https tert fans fehl SHORT COURSE LECTURE NOTES 21 & 24 August, 2009 SLOPE STABILITY BY DR. LOW Bak Kong ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR SCHOOL OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY SINGAPOREPages 1-17: Pages 1-50: Pages 51-72: Pages 73-86: Pages 87-92: Pages 93-98: Pages 99-111: Pages 112-124: Pages 125-132: Pages 133-138: Pages 139-141: CONTENTS ‘Stabilty charts, example problems and solutions Presentation slides based on Nash (1987) ‘Basic principles of limit equilbrium slope stablity analysis, from a chapter by Nash (1987), Low, B.K. and Wilson H. Tang (1987) "Relablty analysis of reinforced embankments on soft ground." Canadian Geetechrical Journal, Vol. 34, No.5, pp. 672-685. ‘Low, B.K. and Wilson H. Tang (2001). "Reliability of embankments (on sot ground using constrained optimization.” Proceacings ofthe ‘Third Intemational Conference on Soft Soil Engineering 6-8 December 2001, Hong Kong, pp.123-128, AA Balkema, Publishers ‘Low, BK. (200%). "Probabilistic slope analysis involving generalized slip surface in stochastic soil medium.” Proseedings of the *4th South East Asian Geotechnical Conference, 10-14 December 2001, Hong Kong, pp.825-830, AA.Balkeme Publishers Low 8.K., Gilbert, RB., and Wright, 6. (1998), manuscript of ‘Siope reliably analysis using generalized method of slices: (Appeared in Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No.4, pp. 350-362.) ‘Low, BK, Lacasse, S. and Nadim, F. (2007). “Slope reliability ‘analysis accounting for spatial variation", Georisk: Assessment ‘and Management of Risk for Engineered Systems and Geohazards, Taylor & Francis, London, Vel. 1, No.4, pp.177-189, ‘Slope stabilzation valuation of sol strength (rom Duncan J M & Wright $ G) Effect of sol suction on slope stablity (rom Cornforth D H) Appendix: Mothods of Slices using Microsoft Excel Bishop's simplified method — tatd Reinforced embankment on soft ground ~ Daze * Extended Bishop's method ~ 38-3 + Spencer method: slip cree search —— fade ‘Spencer method: noncirular slip surface search 55) Comparison of Spencer method & Wedge method — 620d [Nested quadrature solution of Chen-Morgenstem formulations —- Ta-TePy Geotechnical Engineering Appreciation Course Slope stability (6 hrs) AIProf B K Low, NTU + Taylor's chart, Infinite slope, Swedish method and various approaches utilizing the method of slices, circular and non-circular slip analysis. + Total and effective stress analysis as well as drained and undrained analysis, cut slopes and embankment slopes. + Evaluation of soil strength and ground water regime. + Effect of soil suction on slope stability, + Preventive works and remedial measures. from Terzaghi, Peck & Mesri (1996) Soil Mechanics in Engrg Practice and wih or without any apparent provocation. Usually slides are due fo. excavation of fo undercuting the fot of an existing slope. However in some instances, they are caused by a gradual disintegration of he structure ofthe sol, staring at har racks which subdivide te sol into angular fragments. In others, they are caused by an increase of the porewaler pressure ina few exceptionally permeable layers, orby a shock that iqueies the sail beneath the slope Because ofthe extraordinary | variety of factors and processes that may lead fo slide, the condions for the stably of slopes often defy theoretical analysis. Stabilty computations based on test results can be relied on ony when the conditions specified inthe diferént S8Btions ofthis article are stictly satisfied. Vaious undetected aiscontinultes in the sol, such as systems of hai crack, remnants of old surfaces of siding or thin seams o! water bearing sand may completely invalidate the resus ofthe computations. Slides may occur in almost every conceivable manner, slowly o° suddenly,Inack anh Hatha C Rolation botwoon stability factor N, and slope angle f for different values of depth factor n, (after Taylor 1937). a 3, & _ : oe 3 aL _ i | Za ! Toe circies ’ ras = Sagi axel — d Ld LEW FEA Pa Voluce of eigoe angle att 4 o ov is ole f dal Position of critical circle for base failure ea ior oe US | awk 4 jo. jo. 2. to. o.oo —— sgay (@) Relation between slope angle ® and parameters « and 6 for location of critical tos circle when is greater than 53°, woe Totes of 8 a wD (®) Relation between slope eile angle and depth factor, for ot-4 vatious values of parameter, ay (after W. Fellenius 1927) gL eile Re — § tS et | a | ‘aties of 8 | Valves of Stebiity Factor He valves of Stabe Ange, 8 aE epee eae ee bora |F min Contours of A equal values OFF Firm Base Ifthe clay beneath a slope consists of several layers with diferent average undrained ‘hear strengths, the center ofthe critical circle must be determined by tial and error. It one ofthe upper layers i relatively sot the presence of a fim base at considerable depth may not enter iio the problem, because the deepest part ofthe surface of sliding is ikely to be located entirely within the softest stratum. For example, ifthe Undrained shear strength ofthe second stratum is much smaller than the undrained shear strength ofthe underlying thi layer, the ecal circle will be tangent tthe Upper surface of the third stratum instead ofthe frm base, Oh ac Verg Sof? Clay If the subsoil contains one or more thin exceptionally weak strata, te surface of sliding is likely to consist of three or more sections that do not merge smoothly one into another. In stability computations such a surface ‘cannot be replaced by a continuous curve without the introduction of an error on the unsafe side. For example, the above figure represents. a slope underlain by a thin layer of very soft clay with undrained shear strength s,. If such a slope fails, the slip occurs along some composite surface abcd, | Stability analysis must be repeated for different positions ofthe points a,b, ‘cand d until the surface of least resistance to sliding fs found that | ‘corresponds to the least factor of safety.from Terzaghi, Peck & Mesii (1996) Soll Mechariles In Engrg Practice! 41. Aide cut was made in a stratum of sot clay that had a evel ae ‘surface. The sides ofthe cut rose at 30° to the horizontal. Bedrock : Was located ata depth of 12 m below the orginal ground surface. > 3-1) When the cut reached a depth of 7.5 m,fallure occurred, I the uit weight ofthe clay was 19.2 kNim®, what was its mobilized undrained ‘hear strength? What was the character ofthe surface of sling? AL Wiha distance from the foot ofthe slope did the surface of sling intersect the bottom ofthe excavation? ‘Ans. 24 kPa; midpoint circle; §:25 m 2. The rock surface referred to in problem 1 was located ata depth of 9 m below the orginal ground surface. What were the mobiized Lindrained shear strength ofthe clay and the character of the surface of sliding? ‘Ans. 22 kPa; toe crcl 3. cutis to be excavated in soft lay toa depth of 9 m, The material has a unit weight of 18.3 kNim® and a, (UC) of 34 KPa. A hard layer undetes the soft layer at a depth of 12 m below the orginal ground surface. Whats the slope angle at which fllire is likely to sy ANS. BEES fo neAeeeF Be phe] ebsn = Sas02si it vps ase BEES a as asa aan from Terzahi Pook & Mos (196) So Mechanics in nara Practice! nc E_ SOMA. trench with sides sing a 0° tthe horizontals excavate in a sof. B32) wich wots 10:21? and has an unranedshoar tenth of" FE=JEA2 kPa, To what depth can the excavation be carried before the sides. 922722 | {)cavein? At what cstance fromthe upper edge ofthe slope wil the “ ‘surface of sliding intersect the ground surface? Ans. 2.75 m; 2.46 m. “ ** Nei rftedp) Ssh §, Abed of cay consists of thee horizontal stata, each 4 m Nek. The <7 values for s, for the upper, middle, and lower strata are, respectively, 30, bana LLel3 20, and 140 kPa. The unt weights 18.4 kNim?. cutis excavated with |=" \S.),..-latetuas Side slopes of 1 (vertical) to 3 (horizontal) to a depth of 6 m. What is the teas via ia._ Fadler of safety ofthe slope against failure? Ans. 1.3. 6. To what depth can the trench in problem 4 be excavated without bracing ©) cs n.d ithe soli located above water table, and has a cohesion intercept c of a 12 kPa and an angle of internal friction of 20°? ‘Ans. 4.25 m. Nese foth BA 7 Towhat dept can a permanent tench mpoblem 4 be excrated (F970 "iota the oy bed Is eompltly submerged an he elecve n Cohesion nereepl ois 4 KPa andthe angle ol internal tons 20°? fans 286m Bet HeExample problems a nh SoA INFINITE SLOPE ANALYSIS, 4, =0 ANALYSIS, AND ORDINARY METHOD OF SLICES. 1. Asiope eto be consrcted in aso for which =O and’ = 36" tis tobe assumed {hat the water able may oecasionally reach the surface ofthe sop, with seepage Baal tothe slope, Determine the maximum slope angle fra fate of eal of 1.8, [Sseuming 2 potental fie surface pra othe slope. What woud be te ator of Safety ofthe slope, constucted at isang, the wate able shoud be wel alow the ‘surface? The sata unt weight ofthe soli 10 KN 2. (@) Explain the mode of falure of a slope in cohesive sol and singuish botwecn the ‘Shortterm and langtonm stati of en earth ert, (by Figure 01.2 represonts the socion ofa clay bank In an investigation of ie bank, a tal ep eurlace BED i choson mn tho form ofa uly are of raalus 11.757 The area [BCDEPB ig 7 ri and is conoidis at G as shown, The average uit weigh ofthe sol is 18 kNint, Above he level of he ine ABE, c, = 22 kN and, below tis vl, y= 34 Kin? Esimata the factor of safety an tis assumed surface Figure a12 3. Thebank oa canal has the profile shown in Figare t.3. The mati ishomogeneous lay of unt weight 20 ll, cohesion 20 kim an angle of shearing resistance 20, For the tal sip exle shown in Fi." 3, hd the factor of safely against otabona flue foe each a the oiowing eonatons (2) tho canals empty. {) tho water nthe canal is evel with the top ofthe bank, (Evaluate the factor of satay sing two approaches: () Using Buoyant Unt weight, nd (I) using total unt weight ‘nd boundary wate forces In bon (a) and (slow fora tension rack 2.9m deep which may be filed wth water. vty ter by eect by Hers we epi yy0,12) Abilene team ‘Ares ABCDEA = 121.95 mF, poment am @ (10, 12)= 4254 Are of sector ABG= 49.52 momen am @ (0, 12)" 0 Length of AB = in30° = 1.0m, length AB! = Hhan30> = 1299 m Are Length of AGED = (101.53/80")R=27.681m Weed vert tension crack CD 2.9m Figure a1.3 4. Using the orinary method of ses, derive an expression forthe factor of sat with scour? fespeet both to eahesan and son, and in orme of eflecive stee) fr aslope made in ‘material having ¢ and ferent rm 260, Fig.Q1.4 shows a slope of total height 3m in material for which y= 25" and = 0 “The sol is saturated wth y= 19 kN’ Estimate the factor of safely against sip onthe tial cc indicated ithe pore prossures are given by u= 02h, where his the mis height ofthe soe being consiere. Figure ats 2Solutions to example problems Infinti. sige crnalysis Gx lve nity 4) Seanavio A> fee 7 ene Fe (-pBe | fand6" Fook Tan Hone, fe Fis, gt 8 = 129° (3° Scenario B+ sth, 13", and no osibir premet Fa(- Bye = ( (=f) a ae we VzC0s'B - uy land YZSinBewR ae = tan Seah bP pa gave sjejJuawepuny Woy ‘|, O 0} UON|OS b yee CAL ee ef des Bel oe 98 waGbug diy 4 | gles7agy- 2 femeh = £1Solutions Ow Binal slp alan cocad Suave F=192Qe @ Jo gerrple . Redvh, @ i Ws Ser ee As [2m -TSin t Bho 648m, Wit, +Wky + RL = GbR (:2rts-20bf), {2% + UPSD «DOIN s Om + 4205S = 30478 A1Ek2m e ne F = [22 ®o te ‘ : Oe erry Bayt pul $083 > C83 > $03 > 03 ea ee 7Lectures + Principles of limit equilibrium slope stability analysis. + Bishop's simplified method of slices; Spencer method with noncircular slip surface; wedge method. + Total and effective stress analysis, drained and undrained analysis, cut slopes and embankment slopes. Evaluation of soil strength and ground water regime. Effect of soil suction on slope stability. + Preventive works and remedial measures Taylor’ chart, Infinite slope, Swedish method and various approaches utilizing the method of slices, circular and non-circular slip analysis. (Preceding 17 pages, p.1-124 and Appendix pages) Total and effective stress analysis as well as drained and undrained analysis, cut slopes and embankment slopes. (Pages 1-72), Evaluation of soil strength and ground water regime. (Pages 1-72, 133-138) Preventive works and remedial measures. (Pages 126-132) Effect of soil suction on slope stability. (Pages 139-141) Appendix: Methods of Slices using Microsoft Excel + Bishop's simplified method — tatd + Reinforced embankment on soft ground 2a2e + Extended Bishop's method — Saab + Spencer method: slip circle search ~ — dade * Spencer method: noncircular slip surface search ——-—-__5a-5b + Comparison of Spencer method & Wedge method ——- 6a-6b + Excel procedure for Chen-Morgenstemn formulations 7a-7eReferences + Low, BK, Lacasse, Sand Nan, F (2007). Slope relly anayis acesuniiig for spatial vanaton, Ceoiie Assessment and Management of Risk ibrEnainsered Systems and Geohazards, Taylor & Francs, London, Val, No Spprcios * Low. 8k 2000, “Pabst slope analysis imvaving generated sl sriace in stochestic sol medium" Proceecings of te 14th South East Asian Geotechnical Conference, 10-14 December 2004, Hong Kong, pp.825-830, AA Balkoma Publishers. + Low, B.K. and Wiison H. Tang (2001). “Reliability of embankments on soft ground ung contained apiization. Proceedings oth thd itemationa Conference on Soft Sol Engineering, 6-8 December 2001, Hong Kong, pp.123- 128, A Balkema Publshers. = Low BK. Giber, R., and Wright. 