going anti-clockwise (same as i),
If we start from A, going to B, then we get VA > VB .
If we start from B, going to A, then we get VB > VA .
We cannot define VAB !!
chemical reactions.
provides the energy needed to drive the
A battery
The loop
sources of emf
8.2
non-electric means
Lenz Law
(1) The flux of the magnetic field due to induced current opposes the change
in flux that causes the induced current.
100
(2) The induced current is in such a direction as to oppose the changes that
produces it.
(3) Incorporating Lentz Law into Faradays Law:
E = N
dm
dt
dm
> 0, m
dt
E appears
~
B-field due to
induced current
change in m
so that
If
Induced current
appears.
m
8.3
Motional EMF
Lets try to look at a special case when the changing magnetic flux is carried by
motion in the circuit wires.
101
= EL
~ d~s
E
(pointing right)
( xL = A, area
enclosed by circuit)
( BA = m , magnetic flux)
102
Pin + Pout = 0
dm
iV + i
= 0
dt
V =
dm
dt
Applications :
(1) Eddy current:
E2
R
Extra power input to keep moving
103
~ dA
~ = N BA cos
B = N B
loop
B = N BA cos t
Induced emf: E =
dB
dt
Induced current: i =
E
R
d
(cos t)
dt
= N BA sin t
= N BA
N BA
sin t
R
z }| {
~ B
~
~ = N iA
= N iAB sin
104
The net effect of the torque is to oppose the rotation of the coil.
An electric motor is simply a generator
operating in reverse.
Replace the load resistance R with
a battery of emf E.
i=
E Eind
R
Pelectric
i2 R +
8.4
Pmechanical
So far we have discussed that a change in magnetic flux will lead in an induced emf distributed
in the loop, resulting from an induced E-field.
However, even in the absence of the loop (so that there is no induced current),
the induced E-field will still accompany a change in magnetic flux.
105
The induced E-field only has tangential components. (i.e. radial E-field = 0)
Why?
Imagine a point charge q0 travelling around the circular path.
Work done by induced E-field = q0 Eind 2r
|{z}
| {z }
f orce
distance
E = Eind 2r
Generally,
E=
~ ind d~s
E
d
~ ind d~s =
~ dA
~
E
B
dt
C
106
Regular E-field
Induced E-field
created by charges
The classification of electric and magnetic effects depend on the frame of reference
of the observer. e.g. For motional emf, observer in the reference frame of the
moving loop, will NOT see an induced E-field, just a regular E-field.
(Read: Halliday Chap.33-6, 34-7)
Chapter 9
Inductance
9.1
Inductance
An inductor stores energy in the magnetic field just as a capacitor stores energy
in the electric field.
We have shown earlier that a changing B-field will lead to an induced emf in
a circuit.
Question : If a circuit generates a changing magnetic field, does it lead to an
induced emf in the same circuit?
YES! Self-Inductance
The inductance L of any current element is
EL = VL = L
Unit of L: Henry(H)
di
dt
1H=1 Vs
A
EL = VB VA = L
VB < VA
di
<0
dt
EL = VB VA = L
VB > VA
di
>0
dt
9.1. INDUCTANCE
108
dB
d
= (N B )
dt
dt
d
di
(N B ) = L
dt
dt
L=
N B
i
Calculating Inductance:
(1) Solenoid:
where A is
cross-sectional area
N B
L=
= 0 n2 lA
i
L
= 0 n2 A = Inductance per unit length
l
Notice :
(i) L n2
(ii) The inductance, like the capacitance, depends only on geometric
factors, not on i.
9.1. INDUCTANCE
109
(2) Toroid:
~ d~a
N B = N B
0 iN 2 b h dr
=
2
r
a
2
0 iN h
b
=
ln
2
a
Inductance
Again,
L=
~ k d~a
Notice B
Write da = h dr
N B
0 N 2 h b
=
ln
i
2
a
L N2
~ E/
~ e
E
C e C
(after insertion of
dielectric e > 1)
(after insertion of
magnetic material)
N B
i
~ dA
~ m B
B = B
L=
KEY
9.2. LR CIRCUITS
110
L m L
(after insertion of
magnetic material)
9.2
LR Circuits
di
E0 iR L
= 0
dt
di R
E0
First Order Differ
+ i=
ential Equation
dt L
L
Similar to the equation for charging a capacitor!
(Chap5)
E0
1 et/L
R
where L = Inductive time constant = L/R
Solution: i(t) =
iR = E0 (1 et/L )
di
E0 1
|VL | = L
= L
et/L = E0 et/L
dt
R L
|VR | =
9.2. LR CIRCUITS
111
di
L
iR = 0
dt
(Treat inductor as source of emf)
di R
+ i=0
dt L
Discharging a capacitor
(Chap5)
i(t) = i0 et/L
where i0 = i(t = 0) = Current when the circuit just switch to position b.