5.6, (1908), “Slope relabilty analysis using {oneralized metiod of sices," Journal of Geotechnical and Geosaviohnental gineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No.4, pp. 380-382. ‘+ Low, B\K.and Wilson H. Tang (1997), "Reliabilty analysis of reinforced embankments on soft ground: Canatian Geoteetnical Journal, Val 34 No. 5, pp. 672-688. = David Nash Stabilty Anal nar a Comparive vey efit Eau Matas of "pages 1175, m Slope Stailiy, ecto “Anderson ai FrSohn Wiey & Sone Ud Reference for Slides #4 - #37: “A Comparative Review of Limit Equilibrium Methods of Stability Analysis,” David Nash, pages 11-75, in Slope Stability, edited by M. G. Anderson and K. S. Richards, 1987, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. FUNDAMENTALS: = Principle of Effective Stress = Influence of stress history ~ Shear strength SLOPE CHARACTERIZATION TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSES LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODSLIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS: PART 1 + Different methods, but broadly similar in concept. + Involves theoretical modelling of slopes & soils, & soil failure criterion. + Results of analysis are dependent on the theoretical models. + With experience of their application in similar conditions, the results are a useful input to the decision-making process. Nature of Soils + Soils consist of soil particles, and voids filled with water and/or air. + Soil minerals: quartz and feldspar, or clay minerals such as kaolinite, illite, chlorite, montmorillonite, and halloysite. + Water affects soil particle interaction, and may influence the soil shear strength.Principle of Effective Stress Stresses are transmitted through a soil both by the soil skeleton and by the pore fluid. Soil skeleton transmit normal stresses and shear stresses through the interparticle contacts, but pore fluid can exert only all-round pressure. Itis the stresses transmitted by the soil skeleton through the interparticle contacts that contro! the strength and deformation of the soil. Effective stress o =O —U Influence of Stress History Stress history strongly affects the compressibility and shear behaviour of a soil deposit. Ifa soil has not been subjected to a greater vertical effective stress in the past than itis carrying at present, it is normally-consolidated. If in the past the soil has carried a larger vertical effective stress than at present, itis said to be over-consolidated. In general, normally-consolidated soils are weaker and more compressible than over-consolidated soils under the same state of stress.Shear Strength + Soils derive their strength from the contacts between particles which can transmit the normal and shear forces. In general these interparticle contacts are primarily frictional, and so shear strength is directly governed by the effective stresses. The shear strength of a soil is fully mobilized when a soil element can only just support the stresses imposed on it and large plastic deformations are occurring. Failure envelope of soil Shear stress Foture eovelope Normal tress Element of soil Mohr’s circles at failure Soil cannot sustain a state of stress given by point XStraight line approximation of curved failure envelope Stress range of “Ae interest Shear strength s 2 3 3 Normal stress o Mohr-Coulomb linear failure envelope s=c'to'tang' |e’ = cohesion | ¢’= angle of shearing resistance | [(based on effective stresses.) | * Subscripts are used for shear strength parameters determined under particular conditions, e.g ¢;’and ¢,’denote residual strength parameters (effective stress), and c, and ¢ , denote the undrained strength parameters (total stress).Sas e288 858 | i Shear Strength of Cohesionless Soils t +7 Interlocked rows of cylinders re (0) (ae Direct shear test FL sen Y—*" — ondense sand 8 eo strengin -<_ Critieal stole fansds —siengin Shear steess + (KPO) 2 Normol effective svess.0" (kPa) Thickness change (mm) ‘0 25 8075, Horizonto! ispiocementimm)Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils + Permeability of clays << that of sands, -. take years for excess pore pressures to dissipate and for the effective stresses to reach equilibrium. Need to distinguish between drained and undrained shear behaviour of clays Clay particles are plate-like. Large shear deforma- tion across a shear plane can cause adjacent clay particles to align themselves parallel to the plane. The shear strength can then be significantly smaller than that of the adjacent clay mass. This is known as the residual strength. Behaviour of clays in drained shear Like dense sands, heavily OC clays tend to dilate on shearing, and the shear strength reaches a peak at small strains. If shearing is then continued the moisture content will increase until shearing takes place at constant volume (i.e. critical state conditions). Further straining results in the formation of a shear plane and a drop of shear strength to the residual value. NC clays behave similarly to loose sands, tending to contract on shearing. The shear strength 's fully mobilized when critical state conditions have been reached, before it drops to the residual value after large deformations have occurredResults of Triaxial Compression Tests on Heavily OC clay ‘gheor strength 5 (kPa) 0 100200300 -<400~«500 600700 Effective stress o' (KPO) Drained and Undrained Strengths + The shear strength of a soil depends on effective stresses. + When drainage is restricted, pore pressure increases in a soil which is trying to contract and decreases in one trying to dilate. The change of pore pressure directly affects the effective stresses and hence the shear strength. + Empirically, the strength of a saturated soil is constant if its volume remains unchanged. eeeResults of Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Tests on Saturated Clay Shear stress A Feiture envelope (total stresses) pein Undrained | shear strength Hoemal stress Ertective stees circle for The specimens have the same undrained shear strengt and it appears that the clay is purely cohesive (i.e. §, = 0). Explanation: the pore pressure developed in each specimen is different by an amount equal to the difference in confining pressures, and hence the effective stresses are the same. Undrained Shear Strength + In the field, if loading or unloading is fast and no drainage occurs, the undrained shear strength may be used in stability analysis with a total stress analysis (Section 3). The undrained strength of a clay may be determined in the laboratory, or in-situ (e.g. by vane tests). The tests have to be quick enough for the soil to be undrained. In practice the measured undrained strength is affected by the type of test.Groundwater and Seepage + Water pressure affects the stability of a slope by its effect on the effective stresses, which control the shear strength and compressibility of soils and rocks. Pore pressures in groundwater bodies are affected by rainfall, infiltration, and seepage. Evaluation of the pore pressures is essential if an effective stress stability analysis is to be done (Section 3). Ina saturated soil with no flow, the pore-water pressure increases linearly with depth below the water table (hydrostatic pressure distribution). In fine-grained soils, capillary action may cause suction which can lift the pore water above the water table. < seis (he eaves a a wow tbie} 1 u DepinTypes of Slope Movements + Falls + Slides: rotational, compound, translational. Moving mass is well-defined, with slippage along a plane or several planes. + Flows: like a viscous fluid, but can vary from very wet to dry; Moving mass not well- defined; slip surfaces are continuously developing & disappearing. + Spreads: Multidirectional lateral movements by a disintegrating soil mass. Representative cross-section ‘Woter-filed tension cracks Vertical surcharge rom building Presiress force from Fock anchor Often a two-dimensional analysis is done, although actual slip geometry could be three-dimensional. *+ Selection of shear strength — First-time slides, use peak strength? Critical state shear strength is often used as a lower bound strength. — Progressive failure may occur with strain- softening materials. = Slopes with pre-existing shear surfaces: residual shear strength parameters. + Possible tension cracks: z, = 2c,/y + Distribution of pore pressures. + Pore pressure ratio r, defined by r,, = u/(yz) CHOICE BETWEEN TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSES + In principle, either approach could be used to analyze any slope. + Effective stress analysis (using c’, ¢’and u) more logical especially for analyzing long- term stability. + For short-term stability problems, a total stress analysis is often simpler and more convenient . (For saturated cohesive soils: use undrained shear strength c,, with 9, = 0).Final GWE : End of excovetion pore pressure (NG clays) End of excavotion pore pressure Equipotentia! tine {OC cloys) surface increases while the total normal stresses decrease. + If the clay is saturated, the reduction of normal stresses results in a short-term reduction of the pore pressures; the magnitude of reduction depends on the nature of the clay: greater for over-consolidated clays than for normally- ‘consolidated clays. » + During excavation the average shear stress on a failure 1 INC cons) Final GW. ated eae ere i 1 I Ting Pore pase $B$2==> B$2==> $B2 Matrix inverse, matrix determinant, matrix multiplication, matrix transpose, Array formulas, ...... 2.886 | 5.923 | 8.704 | 8.642 | 5.685 1.588 | 4.688 | 3.405 | 2.297 | 7.216 7.479 | 2.206 | 1.758 | 1.074 | 5.703 6.598 | 8.037 | 1.952 | 5.695 | 5.446 2.901 | 7.455 | 5.910 | 1.585 | 3.277Bishop’s simplified method of slices Cylindrical slip surface. Satisfies overall moment equilibrium and vertical force equilibrium: Assumes interslice forces are horizontal. Tip Method of Slices One sliceLimit Equilibrium Methods At failure: Shear strength fully mobilized s=c, (total stress analyses) sS=c’+o'tan’ (effective stress analysis) Stable slopes : Mobilized shear strength < available shear strength Ec Shear strength available A Shear strength required for stability \w Need to search for the smallest factor of safety corresponding to the critical slip surfaceSlope of n slices Equations available = 3 n (vertical, horizontal, & Unknowns: moment equilibrium) 1 Safety factor F Normal total force P on base of slice Positions a of forces P Interslice total forces Z Inclination 8 of interslice forces n-1 Point of action of interslice forces Total 5n - 2 Thus 2n - 2 assumptions needed to make the problem statically determinate as Bishop’s simplified method: Xp =X, = 0R$ TS (amo EBT cio vod one om | Siplied Method) eye nam ontt mt at si tan ma = cosa{ 1+ tana 1 : A P= W ~>-(c'lsin a ~ ultang' sina) Im, _ Des (P= ul)tang'] re if WwW sina - ok 19 12 20 2 11.01. | /Bisl (ktm®) (kNim’) —(°) (m) €[Computed Fr, is forthe specifed slip surface, The minimum Fp can be obtained by searching for the critical slip surface. F(trial) Fal Bishop's ie plified Method} x¢ ye Radius_xmin_xnax__Ax ==, 7 19-22 [4000527044973 r h, = (ytop - ybot), er h = 0.5%(h, + He) BEEBE EBB REEB RBG RBBB RBKZRZBERBEAE0.5(x, + Xj) Xe Radius ot(ad)= sin’ (Ginve) Cee d= 7 =z bo eA Xmax ssin @ = OR Sine = sin >; 4 J Yt Xie, NE Wsing uF my PFN 3303 274 319 0655 2422 4508 8631 749 253 0753 11060 6663 11845 1111 218 0824 17401 8067 13786 1405 196 0878 21240 9070 toed 110821 22071 9525 1881170 0955 23452 9548 tan é) a * (isin a —ul tan ¢' sin «| Im, Yiei+(P =u tan ¢'|BEB BBB BRR RRR Eee Tools\Macro\Visual Basic Editor (VBE), then, on the VBE menu, click Insert\Module, and type on the Module Sheet the following function: a >= H*cotp — [oy Function ytop(x, cotbeta, H) Be. If x <0 Then ytop = 0 aeeaee If x>=0 And x =H* cotbeta Then ytop = H End Function The following code will also works Hcotf Function ytop(x, cotbeta, H) E we F Select Case x net Be Case Is < 0: ytop = 0 2 ae Case 0 To H* cotbeta: ytop = x/ cotbeta Case Is > H * cotbeta: ytop = H End Select End Function Can also use nested IF functions in spreadsheet directly. |Nested IF, instead of funtion ytop() Up to seven IF functions can be nested, but may be hard to decipher the logic J “ =IF(x<0, 0, IF(x>H*cotbeta, H, x/cotbeta)) mm x pHratbeta m x<0, Je m | Xe /TH un | ee | 5 a a m - aot » 407 3 | Need 4-tevel nested IF .* Click the plot-chart button: a * Select x-y scatter plot ce° cabo : (Bishop's | Simi f rt comment: te ert CO! ents Into Cel si iS mated speescteh-- sinc d(x-xc)/R, the other based o.go7 [om gradient of base of 0.832 slices 0.768 0.708 0.780 153.77 14 |SIN(number), COS(number), TAN(number): Number is the angle in radians. lf your argument is in degrees, multiply it by PI()/180 to convert it to radians. Example, to get sine of 30 degrees : “Ssin(30*pi()/180) Alternative: sin(radians(degrees)) : Example, to get sine of 30 degrees: “=sin(radians(30))” SYMBOL FONT | | abedefghijkimnoparstuvwxyz bByded} NLPKAUVOROpotU Boe WC DFGJLPQSVWXY ae+ Select the character within a cell + - For subscript, hold down Alt, and press 0, e, b in sequence, which is equivalent to clicking Format/Cells/Subscript - For superscript, hold down Alt, and press 0, e, e in sequence. Embankment on soft ground 2) 9 as(h) Az 194007) °,) (i) M, =T x Lever M,+M, j = = De @ F M,+AM, F,(x,2,D,....) Potential ambiguities in “factor of safety” wr Wisin, pO reek, aa Lysine = leamtlland EF te. FE = Tard /fayok No ambiguity 29el Weosa [Res~ Wink -T West 2 Went Fae (Ginter frm ay Ege k) rape Aig ps et gated +e EF F: Weenklend) fe Tsk eos (g) ©, = Equivalent average undrained shear strength within depth D _ [X(C, over subdivided arc length)] e (total arc length) ee Therefore, c, is a function of z, D, and the depth-dependent c,, profileuc(j)=c, ata particular depth depth = (2+3)# Cos thelad) -E Radivs a 48) 5 do= ohoFunction AveCu(z, D, Dmax, filer ay cuv) dtheta = theta / 20 cu=0 | If D> Dmax Then Exit Function End If Fori=1To20 <———_—_—_—____ thetad = (i - 0.5) * dtheta depth = (z + D) * Cos(thetad) -z cu= cu + Slice_cu(z, depth, dv, cuv) Next SEER AveCu = cu/ 20 End Function Function Slice_cu(z, depth, dv, cuv) Depth c,2% Mr Mr Mo AMo bw 0.214 6844 2547 7407 -122 2 User-defined functions you created are most conveniently entered via Insert/Function/CategoryUserDefined (or click the fx button), as shown in the example below. Function input prompts such as those shown below are automatically created by Excel for user-defined functions. foes | Dmax ThetaSearch for critical slip circle, example: Inifally x4, 228 D=6 ndérs Then, invoke Solver Te minimize FG changing X,2,D Subjet 15 cortteint that D be wifi, her; fon lation othickness, Te use Goal Seok Click Tools /calseeh To use. Solve Click Teds /Kofye— auaileble7, rl, if A indlaleg “Compe Ven feGere eee eae WB eaBES BS BEB BBB SG SG SG BES SS 4 & =—s adjustable cells ‘garth and methods ccampaleion messages ' configuing constants defauits dialog box options inal solutions instaling interupting models Install Solver 1 Onthe Tools menu, click Add-Ins. I Blsnowme | if Solver is not listed in the Add-Ins dialog I box, click Browse and locate the drive, folder, and file name for the Solver.xla add-in— usually located in the Library\Solver folder — or run the Setup program ifyou cant locate the file. Inthe Add-ins dialog box, select the Solver { Add-in check box. ee nmTnifiol, values prior to Solver ope Aton atl wie jalues 2 ath (ie nyt) CLL 222 aa fst Sind Unreasonable iattal Valucs ; e, ZH D outside the dafined domain oF Cu Or 62,3) suah-tit cede docest ait enbtit Low & Tang 1997 Canadian Geotechnical Journal paper Fig. 7 Deterministic analysis of an unrein- forced test embankment at Nong Ngoo Hao. In Ma: use 24H instoad of 29H, because of GWT) 1 40 8 0 5 1 15 2 oe pe Critical surface -10 (spreadsheet automated search)me Low & Tang 1997 paper Fig. 8. Example reinforcement scenarios for embankment at Nong Ngoo Hao instead of 7H, because of GWT [in qs use Ay 16 10 s+ Low & Tang 1997 paper Fig. 10. Deterministic analysis of Muar forced embankment in Malaysia. Height 6.25 mis net, after deducting the settlement from the 6.07 m fil thickness 5 0 5 1 15 20 2 [P= Tn, Fy= 1226 | eae : 4Low & Tang 1997 paper Fig. 9. Deterministic analysis of re forced embankment on Bangkok clay oo 5 OO 20 AB pp fa m thick weathered clay, ¢, = 34 KPa 10 © 20 40 6 08-4 50Reference: Dovid Nk (1967) 7 LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS Reference: David Nosh “A Comparative Review of Limit Equilibrium Methods of Stability Analysis” pages 11-73, n Slope Stab, edited by M. G. Anderson and K. S: Richards, 1987, John Wiley & Sons Ld “Thote area number of diferent methods of stability analysis available, bu the procedures ae troadly similar in concept. The slope under consideration and the soil forming it are ‘odcled theoretically, the loadings on the slope are included anda fllureertcron for the ‘cil intoduced. The analysis then indicates whether the flue criterion i reached, and ‘comparison may thon be made between these conditions and those under whic the modelled slope would just fil. It is important to realize thatthe results of such at analysis ae dependent on the theoretical models adopted forthe slope and the soil However, when ‘combined with experince of ther application in similar conditions, the resuks are @ useful Input othe devsion making process. 1. FUNDAMENTALS 1-4 Nature of Soils and the Principle of Effective Stress Soils consist of an assemblage of particles with water snd ar illing the void spaces between, ‘Tho paticles are generally either rock feagments (gravel size and larger) of rock-frming smineals (snd size and smaller. The roc-forming minerals are either massive minerals such 1s quartz and feldspar or clay minerals such as kaolinite, iit, chlorite, montmorillonite, end halloyst. In general the massive minerals form angular rotund particles of sit and sand size (€.002-2 mm), while the clay minerals form flake-thaped particles which are generally smaller than 0,002 mm in dimensions The presence of water stongly influences the physical interaction of soil particles, and ‘may influence the shear strength parameters ofa soil. Stresses are transmited through & soil (cr rock) both by the soil skeleton and by the pore flid. The sol skeleton ean transmit normal stresses snd shear steses through the interparticle contacts, but the pore fluid can exert only all-round pressure, Ie isthe stestes transmitted by the soil skeletn through the interparile contacts that contol the strength and deformation of the soil. Where seesses applied to the sol are wholly supported by the pore fluid pressure, they are not fl bythe ‘contacts between particles and hence the sol beaviour isnot affected. This is he bass OF the rincipleofeBectve stress. ‘The effective sess (a acting on any plane is dened by the equation: ono-w o in whieh o isthe total sres acting onthe plane and wis the pore pressure. The total sess is ‘equal to the total force per unit area acting normal to the plane, and the pore pressure may ‘ary independently. The effective tress is approximately equal tothe averg> intergranular force por unit tea and the equation shows that it cannot be measured directly but that tial stres and pore pressure mist ist be determined separately ‘The principle of effective stress is fundemental to soil mechanics and is thus central to understanding the behaviour of slopes. stRien: avi Nash (1987) 1.2. Influence of Stress History The compressibility and shear behaviour of «sol deposit are strongly influenced by its stress history. If soil has not boen subjected to greater vertical effective ies inthe past tan it is eanying et presenti i said to be normall-consoidated, Conversely, inthe pas tke soil has carried a larger vertial effective sires than at present, itis sid to be over-consliered. In general, normally-consolidaed soils are weaker and more compressible than ovet- consolidate soils under the same state of stress, 4.3: Shoar Strength, Sos derive their strength from the contacts between particles which ean transmit the normal land shear fores, In general these interparticle contacts are primarily fretonal, and so shear strength is directly govered by the effective suesss. The shear strength of a soil i fully mobilized when sol element can only just support the siesses imposed on it and large plastic deformations ae occurring Figure (8) shows an clement of soil whose shear strength hasbeen fly mobilized under principal stresses ov and Ox. The Mohs circle for this condition is shown in Figure 1(6) together withthe circles fr other similar tests onthe same soil in which the strength has been Tally mobilized under diferent combinations of suesses. The intermediate principal stess is not shown as it as only @ minor influence onthe shear strength. The lines drawn on the iagram which just touch al the circles are teed te falure envelope. By deiniton the sil ‘cannot sustain a stat of tres given by point X as his lies outside the failure envelope. Eee ‘ 1 neat ot nenrenans Figure? Sigh fine sproxinaton of cred ute envelope 52Ree: Davita (1987) a For most sols the failure envelope is curved (Figure 2) but itis usual to approximate it vera limited stress ange by the Mehr- Coulomb linear relationship: +o'tang! @ ‘where e's the cohesion andi the angle of shearing resistance determined sing effective Stresses, Where the shear strength parameters are determined under particular conditions they te given a subscript. Thus o” and 4 denote the residual steagth parameters (effective stress) and and denote the undraned suength parameters (otal stress). 134 Shear Strength of Cohesioness Soll Sands and gravels are known a cohesonless sols as they evidently have no shear strength ‘when they are unconfined, Thee strength when confined arses from interparticle fietion and the interiocking ofthe panicles. Figute 3 illustrates the effect of interlock. In Figure 3(a) interlocked rows of eylinders ae being sheared relative to one another. For sigaiicant, NES, Daa ing cng igi ()Inosked ows finder (Renta of det shes testo ands or Kenney, 1988) 53Refrnce: David Nk 1987) ‘movement to oecur the rows must separate initlly, and this involves work a fpplied normal stress a well as workin overcoming the fiction between pats of eylindrs. ‘Aer some initial movement the cylinders can side drecly over each other. {A similar proces occurs in sens (Figure 3(0)). When dense sands are sheared they dlste inialy Gi increase in overall volume), and this gives high strength (peak strength) I the shearing is continued the strength drops end eventually the sand may be sheared at constant ‘Volume. In contrast, loose sands contract during shearing and te strength gradually increases ‘wth farther deformation unt he sand is shearing st constant volume. Careful measurements have shown that under the ame normal suess the constant volume condition is the same inespecive ofthe intl density and his is known a the critical state of the sand, 1.32 Shear Strength of Cohesive Sols ‘Clays ar known as cohesive soils as they generally posess a significant sear strength when ‘confined. Although there is sometimes some bonding between elay particles, often this strength is due to suction (pore pressure less than atmospheric pressure) within a clay Specimen. The suction resis in positive effective stresses and hence in some shear seength ofthe soil. ‘Thete are owo important differences between clays and sands which distinguish thet behaviour in shea. Firstly, the permeability of lays is very much less than that of sands, and this inkbits the movement of water i there is atendeney to change volume. As a result it may take years after a change of surfice loading on a deposit of clay for excess pore pressures to dissipate and fo the effective stresses to reach equilibrium. We rust, therefore, Gistinguish between dhained and wndrained shear behaviour of clays. The other important ference between clays and sands concems the shape of the partes; clay particles are platelike, When a shear plane has formed in a clay and there has been substantia shear ‘eformation across it the adjacent clay parieles tend to align themselves parallel to the plane, The shear strength ean then be significantly smaller than that ofthe edjacent clay mass. Thisis known a he residual strength ‘Although clays and sands have diferent mineralogy and thus different intererile fieton, in many respects they behave similarly when sheared. The initial behaviour of elays in shear when they ae fully druined is similar to that of sands. Like dense sands, heavily ‘overconsoidated clay tend to dilate on shearing and the shear siren reaches peak at ‘mall stains. If shearing is then continued the moisture content will nerease until shearing takes place at constant volume (ie. critical sate conditions). Further staining result in the formation ofa shear plane and» drop of shear strength tothe residual value "Normally consolidated clays behave similarly to loose sands, tending to contact on shearing. The shear strength i fully mobilized when ertical state conditions have been reached, before it dope 1 the residual value after large deformations have occured. Failure tenvelopes from some tests on clay ae shown in Figure 4 1.33. rained and Undruined Strength ‘The above discussion focused on the behaviour of clays and sands when full drainage is, allowed. The