9.3
112
Inductors stored magnetic energy through the magnetic field stored in the circuit.
Recall the equation for charging inductors:
E0 iR L
di
=0
dt
|{z}
Power input by emf
(Energy supplied to
one charge = qE0 )
i2 R
|{z}
di
| {zdt}
Joules heating
(Power dissipated
by resistor)
Li
Power stored
in inductor
dUB
di
Power stored in inductor =
= Li
dt
dt
Integrating both sides and use initial condition
At t = 0,
i(t = 0) = UB (t = 0) = 0
1 2
Li
2
1 2 1
Li = 0 n2 i2|{z}
lA
2
2
Volume of
solenoid
UB
1
= 0 n2 i2
lA
2
uB =
B2
20
9.4
113
i=
(9.1)
dt
By Lenz Law, we also know the poles of the inductor.
Loop rule:
VC + VL = 0
Q
di
L
= 0
C
dt
(9.2)
Q2
U =
2C
UB
1 2
+
Li
2
Since the resistance in the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated in the circuit.
Energy contained in the circuit is conserved.
dU
=0
dt
Q dQ
di
+ Li
=0
C dt
dt
( i =
dQ
)
dt
114
di Q
+ =0
dt C
d2 Q
1
+
Q=0
2
dt
LC
dt
d2 Q
= 2 Q0 cos(t + )
2
dt
= 2 Q
d2 Q
+ 2Q = 0
2
dt
2 =
1
LC
Angular frequency
of the LC oscillator
Energy stored in C =
Q2
2C
Energy stored in L =
1 2
Li =
2
1
C
L 2 =
Q20
cos2 (t + )
2C
1
L 2 Q20 sin2 (t + )
2
Q20
sin2 (t + )
2C
Q20
2C
Initial energy stored in capacitor
9.5
115
(Joules heating)
z}|{
Li
di Q dQ
+
= i2 R
dt C dt
d2 Q R dQ
1
+
+
Q=0
dt2
L dt
LC
This is similar to the equation of motion of a damped harmonic oscillator (e.g.
if a mass-spring system faces a frictional force F~ = b~v ).
Solution to the equation is in the form Q(t) = et
If damping is not too big (i.e. R not too big), solution would become
where
R 2
1
LC
2L
R 2
12 = 2
2L
12 =
Check this at home: What is UE (t) + UB (t) for the case when damping is small?
(i.e. R )
Chapter 10
AC Circuits
10.1
LC
2L
Since we only concern about the steady state solution, therefore we can take any
time as starting reference time = 0
For convenience, we can write
E = Em sin t
And we can write
i = im sin(t )
where im is current amplitude, is phase constant.
Our goal is to determine im and .
10.2
117
VR = VA VB = iR
VR = im R sin(t )
VR = (VR )m sin(t )
(VR )m = im R
118
VL = Lim cos(t )
)
2
= im XL sin(t + )
2
= Lim sin(t +
[ cos = sin( +
XL = Inductive Reactance
XL = L
As
i , VA > VB
i , VA < VB
VL > 0
VL < 0
VL
leads
by
lags
VL
by
VC = VA VB =
)]
2
(VL )m = im XL
where
di
dt
Q
C
119
dQ
i=
Q =
i dt
dt
=
im sin(t ) dt
=
im
cos(t )
C
= im XC sin(t )
2
VC =
where
10.3
im
cos(t )
XC =
[ cos = sin(
Ohms Law like relation for AC capacitor
(VC )m = im XC
1
= Capacitive Reactance
C
VC
lags
by
leads
VC
by
Loop rule:
E VR VL VC = 0
E = VR + VL + VC
)]
2
120
im R sin(t )
+im XL cos(t ) im XC cos(t )
h
tan =
2. Define Z =
XL XC
R
R2 + (XL XC )2
Em
Z
or Em = im Z
Check :
i
XL XC
cos(t )
Z
hZ
i
= im Z cos sin(t ) + sin cos(t )
R.H.S. = im Z
hR
sin(t ) +
QED.