shear strength of a soll is dependent on the effesive stresses whatever the Conditions of desnage. However, when movement ofthe pore wate i restricted, the pore pressure increases in a sil which is trying to contract and decreases in ne tying to late, “The change of pore presse diwclyaffets the elfective stresses and hence the shear strength, 54 iEaaEssn | 2 2. J Ls & 2k Bae EsBEB BRR BRRBER RBZ BRB RBEBEEB EES Refeencts Dvd Nn (1987) Figure 4, Ress fins ompreson st on hei ove-conslidted Lando cay () en somal ‘soeoliifed Os cay, (fom Kenney, 98) It has been found empirically thatthe steagth ofa saturated sili eonstat if ts volume remains unchanged, This is ilustrsed in Figure 5 which shows the result of testing several dentical specimens of saturated clay in a wiaxal apparatus with dlifeent confining pressures, If no consolidation ('e. no drainage) is allowed, the specimens have the same lundrained shear strength and it appears that the clay is purely cohesive (Le. y= 0). The fexplanation for this behaviour is that the pore presse developed in each specimen is iene by an amount equal to the diffrence in confining pressures, and hence the effective sess are the same. This behaviour is in contast to what happens IT the drainage is not restricted; the specimens would have different drained scengths. ‘When considering field problems in which the loading or unloading occu sufficiently rapidly that drainage does not occur, the undrained shear strength may be applied in the ability analysis when a total stress analysis is used (Gee Section 3). The undeained strength fof clay may be determined inthe lnboratory, of sit inthe fed (by van tests the testi quick enough thatthe affected soli effectively undrained. In practice the measured undrsined strength i affected bythe type of ext and it should be used with eattonReference: David Nah 1987) ‘ Figwe 3. Res fundaned esto sate 414 Groundwater and Seepage “The mechanical properties of soils and rocks are strongly inluenced by the presence of water inthe void spaces, The water has two main effects. Firstly, «change of water pressure in the void spaces can dreily affect the effective stresses which conta the shea sregth and compressibility ofsils and rocks. Secondly, the water can affect the interparticle contacts While an appreciation ofthe later effects canbe important for an understanding of long-term morphological processes, the pore-water pressure effets influence the stability ofa slope Gieelly. Pore pressures in groundwater bodies are affected by rainfall, inflaton, and seepige, Evaluation ofthe pre pressures i essential if'an effective sress stability amlysisis being earied out (Section 3). Tf hole is excavated into wet ground, the standing ater level inthe ole defines the water table. The water table can be measured on site by installation of a standpipe in @ borehole, but this will not distinguish whether or not the water table is perched. The void Spaces in a soil are infrconnected even in a clay. In a satureted sol the voids are by ‘Efnition full of water, and inthe absence of flo the pore-water pressure increases inerty ‘with depth below the water table (hydrostatic pressure distibution, Fig. 6). In finegrained Soil, capillary action may cause suction which ean litte pore water above the watr table In the saturated zone above the water fable the pore-watr pressure decreases lineal with height In paral saturated soils the suction cannot be calculated directly and must be determined by onsite measurement. Suotion in a sil mass increases the effective stresses sd the sear strength Thus it has a dret influence on slope stability Stoning Figure 6 yo pore ress dsibtion DU - ms me . a “Reference: Dovid Nash (1987) + Where groundwater is preset ina confined aquifer, the pore-water pressure distribution is in general ot hiydrostatc below the water table in the overburden. Piczometesare often used to establish the distribution of water pressure with depth; each piezomer i sealed into the ‘round to measure the pore-waerpresire aa particular point Tn general, and parculery in slopes, the groundwater isnot static, du to seepage. 2. SLOPE CHARACTERIZATION Atthe start of a stability analysis, the slope geometry, loadings, soil and grouncwater ‘conditions must be defined. A good apreciation ofthe geology and hydrogeology is ‘obviously essential, and often itis useful wo classify the instability mechanism. There are three major classes of lope movement falls sides, and flows. A numberof sciemes of classification have been proposed, and Figure 7 shows that proposed by Skempton and Hutchinson (1969). ‘SOME paste TYPES MULTIPLE ond COMPLEX LaNosLDES SE aSC eS, ‘ON GLa stores Suceessive sues rus fT pace RovaTioNaL sUDeS (Sup, se) ae ee Figue7, Chsifcatonoflansides. (fom Skmpton and Htchinon, 1968.) 7Rfeene: avi sh (1987) : In general a two-dimensional analysis willbe made, and the geometry must be simplified so that representative cross-sections may be drawn (eg Figure 8). The loadings, soil, and ‘groundwater coniion ean be shown on each crost-sction which can then be used as the basis forthe stability analysis Fig. Represent rss-seton “The principal loading ona slope is usually the selfweight of the sol, but surficeInadings such as those from buildings and prestressed anchors can be included, Where slope is partially submerged, the water pressure normal to the slope should be included. An Ttemative procedure using the submerged unit weight of the soil was given by Bishop (1955). When considering the stabiiy of « slope during earthquakes, the ines forces esulting from ground aceelerations may be included (a pseudo-stati anal), although such an analysis noc always reliable ‘An early decision must be made whether a total or an effective stress enalysis sto be made (se section 3). Then representative shear srengt parameters must be selected or each oil type usually onthe basis of laborstory tests (eg triaxial, shear box) on representative Sample. Sometimes the sirength may be determined in the field by insta tests "The selection of shea strength parameters is obviously crucial othe analysis and-equires experience. For the enalysis of frtstime sides i might be expected thatthe peak strength ‘would be operative. However, te shear strains withina slope are generally not unit, and {or stain-softening materials such as overconsolidated clays this implies progressive fire ofthe soil The ential sae shear strength represents 2 useful lower bound strength fr first time slides, and this hasbeen confirms by Back-analysis of failures in cutings (Skemp, 1979. ‘Many slopes contain pre-existing shear surfaces asa result of previous shear movements ‘There are e number of siuations in which this may have oceurred, including previous landstding tectonie folding and periglacial phenomens and its possible tht movements on these shear surfaces could be reactivated. Under these circumstances itis appropiate € Use the residual shear strength parameters as a lower bound vale “Tension cracks may form a he eret of slope, particulary in cohesive or partially stu- rated sols, The theoretical maximum depth of tension crack na cohesive sols given By de o where cy i the undrsined shear strength and y is the total unit weight of the soi, The possibly that tension cracks could fll with water in periods of heavy rain stould be ‘Considered carefulReference: David Nas 1987) ’ “The distribution of pore pressures within the slope is required if an effective stress analysis, is being carried out. Where possible this is obtained dzectly from instrumentation, but often a model of the groundwater is needed as @ framework for interpreting obsersions and for interpolation. In homogeneous ground conditions in the steady state it is generally conservative to consider that the pore pressures are effectively hydrostatic below the water fable. Amore accurate pore-pressue distribution may be obtained from a fow net, or an ‘squivalent numerical analysis. With any of the above, the pore pressures along & potential fallare surface ar input into the analysis expliciy ‘Altemativel, the pore pressure may be expressed implicitly by the pore pressure ratio ry ven by: ® ‘where u isthe pore pressure at point being considered and zis the weight of sol above. ‘This is often useful when the precise distribution of pore pressures is unkaown, pechaps because of lack of instrumentation or because the pore pressures ae altering ender a change ‘of loading conditions. If pore pressures ae specified in this way use ean be made of sabilty ‘hart forte analysis of slopes in homogeneous sil 3 CHOICE BETWEEN TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSES ‘When analysing the stability of slope «decision must be made whether to wea otal cffectve stress analysis, The choice generally follows fom the classification of a stability problem as short or lng term. Slope failures generally result from a change of loading on the Soil and if this occurs quickly (in engineering problems such as excevation ofa cuting), the stability during and immediately after the change (ein the short tem) may need tobe fssessed, This willbe particularly imporant ifthe change of loading results in a change of Pore-water pressure in the soil mass andthe change i rapid compared tothe consolidation time for the soi. Ifthe change of loading is slow compared tothe consolidation time ofthe soil orf the loading isa natural fluctuation of groundwater levels as occurs in natural slopes, the problem is considered tobe ong term, In principle, a total or an effective sess approach could be used to anayse any slope, sithough since soils are predominantly fietional materials an effective stress analysis seems inherently moe logical especially forthe analysis of fong-term problems. in practice, for short-term stability problems, a otal stress analysis soften simpler and more convenient ‘asthere is usualy culty in predicting poe-pressure changes. In specifying te shear strength parameters for «total suess analysis itis esumed that for saturated oils f= 0 and oy i the ndeined shear suength, Lc. the sol behaves as if t were prey cohesive. In an effective tess analysis the effective strength parameters are used fn the pore pressure mst be specified as an independent variable "These distinctions between short and long term can best be made withthe sid of an example. Figure 9 shows the changes in pore pessure and factor of safety woen 2 cuting is ‘excavated in clay, a problem involving unfoading. During excavation the averge shear stress ‘ma failure surface increases while the total normal stresses decreas, Ifthe cay is saturated the reduction of normal sresses is accompanied by a short-term reduction of the pore pressures. The magntade ofthe reduction depends onthe nature ofthe elay and would 59Refence: Davis Nak 1957) e steno pt 1 paccem Figure. Th hae in pe peste and ctor of safety dings ae te ‘hcnton actin ny Grom Bhp ant Bram 190, n SCE Research Cf ‘Sher Sent of Coe Sls) enerlly be greater for overconsolidated clays than for normally-consoidatod clays la the Tong term the pore pressures will increase to thei equilibrium values, thus resulting in «| further reduction i the effective stresses i the clay, nd hence a reduction ins strengt and thas in the stability ofthe slope ‘Several conclusions can be reached about the stability of such an excavated slope: “The long-term stability i ikely to be the most eitcal and ean best be analysed wits an effective stress analysis using equilibrium groundwater conditions 2, Than assessment of the stability in the short term is required (@ for a temporary excavation total strss analysis may be convenient using the undeuined shear svengths of the clay. However, since excavation is accompanied by a reduction of pore presses ‘and these can increase again quickly, the results ofa short-term analysis should be treated with eaution especialy where the clay is fissured (Bishop end Bjerum, 1960). The {question How long i hor term? is considered in detail by Chandler (1984) 3 If pore pressures ate monitored during and ater excavation an assessment of the stability cain be made with an effective stress analysis a any ime “The opposite conclusions can be reached about problems involving loading (eg. foundatons, ‘embankments on soft ground) geerally the shot term stability seriaReference: Dvd Nas (987) " ‘Most problems involving natal slopes may’ be classified as long tem, although files _genealy rest fom small changes of loading. For example, the groundwater level may rise in period of heavy rainfall resulting in decrease of the effective ses ani hence in the shear strength along a potenti slip surface. Altemativels erosion a he toe ofthe slope may inerease the shear stresses and decrease the resistance. Usually an effective sess analysis is the most appropriste for these conditions, but in soils suchas Toose sand or quick cay (Aas, 1981) in which smal shear strains can cause a sudden build-up of pore presur, great care is needed in deciding on appropriate shear strength partmeters and pore prestres. In these ‘roumstanoes a total stuess analysis may be considered, although thre is then the real ithculty of determining the appropiate undained shear strength, (continue) otReference: David Na(957) (CONTINUED) LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS Reference: David Nash, “A Comparative Review of Limit Equilibrium Methods Stability Analysis: pages 11-75, n Slope Stabliy,edited by MG. Anderson and K. S. Richards, 1987 John Wiley & Sons Li 4. LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS Tn Kimi equilibrium methods we postulate that the slope might fail by a mass of sol sting on a failure surface. At the moment of failure, the shear strength i flly mobilized all he way slong the failure surface, and the overall slope and each part of i are in static ealirium. The shear strength sof the soil s normally given by the Mohr-Coulom ilace sng (foe total stress analyses) ° sad4o'tang’ Gor efesive stress analyses) © In presenting the methods here, no distinetion is made between peak, eitcal state, and residual shear strength parameters, bul of couse in practice the parameters must be selected with ere. In the analysis of sable slopes the shear tength mobilized under equilibrium eondkions is ess than the availble shear sien, snd itis conventional to intoduce a factor of salty F (deoedhas no cloned fm prooance encons dco he [pemcrafeusrened nacre eco perm te SVineparon ear suongh andthe wd over ie. ftp inc, Nevembelss te prover iplemeted Searing evn die, Teel cake peat may snub ta eigen (Bie tern ence relalty noted by Was ‘pk heaton Research Cwnei 1995) aed Hee al (bbs) al of when conainedInld explanations ot r= ‘Ity‘conspt The example clans below so ‘Senomtat be vertligyan! ges pss yet ‘seipivedof te rreaiten approach, witostexcang toe poss of linemen nthe analyte tt the eaten ofthe nce tsa nets ore % sod ors moe congestive stk mesma spo (Ce, Morgen 9) Sis eny oat on th coment deri eo cy ela lb preset bere rea ‘ii ir owe nt Sec on ots ‘Sign he er bing a nto oft fore and Bae ‘oa ten te fore eee ods a in gta way of sles resend in Disa (1990) = ‘Stability model of reinforced embankment. ‘on soft ground “Teestblty modeled tlow extend he work of Lowe (055 and Low er (930)0 cas ang tones {od wr pose inca, Bact opts omelet ‘Sova he expen bat quate exrestions fe ft tw ppt sed, mae posstleere ee fee the ep srnce inom sas ung 4 ed Sets spas ot "Fe frosty snr rec be defined neon of oral neue Fig 2th hot ‘See coma ae sa the of einen The ‘rite aie of and eres eco WS ‘Sp cel of ar egal (+), whe Dian wba, Sb n estou Thonn ere) Sips os ovruming omen: doe ti wate re ik {he teson ctf sto Bk CQ ‘Shvaced By tnepon fe exstovereming momen Of) of Tce ABOKEA nett tet (ty of oer peste {Etta nd IK as shave by Qed and eof 3. ‘epee, nw te bol meted 2 Fe lati snl ring omen fy song IER (6g can te so compan ven neg. fees. 74 a1g. Neo fr ified eb on ead aso thequalet ndained bear regi slong IGE (Gea n ape 0 whee Organ bye te send ‘ict brn cabson () snd con (yong EK (bung an angle ye Te gale dane ‘arses ee deel wed by 9 etfined ‘rsd on ht average the Sept pede ‘Tieton stent cy over a teaghwitn te dq Dimeagane wey he which ls contber oly ‘Sted sag, hich am sppromaton. The = thle ie Seabed te Low (183). Faes the fom ‘stu sng EX te enact or eames {unk pov cntiono enn fton ale (Goyeresstng moment if sna mia be apyecn ‘Piet of Xe tae lly to be fcoteqsstil fr at Gnesi y= Oi be entant y {ib fumanion lle, Shen ely eqn einen end Es oundton consis to ser sfength along esp Sees Gb n fg 2 ie eqaton or Mg tenet ne oe ‘Sine umn fae of ty wal be nal to hat foie onary method oso sad te Bishop's Snpied rete ‘thet an the wale resiag moment Ma tn derives fhm suing saan ee stb etn a {tet (i) fen reinorcanet ose T a Eta ror of fe. Tie componet given by ef ‘Shoe te lever um can eee oan vege be Spo scorn ely tha (Fact snowy to (@) Facts angel be np srs ig concen. (on ctal (990 asus eff he ern ssp fot lve al Tone te ee "To equaiow i. re fo wry spc of a ai? Sasa) hoe 810 8 SS owe |” ction i 0986 (nner wie 987 in Fig) GWT ‘hie prand naan he ebro OES TOW Bt fe oe a emake Porth ner scm he pect ‘opr oui abe of Fe 1088 Hayat ‘Greed nbn ate fans oper Yiu pasty tame F, eth Can Mogens end rbot be meno tat becse fe prone me cleqh (ig 3 forthe cxcftseat hme tac nthe Sop f cued byte pram aptoch te ao Diemer The eorin compet Fis ery infieme or Dil = 05 "The arte model tid ia deems Fans is slew dite he nt rae src 10) tee “hig sab Home the ed exe fr lege a they te apse sy 06 ar dane athe ove fd ecg pags Fig shows te Flues en tl ip sta, seo yt spades optimist a foe ee Fates ice scraar of he Nong Noo Hao Ebaeken. The angent dep (of ie ie ip sure ‘Starr wiht male othe Tce Cte 2 Cette afore embankment on Bangkok nits (1990) dence an ebasiment rare ‘it oe ayer of sooweven este of eal Seeaph 20}. Aare enbunnen war end fesiy a conol embaimest A rench 2m dep Sinead the totam war cncvtedslong ie boc at. The infeed ebuild gt ‘Pom te mwehoed cootenberkment ed wt ‘Basedontoct elo br nese gab a0 0989 rngeda conection tor forte Slovan ‘rare tena angi ey. “hl refcedcmbeaknet oye here a flows “Toe tol height fe f= 8m whch nes te 2 esp tech extn 9) The mika sy eat ‘SoF chy fome par of be enti The semge car ‘ted nine tens seg fr his wear ay Seaueia= Sika The 6a hss chee of 10ee ‘ShaStonge tay arrepoatty Beda eal (99 tsed ‘Sg et ea rea eed ‘iano attested a Fg 9 Site he con ‘Sige of 0" ples only ate ml of be 8 mal igh tyke sure fe fin Fi 3 re ole maton 2) Eady 0 wich st eames aliying by 058 ‘The tau oF compat il fe presen approach 60, ‘hihi cnn waren Tv sa sp etic [Sten y Sen ctal (959, oroweranshaie! ante oo nig 9 "Tocanis iF 9 aman nit weight 19.25? foc the cast mtg ope buon sep ry ety Of 17 Nc and wer cont 913% mie ane of fae ite lamer? mins wenerelcy teense oe Sa night of 15 EN vy ging a regs 7 of {s'3loln fr te bmhiglope etree F098 83Fe ren Salers TT We ie ey [F marta fora] [Por] Fama pecaiat ss pte | Eyer tm ase 2 [200 Correlation Matix [FI fepeatel|So (sere gers vamon ecm (ve mela eal fer Ga i op) goes leee fereaneh cle [ae ee) ete te el] ame meee eae toh i toh oie tot olite tell lac center aENEE —— naematr nent ners mene tee ‘Gat and Gerd (199) sand fae sleet sls Nar ey eps in Maan, Te sft buna ‘ennai ns vel Gn Fie semen es besing aeomey change sven ese of fa ed nbn enocement free were wed in iy aa One eciatnentoficknn GOT m atoeigh abn s 5, Seo ements found hae car fs 12 Sten embed fee oft war wn The erase ‘he tbe elf Fas OOP if te peak Seth (Go Nin of tb ogi wae ly mobilzed he nresee {overt nna F.) was OOTT the force acon Sst drecton and 113 the Pfs act nga to tel suc. "pe ar reinfrnd embankment ataed wing Be Festa of te gushed enitiere po The F vals ‘pec T geese veh nce F, vlan ‘GN and 0079 rapeenctIFhwhe= 2m, an Fvae of ‘An eal eli pli forthe ua ebankmet tsatown nig 1A ton cack of mean ae? mand {ow of 030 hs Benue The allowing may be ots (i) Tstme rity inden bain pues of hick Ew becus og jand cn Sed wen = @ Thememvalcol Tsthe expected minor mob jes oc esfecemen. Ws an arene sega e, fos mobiaed vive, This ona nthe act ‘lus fey ad fy uted in he halal, ‘ihc ei eng los. The scene se ‘erage uraph vale re ast he epee (6) Thence repudg weber the winfcement face [et ins baron (oss vert) ora {angela the slp sre (th oer eon @ + ‘elected inthe rey ali by ange ean vet fo be op sverge temeet rand ew D), ad ag ket of vasa (ns), wach tar oa {S015 Twecos, of 1s mam tte sandr sv tino ever sr i 18 (oe val ever a) A ‘hes potable fle post onthe lin se ses of the random vals te nls of oh and Teve™ ‘vl aieys be sales a i eapctiv ean aes, itty we vcore opty clans ‘Than tome of he smiges and cotinine isos Fans of nen boning fe ee ligated or overcome In he baby sa a fm hae iy ees nei fe a4 E BEE EZ PeEEEE GZ feie 1 Son er oe. x, Fg 2 which dons ogo cans wie sae (1.8) ‘th maperve mena ats fan Boh eer see ‘ese tad eves tad ue te det "eer af ey ey ae aly Homer ry {ia wv dcr Be eile ance A ‘Te dee asses mertocedsore epee’ only 2 ‘or ofthe pbliied eof infeed natnets cn {iSs0, wth compres ee off cement saps Summary and conclusions A ini ue subi mol of wise enbasnes ‘nao grunts bene Tata sows en Soak it emtanimet erie rider! te ae of sen ada none nininsharemrgh oe Sot funder exams a's en at Soo. State ae oft wt ove spedet opinion ‘Stanton te dernier af ey vehaon ed Setatetind elaby ex eaten "Te roped clube erminton posi vn apeathet aches oman lmabe sretanal e later ine ein he eld spc oft dom arabes. Corel ‘Sedmvarblraretrwed as ringed elips comes ‘ite ea Tee compu eb nde Oe ne tes on he i ne relay maid FORD) exert at ‘eupeniset uct sec iin he leo ‘Solaris Cooler de ical ‘Steen ororrpal anomaton of cova a: the To mang of ery inde anopertThe ‘Prlbomnc ior ned an be exh Relstiased Sencanato te perme wih ease ample ta aol ered embakaat on 0 pond ve besa ung dp appeachvipeasect “The mos variblrtce osseous tt ‘Steal Te perfomance ston aosepict cto he feet wo sac forte et slp ue ad ape cunekally the deptdependa undnined shear sengsh Salts near example te pabbliy of flare taxed on ‘nity inde was espace tt Mant Car simula, food szroret as ete The ali las Pe Etcse fom 2.4671 L692 whine Sofie! of dos (Can) of the ntnine shear seni ine sof ound ‘tence fom 15 025, Te fet of sey been nen ‘air doesnt cats. The eli nsx conse > Teo onl ict af sty he he commen elon fy bene eee the depos of aces a the undying pets. “Thee of mplemenaton, ecorsepil singly. and ‘te eat af te loi ppeach a spree ny uu oraducng he npg aren goths lini ete by seve lneecrsucr ow prentct ‘tho ofl canton abe ended ofa ‘Senet thot aren Lom ad Tae 139) Acknowledgements ‘Tr wrk wa pero whi ft abr son tat Ieee st Hong Kong Univer of Sconce ae Testo, from Sepembero Bremer 151 The second auton wad leo achoowiedge he supper of = revtach put No, HUST 72058 epneored yb Revoch rot Couch of Hong Kong: Grit sunt Remond Chana of HKUST ‘famed ke Mt Cao smuon enone ite per References Hii an det, vol dec, a eb. Bere D- Long 2 Lae CH ake, ad Wee 6 Tope: Prenat ote cnt on ok Bagi Sstnlet Garten Geromenee aL coat nl rasa D198 brome refereed cape ac det Sunt) TT rou RN tBu D195 Go esti eto Reagan wd Sa ay, {By ace tani, 240-220. one! on et a eae Dane J (986 Ste eat ea ad fe see ec ears EE rncu meet ‘elit methods Je Probabilicaructsal me x Ince oral of pera Mecha ASC, Ee tems el 3586 eeeDEPEEEEEEEEEEEEEE |Reliability of embankments on soft ground using constrained optimization. B.K.Low ssn 20, Hog Kans 13-28, A. ales Pies ‘School of Cl & Sructarl Engineering, Maryn Technological Univers, Soippare Wilson H. Tang Departmen of Chi & Sructaral Engineering, HongKong University of Since & Techno, China ABSTRACT: The paper dats wit the stability of nore embankments on sof lay feadations, and pre- Seni allematveprocial and verse procedures for easy implementation ofthe edie teeus end ‘rave Init eqltum methods of sees, Including Bishop's simplified method apd Spence's method of ‘ieea. The proposed innplemenaionprocelues combine the we of contained optazaiontecheigues ted ‘Sinple programming the spreadsbot environment with nstomati serch forthe erica sip ese The de- ‘eminie approach i extended ta probblisic approach that accounts forthe uncealnties and spatial ‘eristion of oll perce The advantages ofthe proposed nts are spicy, eansparenc, vere ily, secuncy, abd ese of implementing stochastic retail analysis in the ubiquitous spresishect p= orm, notwithstanding he impli and erave nature of he it tate unto. 1 INTRODUCTION ‘common fulure mechanism of emtankmenscor- Stuced on sft clay 5 tat of rotation along newly ‘hindi ip srfce Te lint eqllan meth fis of sices such a6 Bishop's implied mahod Tine Been widely sed oases stbilty by compat Ing the factor of safety, defined asthe rao ofthe ‘lable shesrsrenth othe sear sees egulred to maintain egitim, Paty because ofthe ers tive and ipl nature oft compurtion andthe acd to sarc foe eee ip src, ost race finer ane snd withthe deterministic for of Ssfety evasion send of opting ore logis] ‘olay analyse whic scouts fr uncer ‘This per presents» pratal nd transparent procedure for Unit equitrlum sablty ands of Feinfored entankimets on sf clay, sed’ on eh ther Bishops simplified meted or the more rigor. fous Spence's mathod. The sch for te cal Slip ele grat smplied, end the extension to the invariant relibiy Index computation account for eptal varaon is alo sented gut nt ve and effses. The proposed proce plemented inthe abit sprees pstorm, {nd requires only minal and single programing inthe programming enviroment ofthe spreadsheet The deterministic lini equilibrium formulations 0, 0, quant, Ite effective nomal stesso (= Gi? ap at the base of se is son-negatve, Hence, afer obsning the ets sip src i tbe Seton to fale, ans needs o check that of Oat fhe base ofall es apd F, > 0 at all he sce Interfaces. Others, one should consider modeling fenslon eae for slices ne the upper extend of the slip surfs For example, the embankment in Fig Iie amapoad witout tension crack (= 0) ome slices near the srown ofthe embankment ‘oul show neste and als “The intB le a the upper ext pla of ip sarface i thee zee (i ther is tension eack) ‘aul othe esis thst of the hydostae woter presse in the tension crack if a crack ots. Enowing the ft bondi valve fy all the remaining, values can be caleated successively Spencer (1973) suggested tn the speadshoa et tp (rig. 1) band on the above formation, the Sequence of computation Is P by Eq 4, then Ts by Eq. I, and 1 by By 3. The computations are ‘tomatic and expt fo given alos of Pad "The overall orzo equ fs Lit costa,)-F singe, I}+ La, © ‘whore 240, i the reloforcing fee onthe sing ras, and Py the kom zn waa hus a ‘Nari tension crack, The depth ofthe tension ‘rk is sad on = 20K Th overall moment ‘sult ig, fos crea ip suc: Li -wisaa oR-M, +g oy where Ma i the overuning moment duo to he wae ter pressre inthe tension crk and Ma the ove= tuning moment of the sun of te boron dQ, ‘sith espes the xn fron, All te columns in Fig. 1 contin formulas or serene functions. Daring the Search for eat Slip cil these cols sre upd atomically. ‘he fst thee columns conn simple peometial formulas defining the x cooing, he ground snd ‘easknent surface prof Ya and the sip cle ‘Ga These formulas ae fantns of embankment Slope angle © embankment heiet Spt of on- loners he the cle center 3) and ras R The fourth column labeled Yow computed by 8 wersdefined function based. Ov unit weighs aleng ths entre vertical thickness of tice. The enim labeled and @ are computed by user-defined ince tions Based onthe y oor of he ml pot of the base of slice and uerinpat shar senath ‘ation with doth, the ltr a given by the depth ‘dg values shown inte love: partof Fig. Phe {er dened fictions for yop ebesion cat he base (fale Ye and dQ are shang. 