10.4. RESONANCE
10.4
121
Resonance
Em
im =
is at maximum for an AC circuit of fixed input frequency when Z
Z
is at minimum.
s
Z=
R2 + (XL XC )2 =
R2 + L
1 2
C
1
= 0
C
1
L =
C
1
2 =
LC
10.5
= 2f = 314.2s1
Power in AC Circuits
2/
P dt =
0
i2m R
= i2m R
2/
sin2 (t ) dt
0
2/
0
i
1h
1 cos 2(t ) dt
2
sin2 (t
) i2/
2 4
0
1
2
= i2m R
2
i2m R
ht
122
i2
Pave = m R = i2rms R
2
where irms = root-mean-square current
im
irms =
2
Symbol :
Current is a
sinusoidal func.
hsin ti = hcos ti = 0
(xm is amplitude)
hP i = i2rms R =
Laws for DC circuits can be used to describe AC circuits if we use rms values
for i and E.
For general AC circuits:
z
}|
{ z
}|
P = Ei = Em sin t im sin(t )
= Em im sin t [sin t cos cos t sin ]
2
P = Em im [ sin
| {zt} cos sin
| t{zcos t} sin ]
1
2
hP i =
Em im
cos
2
| {z }
power factor
0
(check this!)
Recall
123
XL XC
R
R
cos =
Z
tan =
XL = XC
L =
(Resonance Condition)
10.6
1
C
2 =
1
LC
The Transformer
Solution : Transformers
Primary : Number of winding = NP
124
R
0
Z
No power delivered from emf to transformer.
Power factor :
cos =
The varying current ( AC!) in the primary produces an induced emf in the
secondary coils. Assuming perfect magnetic flux linkage:
emf per turn in primary
= emf per turn in secondary
dB
=
dt
VP
NP
VS
emf per turn in secondary =
NS
(VP is P.D.
across primary)
VP
NP
=
VS
NS
N 2
P
NS
R iP
Equivalence Resistor =
N 2
P
NS
Chapter 11
Displacement Current and
Maxwells Equations
11.1
Displacement Current
~ d~s
We know that the integral C B
around any close loop C is equal to
0 iincl , where iincl = current passing an
area bounded by the closed curve C.
e.g.
=
If Amp`
eres law is true all the time, then the iincl determined should be independent of the surface chosen.
126
If we look at
If we look at
iincl = i(t)
, iincl = 0
Q
=
, where Q = charge on
0
0 A
capacitors plates, A = Area of capacitors plates.
Q = 0 E
A} = 0 E
| {z
Electric flux
We can define
dQ
dE
= 0
= idisp
dt
dt
where idisp is called Displacement Current (first proposed by Maxwell).
Maxwell first proposed that this is the missing term for the Amp`eres law:
127
~ d~a.
E = electric flux through that same surface bounded by curve C, E = S E
11.2
We
learn
earlier
that
electric
field
can
be
generated
by
(
charges
.
changing magnetic flux
We
ere-Maxwell law that a magnetic field can be generated by
( see from Amp`
moving charges (current)
.
changing electric flux
That is, a change in electric flux through a surface bounded by C can lead to an
induced magnetic field along the loop C.
Notes The induced magnetic field is along the same direction as caused by the
changing electric flux.
Example What is the magnetic field strength inside a circular plate capacitor
of radius R with a current I(t) charging it?
Answer Electric field of capacitor
E=
Q
Q
=
0 A
0 R2
128
Qr2
0 R 2
dE
~ d~s = 0 (
+ 0
)
B
iincl
dt
C
|
{z
~ induced kd~s
B
2r
|{z} Binduced = 0 0
Length of loop C
= 0
d Qr2
dt 0 R2
r2 dQ
R2 |{z}
dt
I(t)
Binduced =
0 r
I(t)
2R2
for r < R
~ d~s = 0 (iincl + 0 dE )
B
dt
C
2rBinduced = 0 0
Binduced =
11.3
dQ
dt
0 I(t)
2r
Maxwells Equations
The four equations that completely describe the behaviors of electric and magnetic
fields.
129
~ d~a = Qincl
E
0
~ d~a = 0
B
~ d~s = d
E
dt
~ d~a
B
S
~ d~s = 0 iincl + 0 0 d
B
dt
~ d~a
E
S
The one equation that describes how matter reacts to electric and magnetic fields.
~ + ~v B)
~
F~ = q(E
Features of Maxwells equations:
(1) There is a high level of symmetry in the equations. Thats why the study
of electricity and magnetism is also called electromagnetism.
There are small asymmetries though:
i) There is NO point charge of magnetism / NO magnetic monopole.
ii) Direction of induced E-field opposes to B-flux change.
Direction of induced B-filed enhances E-flux change.
(2) Maxwells equations predicted the existence of propagating waves of E-field
and B-field, known as electromagnetic waves (EM waves).
Examples of EM waves: visible light, radio, TV signals, mobile phone
signals, X-rays, UV, Infrared, gamma-ray, microwaves...
(3) Maxwells equations are entirely consistent with the special theory of relativity. This is not true for Newtons laws!