22. Constrained optintzaton tsa equim ‘aed search for erica i ele For elceney of display and sped of computation, gs 5and have been entered se aay forms in {hoa abled Sores and SN Fi An sbitay slip cv was seid with (xe 9, R)=(4 7,12). The vies of hand Fee inal (and Ie itch padoce nonzsro valves inthe ells Tabled Sores and ML Ths means ferce abd mo- ‘ent equ were not saiied forthe sear Hy ehose 2 and F vals ‘The option route Solver in Microsoft Ex ca wa fold, to minimize th cll Dum (ca ‘ening the dummy equation "“€°1), by changing (Gutomatically) the cells 2, a a and Re sect to he constraints hat -2 523 F 204, Mores: 0, SMO, xmax 2 Hanraiasomeg), xin 0, and ye H. The Solver opion “Use automatic Sang” was lio setited, Solver obtai he ad ini F vals (Fie 1) which satisfy these com Sans win seconds, gether wih th cents an ‘is ofthe etal slip cele Yo and R). Tis fonsvaial optimization porch of automatically Tocatag te real sp cle spetaps amore et ‘Sen atemative to the common used sete that ‘temas eiferent centers of le on Bid pattem. Note however tha ure of Solver re (er care and experience, sad lnensistont or ‘trong constants may lead ne oto, 23 Comparison with Low ae Tang (19970) ‘A semi-analytical formulation was given in Low and ‘Tang (18978) for stability analysis of reinforced em ankiets on soft proud, based on moment ie Nut and total sues ans (wid =O in the soft cay). For the embankmect case of Fg. I, 8 Imi Tater of sfetyof 1.187 is etaned wingLow an Tang (19973)'s semi-nayia formation ‘with seach ‘the top parameters are ae given Fi ID ofthe 1997 paper excopt that etesion rack I=297 ans now od inte of =O “The sigh diffeenoe (19) in the computed factor ‘of say, 1201 in Fig | veraus 1187 By the 1997 frocedute, is due Yo the apposite ature of the {Se invoivng tare nthe 1997 pape. The com ison Would show exact greement ff =O Le, [shear srength i caratrced oly yy in = Funaton lors omega 1 pasate rononoge a e010) Reto thenyep =o "And Hl gad Then op =X" ear rar Than y= Endeonon ‘opmote ors Soph tabs, or envedbe Pe 4 Welesiao ten Ie goot= Abs yt) FPmdiyeat=cmaxThen™_undetns erin, ‘ies_o= 000000 tence seeuvo ard seam. Benton tay a ot Te ry = i oat ae 11) 0-1) SEE seeded re Ena Eunsonavacarmai yo on.) Vara yt gm + Ate)" oe) 0-0) eiecona ope ee ere eat End Funeton Funegon x8, 0 Beacomet Casio Soa Care Cesie 0 0-3“ ret eesla som) "ra aca Cae “Gees ieoexp. 000 Siete cae co" o9-at)" 9000 ena oree (Fat Badc (to remem vee OM ‘kent end a the foundation soft cy "While Low sol Tang (1997) susie ace rate and convenient for analysis of renorced m= kes on sft ly sed on al sss anal, the Spencer's meting of slices vin opemizton 2 Preseted ber is more vest as teat be uso for ier olor efetve ses ali 24 Convenlent opin for Dishop's sinied ‘meth with search for cial lip crele “Te template of Fig. 1 can be wed to plement the popular Bishops simplified method, wiih assumes orzo sie force resist, meaning = On the Upper sete in Fig Te To do thy the als of fg F ae reel 0 O and respectively. The oti Zason routine Solve then invoke, 10 minimize thee abled Dum, By chongig th eas Fx, dR seca the conan ha F = 0.1, 3M 2 (Mamas 2 Henadinsomeza) sania <0, and ye H Nowe tht whereas Spence’ od Ine Piemoyed in Sexton 22 requires changing and {> swish overall force and moment equ, [shop's simplified method at fepleanted. here fixes obo to apd requires Solver change Ft fats) BM ~ 0. Overall ace eqn nots ised in Bishop's simpli method, ad the ol a ‘beled Sree would be nonzero Wen Bio's ‘Shnplifid method Is implemented. or the reinforced eobanknent cae in Fig. 1y Bisho's sinplifed method yields ¢ isknum F ‘alve Of 1.20), compare with Spencer's method of EDO, Tf reinforesment Qi set fo ao, meaning ‘eltoreod embankment the compsrbon of F vale tase 11aD vers 117. Aceon 10 Spencer (G96?) the soca ofthe esl vet by Bishop's Spied method is doe to the inset of the ‘moment equilon tote innaon of fe interlee frees 3. RELIABILITY ANALYSIS The detains enalysis in the previous sation doesnot reflet the uncerttinies ofthe inp! poe ameter. Ambiguities cold also rise fom dierent ‘inti given fo the fro of ste orld embankments on soft ground. A moe rational sp proche o evant the rity fdas deine Ey Maser and Lind (1978. 23 Alera perspective of th Hasfr-Lind index The class slsitiy analysis procure (FORM) theo on ransomed Space i witely esribed ‘Ang and Tang. 1988). Alteravely,apractcal sd ‘eanoparet procedure that achieves th sme rest ‘wus presened ia Low aid Tang (19979), fssed onthe penpestve ofan expanding elipscid tangent 0 the fmt se surfs i the odgial space of the fandom vables. Conceps of coords ransfor- fain are not eld. Connon i accounted for By seing up the aun for directly. erative ‘arching an parl derivatives are automate using Contained optintzation nspressheet. The method {hay thetelore beatae for cass il com ‘ied or non expt perfomance fonctions. This n= fale aproseh is extended low to a reliability mages of reinforced embankments in which the ‘Sagi ofthe sof clay Below the embsnkment I Iodeled as one-dnensioal random field to account, forspatialvaradon 32 Correlation mtr nd ewocorrlation “Toute, relly analysis will be performed on the reinorood embankment of Fig. 1 teat, Some ofthe parameters as catlted random va fies, The sporoech Is sila 19 Low abl’ Tang (99a) excepe atthe performance fncion snow tsed on the extended Spencers method of slices of Sewtion 2, and fence more Ip The random eile af assumed to be normaly istic, Ivith mes and sanded deviations a shown in Fig 3:The ves of Cy Yow S20 hime oer purt oF Fig t now appesr ne mean vals in Fig. Tho Standard devitons afc are assumed equal © 15% fof their ropectve. ean vals. Tie following ‘rablished negtve exponential model algtad ‘ode th spl variation of thee, values Kaeo rene o An autosorelation tance B= m sued. A 10 10 comelson rats setup. The Hist four entries tue the coefficients ofthe peak vale of the mi aed eifocing force (Q) and embankment prope {ies YG fy The ear elas are the coe tion coffe of the cy vals atte six node sk ‘lous dap, A vet (3, ~ mf of 10 compor ‘ens is als stp, where mando, are tbe mean {nd sandand devin of random arable The 5 values shown in Fg. 3 ae the vales refered © byl he equations (Sesion 2) whlch define the er formance fnton. The meen vals a a wed only In Ba belo for. 33. Storch for reliabliy- based era slip circle The following quadratic form of the Hasofr-Lind rolling sentered ws an aay formuls using the max funedon ofthe spends » ln whieh (RP th inverse ofthe cortation ma Ash and the fale rogion. The hand values ate Inilied oO ané 1 eapethe)- The vals (ig. 3 are ini asigned ie respective mean Sales. The Saver rutin in Mrorof Exo Yoked 10. moxie the quadate form (a. 10 ‘mensional lipo in rgina space), “by chang lng’ the ten random variables (the val of fd tho lip cele (Yo dR) suet fo he com ‘trains 2 = 2 £2, Sioreas = 0, SMO, sax = htaniadansomegs) xin =, <2 Hy and that the ten random variables (x) be greater than 20 ‘The Saver opi "Use automate Sang” was also setae "The alibi index f 1565. The eel stip circle obtained by Solver alxe= 4.15 m ye 740 tm and R= 1430 The on x vals a Fig 3 de Fine the most probable fle ny, where the dix person elpsldtoucos te inet sate sorface (F = ‘othe eiably-ased ei cura. ‘Wi th sme statistical input Fig 3, Low and ‘Tang (1997) procedure (with Iver a ~2) yields relly index of L886 ‘A mean Q, vale of 250 KNn i requied ie e ‘ably index of 20 desire, essuing the coe ficken of weston of Qs 10%, ‘In Fig! he most probabl flue pot epe sented By the x vales, he cq and hy vaes ae ‘Shy lrger tan their mean vals. Tse fo the astumpiion of positive catelationeoeticent {Us} between i ney, Ad eee yd by 3 fet flower dacreisaion of random ld In the analysis above the noaiearunsned hese Meng profile epescted by i x pnts a i ‘Bre depts (Fig) I five aldional values are Intspolaed midway. between the cignal ix eps, the rsuling set of eleven cy Pins is an ‘lly valid representation of thee, profl. This ‘epoca oth standard dvistions elo 158 of tl espectve mean vals, 5 befoN), 0 ster wih the other four random variables, eas 10 {1 1Somponet sn vector ands 1515 coraation tore stead ofthe 10<10 mati shown fo Fi 3 Relay amaiysis with the 1515 carlton me tis obtain af inex of 1552, ted of 185 it Fig 3. Ths lsretaaon othe oe-dimensonl c, Fandom fel ha il fet onthe computed Bin tes, qrovded the spacing of detain i smaller than te sutoconelation distance of 7. 4 SUMMARY AND CONCLLSIONS. ‘Spencers method hasbeen extn to enable st big sali of reinforced embankment on sm ay foundations, Seach forth cial slip cc is oat using te contained optimization fate anoma fade tw Se tn Op Ss Se Oo GS sti am se tee eee Smee 0 * ale of sreadshest packages, Only simple odes (which Sie owe) inte proganming environment of he teow are regard. The popular Bishoo's Sr ean cls be implored without ex of Rated ght change who specifying the opt ‘ln ting hws fm Sem te asa reliably anal involving sail varia- ‘Sons deeibod. The procedure docs not vole or ‘fovona ansfomniton (euired in th classical ‘Bomogch ofthe comelaon ti, and able (0 careers elbliy-ased teal sip sure $e te of diferent dsereization of the ote ‘estan random fl ofthe som clay onthe rm reli inde Is Fund to be isan saw the sporing of escretiztion #8 Ios ‘an the utocorelaton dines tne aabity model and the celablty analysis sel avove cm be fhe eae. For exale, Eilat rid esesmeat, model uncertain and mn cet say need t be considered in ae ‘aes parameter uncriny (Morgenstern 1990) ‘More work remains obs dane towards a more com Mofeanve isk exsenement approach, The present Prepay contibute component locks nesesary ‘eh inl ec, and may also lp f0 over~ ‘ergs language baie ht arpe wideradep- ‘Son of elit says and relisbiiy-baed €5- Sign by posing engines. REFERENCES Pri om nen Fo St wa ge wl ec ak “uct lamin on st EHS New ven Wo. Se RO MOT TERS rin mie in ri mt ane ie ae “open om mandcapoiee’ Pe | edn 6, and Kn, 3.97, Comprise 1 RE at tad in se nde tein of Earns ese Snir ace, new ek ee a Gn) Pai din oops. Co reson Ge I 24) 2535, 1 EES als ton shoe or sie iy NPE la ath fe Rosen aon 8 pound Cran REE oe eu eat es itr es steamer ia oD Bae SRS eso ce a ona RIR Ty era ey BAY tle ek Peo Set enosnmueansen ISS en ohne tamratt ocean Siesta ot “Tang. WH, 1990, Rent deveopments in geome el The eceveaneasProbabilistic slope analysis involving generalized slip surface in stochastic soil medium B.K. Low eho! of Chil & Sructial Engineering, Nanyang Tecnologia! Unters, Singapore ABSTRACT: An alternative interpretation ofthe HasoferLiad relly inde is deserted together witha ‘rata ellablty evaluation pred applied to slope stb Inthe ubigutous spreads platform. The ‘ctorminse procedures ae iuseated for an embankment slope, in which Spencer's mod i saved via ‘tomatic constmsined optimization. The eaion fom determine fo proba amass next demon ‘ated, with a serch forte relly baed ees! noncira lp sce fn soll wher the sear tenth iSinoed asa 1-Dsaom fle, Operational impisity and concep anpareeyareelianced based on sn tive perspective of expanding elpslds lathe vial Space ofrador variables, sights fom previ ft eibiyaraysis of teaodral wedge mechanoms ia rek slopes are sa summarize, and Yvea Su tis of praca igicane tht would not ve been revel dere apes 1 INTRODUCTION ‘Te conventional fSctor of saty at sed in go> ‘ecntcal engiowing doe not reiet te uncer ‘of npat psmetrs” A mor nal approec i 0 ‘Somput's rely index, och the variant Index detined by Hasofer& Lind (1974). The cass a appoath to computing fhe P index e widely ‘dcamentd, For comelted variables, te procedure reques finding elevates and eigenvetos at ing the frame of reference, wansformed spac, and iteration. Casing the ago snd coupling it with "poste snalytieal or mumerin! engineering models iby no meas tila Te mates Stalls may also tea bare fo conceal understanding. These hurls canbe overame, bya change of perspec tive. Speifiealy, ellos fn the orginal pace of the random vriabes, and cosrined option. "The objectives ofthis paper ae fod (2) 10 sere a stoma inrpreion of the B index, together with pci procedure that compuss he B inex with Simpliety and tanspereney in the ‘bigulous speadshat platform: (0) fo strate the relay evaluation proetie by astochaste slope fualysi using Spencers generalized method of ‘hee, inlating sewrhing forthe relaiy-based ‘real noneruisn sip sre. "Emphais sonehdaton of concepts and is teat spresdabeesrtgies tht maybe weil In tan are of nginesing design sn nals. "The determine analjis af en erbankracrt on soft pound presen fst, 8 dies the it slate surftce regu In aubsquent probabilistic {alysis Conaeined optiization wed in bot 2. SPENCER NONCIRCULAR WITH VARYING SIDE-FORCE INCLINATIONS “The sketch in Figure 1 shows the freas ctng on 2 slse tat forms part ofthe pete ising sot ‘nas. Based on Spencer (1973), he flowing eat ‘Bons an be derived fem Me Coulo fale = tevlon and equllbsum consderatos en o B= B+ Rina, Tso, @ (i AME ~ K(et-ul tang ina, fo aatae CO Ehren, Ane, |-,-0 6 o Siete (jco8a, fina.) Ly,rine shoe srengt oro of olay g | PEEEREREREEEREEREEEERERRR ERR ERR RRR KB KBR KBB KERB sts, ¢m.0)-* o te bean 08,494) © he Pe the water test esting from a water= File essen eack, and My the overuring moment fue fo the water presse fn the tension rack. The ‘ph of tc torslan crac fe bared om = 228K Eguatons 4 snd spec overall force and moment ‘ulium, respectively Equations 6 and 7 ives {Pe lever anne wth respect to am ria enter, 32) of rotation Some fsucs pene the ave ‘uations ae dncussed ip Low & Tang 20012). 3 DETERMINISTIC CRITICAL NONCIRCULAR SEARCH VIA AUTOMATIC OPTIMIZATION In the speadtsttomplate of Figue 1, all he “amedcsunns su bored cls conan formas or ‘Gerdefinedfnctone, Under he tcootnt cl {nn call nay an contain amber, wile fo onan fale woah ie egy {hs dane in tec, Unde the clu Su fst the fomula “HR, yo signed he ‘alae © (o aol th bse of She suding em aneent mater! ané foundation ea). The oer Sorts Illy deed cl tre pri fo earch The yas of ay cur ae canbe gee ‘ed ines a function ofthe eee eo Scrat nd oot values nd need fn SSE yy colon taig te BanaseSpocal/ Vas Command: Column yy which defies ground sutace rol oman pl ote nese IF formula “Eonlad dow the crm. Aberaely he oer Aetna fren "top" in Figure 2 ean Siva. ‘Tr cohams fie yd bed on fan: ons Avena ant Sis shown in Figure 2. Funcson Size determi he embankment cobs ‘Son (or foumiion oo the midpoint of i be ‘Sie, tod on te emburnen ad sof cay ‘ropes eve nt lower prt of Figure I. The Slum nel "a reste he). The co tian abled“ ives te base leg of sce, Cae Sines PT and E cote soled fonmalas of Ep and 3, epentvey, nee that Ey =P Shak Cola © (ii ~ a). The fas two folins se based on Ege 6 a7. Te cls bles foray and EM cont sry foams bed 0 fge 4 and 5 Thee ale Suplay monaco aes intially. Te cell "Dang" coma te day formula =of*1% wich xn be pint. The Fel 15 tnt cao Se minimize, bres consis nly mmera vane Bring th each for ral slp sisal the olan re opto sutomatcaly Forte ae Hod the x ays colurns of core values in fly ciespoded toa abiray cil own {athod in Fig 1) wih somer stsy = Bond Egon iinet | SUBS teenager sone cae Function see eyona max. 0c) Wyama® anaetnen _unstnedo "Ble, e= 100000 Far] =2Toy.coune Haya = ond Ten top = fama” ar- 1/600 Seb afc anton heen yn on, "Bom pom Absit * cy) ocatnas Sn ets yea Ei hretamne™ exit En Fansion of rio 12m, The values of 2nd Fer int {ae to 0 and I, whic Ie to sero vas in the fells labeled SFoees and 3 Ts meas eres and ‘moment equine were not salsa for thea try chosen. hand F vals The opinion Solver routine a lroco Exe was inl, 0 = Maine te cll Dn, 1 By chang the els nF a the 28 cow re valu 3S, au Jr Yan ofthe slp foe = Sujet tothe constrains 2's 3.52, F2 0 2b 2 Wian(adlans(omega}, xe 2x3 = 0, Stay 5 Yotfn, SFoee = 0, DM = 0, and ‘gyn 2 0. The Solver oon “Use aut ‘Sallg” was also acted Solver obtains the 2nd mnimam F values (Figure 1 which ai the above conta, and we case ‘onting nonsiinrciea lip sree. Note Hat {he of Sever rogues cae aod experienc, ands: ese depen crs jadous Sting of con ani which thoald be maieient bu not exc five. Constaias tut are Toga but not binding ‘eed not be inelado Appropise nal Values prior 9to search may also be important, fr example. tnd F=l to start the seach wih, Some encounters tn Solver and ufo satgis were discussed in Tos etal (1998. 4 EXPANDING ELLIPSOID PERSPECTIVE IN| ORIGINAL SPACE OF VARIABLES “The mati form ofthe Hasofe-Lind index st pa e-oee) eo sequal, es] wm whore isa vector eepresentng the st of random ‘avis, theresa Values, the covariance ms ‘ine the conelation mats, and he flare do- an The gpmbol wi ed to denote random var ties, fo distinguish Ie fom the symbol». (or ‘Soornte vals) ved fa are 1 and Section 3, “The cls proach to compurng the inex is Shrouded in mathemati! deals Bat become fui itartable when coweaion,autocmelation, End nono disibtons are brought nan ‘he te serch forte elibii-basod eral per Temance fant so roared ‘hn alternative interpretation of the index was esr in Low & Tang (1997), where the perspec tive ofan expending elipsid fn th vigil space the variables edo simple metod of comping the index using spreasheetautomated chee: Ueted consid optimization. BY tis perspec Aes the quadratic fom in qf visualized as {ited tuliensional lipsoid (Centered at the ea) inthe origial space ofthe rndom vrisbles (Figure 3}; there ino esd 0 dlagonlize the co- Afeimee or comsiion mt "Teint sat aura n Figue3 i the boundary tha divides the combinations of (6) which would Pips ac Cohesion, e Fron angle, © @onree®) ewe 3 Onesgma and Pe enon eligi ‘icant Be ste ean) ead to fue from the combinations which would fot The lk ste sre is defined by Fy = Ie ‘ee Fis the factor of sft, eld 25th aio Ute aveliabe shear engi fo the seu sess = ‘re for equim, "The quate form in, 8 appears ls in he egaive exponent ofthe mlvarige norma it Futon. Henee to minimize P(r inthe mlivar {te normal drbuton) ie maximize he value of ihe mutvaate anna probability density fonction, Su to find the smallest lipid tht i tangent the are srfoe is eqlvalet to ining the most [rbeble flare pot This perspective consent ‘Bin Shino (1083) thatthe design pote 3 the polt of maximum Ukethoed if x & Gaussian, ‘hater or ots comptes ate uncoated.” "The voralty ofthe sprenshetobjetrinted contre optiiztion appre is eatncod when ‘Sed in combinwion iO user-defined. functions Coued inthe programing eniromeat of spread ‘Shes, for example the Vil Basie (VBA) po- {Eomiing vironment. of the Micrsoft Excel [freadets software This means that te peor ‘ce fmcton ean be impli iterative an ase on ‘merical methods (Low al 1998, 2001) 5. SEARCH FOR RELIABILITY-BASID (GENERALIZED CRITICAL SLIP SURFACE o ihatate probabilistic slope analy, reli, ttalyse wil be pecomed onthe entankment of ‘igme 1, testing some ofthe parameters a come Ted random vetables, Te random arable ae teamed to be normaly ditibue, wit: mean and Standard devine a show a Fig The values ‘fe Ys Ge A he lower pat of Fig 1108 Spysu ts mean alsin Figure The standard der ‘Woon ofthe undrine sear segih<, ofthe soft {ny ae sssumed tobe 15% of ti esective meat ‘alee. To following established negaveexponen- Tal model i used to mol the spatial eeation of fen values: eeeee ° Am aocomsation distance 8 = 3.m is used, This ‘newts the conslstioncoefcen 5 0368 fOr 680 Doin 3m oar and 0.05 fortwo pola 9 mopar, Td so on AD 9 eomeation mati se up The it tires entes a the collet ofthe et ankmont properties acy and, The other enries te the comin coeticents ofthe vals athe ‘Teodes various depths A ver (mp of onnponets Vlg se uy were my snd are the nea and standard deviation fa raiom vate The vc valves of Figure ar he vals refered 10 {allt equtions Secon 2) which din the per 98Coren mati ‘ematt ieee 2 ee ce tee ora Baw we anfom) Pee hee Sam a mfem| |e ee am ar stood | eo wae a efom] Le 2 hee ETT) ewe 4 Cotto arin ary ermal of ines ty i of te ebanssowiFgye The ‘oops ny cosy epi taluso,P nc Pae a he as formance function. The mean values (oy) ae wed onlin Eg 8 Equation 8b i entered as an ara formula (Fig vue 4) using the balla mtx functions mal, Ironppove, td minere a th spreadsheet or the determine real nonreulr sip su face in Fig I the 2 al Fvales wee rea 0 hd respectively: The values in Figure 4 were {nly atone thei eapucve ean values. The Solver routine in Miroro Excel was inva: Monimize the quadrats form (4 9ieasionst lipo in eriginal pac) By changing the nine adem variables the fn Figure i andthe 25 corneas, oe Yor Jun ofthe slp sures. ( remains ai, which nat ue, Lea it ste) + Subject tothe congrats “2s = 2 %0 2 ‘Whan(ealansomoga), e232 Xu 0, Jn 5 Yo'¥ay HForoes = 0, BM = 0, and 6/"0n" 2 (0.7the Solver aption "Use auto scaling” ‘war ls acta. The finde is found to be 2.227. The relibliy- iii comaeme ‘sed noncrclarslip sic is shown in Figure 5. ‘Thee yvales in Figure 4 dine the most probe able flue pent (MP), where he dispersion ip ‘Soi is tangentto the Ln se ace (F= 1} oF relibliy-bsed eral sip stetce. At this tngent Polat the values ofc re, as expected sal thn Thee mean values, bu the Gy and Gy ales are slighty higher han tei respeive tean values ‘his poor Js atbatabe nq and fe Beng psivay corlated tothe unt welpt of te em: Finkment pean so feflcs the dapondency of teason crak depth fy (an averse eet) om Ene since the equation be = 26g Kats pat ofthe mods 6 ONPOSITIVE-DEFINITE MATRIX, AND DISCRETIZATION OF RANDOM FIELD Although the corsasion coetientherweea two ‘Fandom variables fas a ange =I py 1 one not ‘ouly fe nasigning any values within this ange forthe corelation mate The coveance mat has tole postive define Inthe pent conten, an it ‘onssen eoulation muse Wil manifest et by “husng Solver to trak do deo cere encou tere when Solver ist eae the square root ‘ot anepative quant (hs igh side of) dong Asiteratve saching forthe minum dispersion ee lpso andthe eomespansng lability nde. For the cae in hind the comation mt in Figure becomes singular when p= p= ~0. This means that even thee postive smelation (pa = pst = 0.8) ‘With: the eatlaton between ad Gas be Tess negative than 0.5 Tn igi he nominear nino shea sent profle resend hy Se ey pons at dierent 97eps. If five onal valves x inepolted Inuway between the rial ix dep, heres Ing st of elven y pos san equal vali epre entation of the ey profile. Ths TH-pts eprom (Gh standard devitions egal to 188 of te re ‘Sectve mean vals, as Before), together wi te ‘ther tree random’ arabes leads toa Le ‘Somponent (mp vector and a 1414 corel thon mc Instead of te 99 mat sown. Rel- Sit analysis wih tha L4xL4 contin atk, ting the previously found reilly-tosd eres lp surface, obins a index of 2208, stead of Bah in Figue 4. Aooher discretion Inerval ‘ras so investigated, with the sme pale epe™ ented by 21 ey pois a 2-compenet (8 =m ‘esr and 2004 corelaton mari nstead of the 559 matrix shown in Fgure 4. The dex was {ound to be 2.208. Tus the compute B index sat fenstve to fhe number of discrete pots sed 10 ‘present the one dimensional ransom el, when {he spang betwen the dscrcte cy ports is saler ‘an he autooosation ites a Eq. 7 INSIGHTS FROM RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF ROCK SLOPES Relobitty anti involving mule flue mes Cf HD tezabera wedge mechanims ia rook topes ‘vas present in Low (1997) The shearing resis anes ngsnst sling exten Bor dsconinaly ‘lines (om which he wedge it) ony te potential ‘Sing mode along both planes Fr soma oles tions of dsconimly plans, the potent! siding modes along plane 1, bu say ff plane 2 (or ‘ce vert), whleh mean ht only th stance on ‘ope of the eo planes cane eid on. A ease was Shown by Low (1997) which e deere Salis cing ean valves of dscomialy rena ‘Gos inscated thatthe govoang fire moe Ws ‘yang om bt planes (Blan). However, ue {pleodereoity analysis indeed that he el aii index for Plane mode (1478) as ore ‘acl tan it for #zPLaxe mose (L978). This ean te esplained by the abrnt reduction In shearing Fisane athe tnston between BiPlone sing tmode and singe plane siding mode. Tht Plane ode was more erica ould tat have been Te ‘led ine deterministic antsi wing verge 0 ation of discontinuity panes, or Ina realty Stays that coneders oly one flue ode. The ‘BiPlane elit index of 1978, taken by Use, ould svagest pobully of fae about 2.5% Uihich wee mach fer tan the Monte Casto 8.6% onsidring all modes offal. Monte Cal simu Ison als confirmed tht Plane! Tales outumber [Blane flues, consent wih te Plane! mode index (L478) being smaller tan tht of he Biplane rode (L978) 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ‘A prctielconstine optniztonaperoach in the ‘blguious sprendsbet platform tas bo peste {fo implement the Spencer method with ying ide fore inetnaons. Seuch fr ertialnoretelr slip ‘face and prosblsic slope analyse exountng ior spel variation of soll popes were demon ‘Sted. Reb Ingen wa expsin! sng th. tematve perspective of expandag eps "The perso study nota compeshesive risk a sess apprech, but may enue use com ponents towards achieving such a inl zs The ik atv examples ists paper damoasrae some fdvenages end poss in reality ary ‘when simple spreadsbece based prognmming end “Constaied optmizaton ste coupled: gether with ‘Shnoefnutve pereeton ofthe rely index ‘Among te sues not covered in tht paper ae model uncer, lcudng progres file and ‘Sengthsnsoropy, 2-D and -D spa variations, fan ways of deturminng the sass! xopeies of porenctes. Tse and ober snes were comisered Tr Vanmarcke (197, Arg & Tang (1984), Li & Comb (1987), Morgenstern (1997), ameng ober REFERENCES. Sere mon ng on demas nde fat of Bt Mca, so eT ec ots Low, BAK. and Wilbon H. Tag. 1997, Efe rlisilny SA a tes 0, i re an Bor Raaas on often “ieitasna ba wa “ly anais using generlind method of ses J. of seeeeocee te ees ena Ths yt ay oe oT Se Oe mm, et "onan pats eral fad es. Proce wemmiyduis aati cai gaeie napa Wert Lani Risk Asessinent 1524, ET map ef ecu Se ee ent Sh cacti at ena EAE an a to See ne 98 EEEEEELLE eee eee eee \Svope RELIABILITY ANALYSIS USING GENERALIZED METHOD OF SLICES By B.K. Low RB, Gilbert? and S. G. Wright? Members, ASCE sens: Ch a Mee sl Pats ma of oy crite ‘cam sn oe ‘wie pene ta pe Seas cae pe ‘Summed esse w ul ag fee ey Sareea ene ‘ate ‘See Hind scat sum ay me genoa clon fee ‘Serena era its Me ay cope ay ‘Sot u sn ypor otra mas Gage Mec onde (99) Set {en GS ere een G9} a ‘coca Psu Gay and wa sta C370) fr coe (hen a Monta (1985) xd en mi oe ee ogc poe en et adit sree hetas sees SE chen a Meron 8 are a: aay. me amas ® [rina aes 7 ns 0 tuto ht cat fe gem nd ete he pew eee = (E ion aoa samacedt o gee wg sts pt wit va oewedimeee ° ‘he acon in) was ese a natin [fea ere = nition a. tn Ba 09 o nor J = ml ft A = cnt Be et SIS FTN at ete pe ‘iio Shion Soa eo Pete desig tee tn Sosy Chen oat Mo fs fc can 0-0 o Haan, am Monon a ‘he pares af €)-(1) wa 1 vl alee of sxc Mla ding Wen, ne gut ow 0) = Td ‘iia 2 al eS be Magnes ete soeaean erga race ‘clon a dar seas’) and atone The derminie Ee ‘SPECIAL CASE: CONSTANT SIDE FORCE. meiaron esp ‘eco see done seins dee ty Sheu eran 198) pl spi b= Sos iri Ep Oo aoe en ss [rome Lromet:[f ns ‘he pation sng he gre rte om 9 em il a soem epee ad feinopend Ga p “ese puso) G3) eset Senne) es 2) we (0) wens sree Shem io Soh sw et -mrmoa]ae Bawox ho, 0 tn tinted tn oe Sechelt ‘elie robe al be mo ee Chair city motel dana tpate goats ee SEE (hs ie eae oe wale (Bond faa (a7) od Sr Whey (der freee Tit 3a snl sh th sat te 12-.0h Sea ESE ao ne tn Be ete Saran cane at pds et, Sates bcd Pape adhe apt Bt ‘Theyecomnng crower downwards Fora ae ected inching comms Aa ioe 6 TAPP Ac rs see Ne alee pea ors T ate nee nfo 2 ot es Sam sense wear asinese 5 9 ceepethscicongin eetn Inicionetol pon. Hs ssacry tne hr comput Brame tamara Seo aeees ce ieee ieee ‘thick ftned mar wae Wo pre we ees Mince ‘een shor nF 2, comping he msted Se Syeae oacoes SE SRer ees SSeS re SSeS ‘Bowe ie Fg. Th done fs Mics el} ae aah ce pee hae ang Ee Bem memeer Sie Sreeriare oboe Ges eres tay or ‘Ete ee tom Fa 20) er SIERRA ig eeearroate Se erage Lo peedae cee coo ese a nue won Smee rm 1 pont et o 10 Pee PPP eee eee |1 exmnner i sumesantcnmammransteqn estas aT EEEEEERIEET eosecucesIE Ee EERE » ‘na, 2, seein) meaner Sprig was Sn, arate ion Sie Foc) Tope er ais nat pee tances eae[isomers aint win Sen. La; Cunt Guatrega +t Poe ee 3h cet Segre eo se eo, ‘Te Lan 1 yl wh ad x oe ie SoTeT sata bt aca Ne aged 0 Seas RPE a "eco Se ca Ra 8 ee 20 iia A= 1a = 0. Te ao ah has lame “The flowing pos ae relevant 0 this nays: < yntgegoen pcan est ee Deane cen ta alert 2 ESTES ile aerate cata tao as ase {a td te inden ity (12) and 13}. Home te 2k ie finite B36 sno ses Ted doctoral aren tba Incomes Wl a eral Sia one a on ty Giga ice sea co) Fe eam in be an ee B00 a 08 bt ‘Self sted snd evel Set sng Xu ae wie cone rng, For example srt ‘pod eee rere tescentestrisesigite ‘Sltioniven and Newio seach method) hve bees wed ree teeta i doled, Naito See cineca Sores Se “Tre taps to endending the lope ofthe VBA codes Ee ened amines ssea tt Balin) dD) ede vob tee nodes Eanipeot memecer Setpieh oan rr owen Exeter cincre ese! He tes ie eran ch — cove a s'mpment oft aoe sesely ecane elping ‘Ma rs con Ga is rio) Ne 102 I EREEEERDDDEDEDDDDDOS |Sata ce, SARC BEY ee neg he nega cont win SHEE Seed none gains mepaoe id hi pe ea ‘Soe toe nnn neh ree 10 fan) ‘Ee ipsipl iu mrs Sloop saree cee ‘Reser sping lve ar nee rene $Sira ona Figs 26-0, mings etom ‘ie shgng Se apt Ge conte es 1 Sorcery os iro Fig 20 ‘Shel or tse deed mee ce und nd Rn (078) ee apap a on etottg once tee Isereguoucrng mare wrenaronn Segura sate CRIS sess Fipecee teen earases Tee Saas ere Seen SRE ay agra Pete tere ena eS Ri ESV SS aecs eas eas Pgaccor eres. Gifehe ecient aces ———_— bmeore—s cue _ Elf inemmman oe otis Reece eet SEES S ES Rtepecn Lr Sons resem meee Selec See eae ecoces ‘SEARCH FoR cAmcAL sup sunrace onesroNoINa TOHNMUM F atin meena te coeatae, erecta sera oa RSet yep ree rte et a ae oni ‘cane t omit ne Zoneno ery! SORES ene pedi ig ae a Su ey pect vince my wits “ea ipernity Semin ty Sterno nF Te lower ene Spine iy wet resol 8 4: i i ange ep ere ‘Sows by te vo eae 4 ne The ace f See pon dpe 08 on, spin feta etree ese (on of may wea ae ae lpesoney saan Ses cranes ‘2 -Somnbe pen oul to Oi fm sep 9 abe Pe 103eeabeGEREal> 1. § chen en sa En aed UigPepenea nent Aonch ing ct: Tete sci rine_s t welht w {)y m at n OES tos heuer de cecpeson Gaps Sle nase ano codeine mer nance Sos Sepa By Be eso aprender “he poy sce spo cm teen opin, koe re a Cer eae Wie thiler sa yan tel otewmpeing ats Mee 105Bae ¢ ESS (na. & spent avons Sons orNonrsi Gian Spree ue Sten Fig shows hr fe eet ec fae SULA pis yan oy ‘Stay ete meer dg pein econ ime Se prem toe cr ea os See eee Serer crac ae c= np VERE eee ‘Shad acetate ton eo wa Sea See See ie reer ohare erat a Ge Renee ios Suara ie aie Co See a hee ioe Fee oa cee ie Siena Sa Se eeeeS it in mate on athe et eco) wil ite ge rece feo y cca ‘owing sy nee Bom pete pe ‘Stele Foc poe Gi) een 2 wakeleFAl © Teves far ras open wit een see a ‘Sibse eK Gap berate cure cay ecsEens ected dapssnicn co ati, {niSora wih cid roma se mae pete. Sea Se Re TET and me SSE sp pat ono in cant Wire sale st yon ed mae cole} Sermeeg panes gw eed ed The yey ecw ef vere nl CE tnd te Tee rn cae ‘Sema be mama sind wen sand ‘an Sey acento mis swe Pn Teo pss oer fe clumay Prete O28 est ‘Spe eet pd et Sy mn ete Yes ‘fovea she led we bod ee SOLS 2 2 SFomiie ee sed or pee ane“ mnie fe romans Rac Pron) SR i tarry awe serotonin) fetowed by peing “Ene whe dig down "C+ SEDER Cath tener weld cots ‘Sop 0)“. hn ae eens) :Jn a, “mma moneda Msn $a = 1) = 0 ir ‘nd c>mar hx conciaon sats) te names pecelned BY Sec Sateen say ‘Shes asec ig re eee SEEDY SR Foe Pia allege se, ney pce woes rs 071 i i te! Esl 7 i Bessssecess |7O. Pty nso One rte Stace EL. (q\ ne 0 ramaoh eat 16.8, paren pe tcl enna RD the di pin i eet mann “heme roe ie pe fn by Ste ini. nybentc's Lan uN a = hte po recur sate flee iets bea sete tree FUP th per a ‘ersaron of lah aaa prema a Re. 2. ‘Sty Fe) es ro tino he ts {io ig The slg gen ip i ge (Ship ice este tee Ha ces Sana van o'r pt he me ‘ign pesca ‘hee ie ox mati nen a fe Bie Indoing owe evel fein te ayo te ei ‘Sag ra he np iny o ‘ip mere mene te Fre or ‘ontee fects nl ely ued are. ‘ember ecto ire 7) erin ra ‘Bayne pte egeon Pret 0) ste 60) eset fut and ee oe Sarma eee eerie ‘Eerhae dsee or ctl nemo na ‘vag Les T dee mma peel Ope fine te sfe ave An aon of aan mae Eb mecetee caer ets Seo eeeeaatnene hanging el ps 0 don ening 108mn he == ans oe a 10, Cutonsmanetrneons nen 0 Cadet VBA es sr El sino aig i ct = seein po wilco ley el wae eMac icindie gear wer pete cna ere ie nie opal te ay "eae cnn io Semqeattns (Pome pews fre rehome cen ‘readin mah a a) ron die ‘tose yh we sie i rl ‘it nds a powers rors 2a Site AOE Sng eects Sc Seater re ts ita APPEND sag tse et ‘Bide mao lng of aber abe, epLats 1 footie dni sppcmens he exponen ee fr Bi s ACKNOWLEDGMENTS {Sent ay aA eae lip pepe ‘Stents anal ape fh som ce La Sih eke capes dled ate eer. udm uopurathernctrae enon ‘tpl f anced ace coer wd emer Spc epee a be gen wpa lon (fo ert Hater or ey sa ‘Sato ttn edn Ges Me Seong cate pte ay nero ‘Gaetan The popoed petit spac power and Sl, yl nic on alr wees nes APPENOIXIL REFERENCES ween ce Lam ert 10(ciciters oaa Ses ae sea TE Gin Tact ety 4“Thin paper decor a wanspateat proce fr ingle resteg init uri formulation © lr Slope reliability analysis accounting for spatial variation BK. LOW*f, S. LACASSEt and F NADI {Scioto Ci ed Fonmenal Engng, Navin Techs Uses, ignore 38 {Noowepsn Gesctai!Inse (NGD, Oso Norway -lortonl Cen or Getty NGL, O84 Nore [A paced ape polre ie rior inning a genera iit ili nebnd in st-ictottalcomined opinion la he sender ‘ion Toe fomelin allows onchig among he Spec, Bop simpiied and Societe sneha tt st nln tk Surice i powble The deriste procedure extended rossi opment te order rsbsy method a contained opinion of the ‘uutsiat dhperion psd in Be rp suc ofthe rndom varie Ths Focus std for sn embsnkest on soft oan, afr cy soe in {Dut Normy, bth snoleg sly comeed sod poperiee The else of ‘toon nt oy ory nu Sh lvioct ofthe spends Toe mewn of poaby of fares cased oon: Protbite methods Slope ably: Realy; Contin; Otiaton Litireatta, Sete (90) mone ota ton Frdand and Krab (1977, Nash (B87) and Ui ‘Seasons anounpy a boost sp varaon ‘foal propria, lb of boron rtooreoe tne on ltl rested ad iced The ‘Misi Index and the comesponsing probably of {roel Gt (or hp embankment of 0 found, at kde the Bt sae fncton 6 estat fons) of rabaqant ray ans ‘SSonsponing ar Ea idaho ite {a Low (209, sig te moans Ns (96. ice ti nding ls : svn ig erm tnIRTETRT ETF ToT RCT ETT HT" * Pao ante Bl ef pee mune wvail i tess Say a Hy as | ‘& fh Me Sa ius Fe «Cand Lal: tat athe lal Fie 1 Daten ssp a gle ons pound with depth-depenfe! ud shear eh, wg ‘Sloat Sema mth ih alesine vron of ae fr into, te tangents of the sd fc ton snes oth reps to boast) he erica tree Ang these ump a Spee (173) borate fer a mrenibrthund cominiond opiiion =p ‘teroa and equim corn T= leh-+(F,—nppand ote ‘Conlon reson andor fey F) (0) 08 = WB kn ~T sa (ec evo of se) AT, eoe Gort gaan of lee) @) "3ge lay at com fr pl aries v0 MWh Sea ahun ops, res T et sfussiaea am o Dieses —hainslFe oreo atria) 6) rn Fy reese Cotomtmem aioe) 50430) -2, Outil wm 1) ye) ei ver of 8) tere es sad te eben, iin age and pe {TES prom eps at tse ce Pi the {SEs atin ows vertaletsbn eat Gt) (hazy ean ether omen de oP Enuntoor Ch and (guid fer-nonseaa ap feo, ge the er ts nh erect to a8 a (See Te we teh and de megan allows {eee at th the ites lee #7 hae 3 we {Guranteed non eck. es (Gx te Groton of wer trot hore, and fo ‘item # vals (eter coat orig om eter "Tor alr ipl tht re a eson () lone oping tte (Patan eon ‘on pms oni (Pea) 20 or equal he ‘tn normal eee Pea) ote aso al ‘rasan Hence biog th ral ap sea, ‘Shad fo Ck tat 20a he aso a ser and TSE te te te, Otero shold ‘Senda esp suo: sty war oft 8 coco Fitwot stb Sereutols eben Lay (Ga) (esa epitome, ‘Sip dowsoasbe sl le oe Sandon t classe Solin te cn ei) cic ial sarc Stary fom oe esata ‘Sth fil noc ete sures (ot are ‘Ski 2 dere of eton) se oe enough tach ‘the ough not nt Pegs move pron nt fir of sty vary trou nn 125126, igh lowersse expedite wale 129 of the eel ew usc gue Tien rt requ by ‘el Soper forthe ees char sp aac ce ‘bat seated cosas 2 Spence Bio ipo wee met yng ‘aie contrat uation are more sighted than te Spec (G31) formation The proce of Fg yo te Stotebhoneon nth Ele of Low 203s ies from the spect mt f ston 2 ge po eon cape) The pee! foemion and coe ined opinion preseare ao aleve satin Eenigons of he ie in Yer meng Spemee, ‘op sip end wedge meio The lng may Te sion il eres st surface in gute 3, F123, areas rigorous 8 the Spencer {i979 mated sn thy Che Morenner 985) hs toi cpa sage aod sora) mee ees Tes No eto se ad scl Soeisiked to cng Fall OD, eet the ena NS =, ‘Soe baie ator of safe 1290 (ons 1257 a Fg and at horse wate ce 9 61 EN in tec bled Efrem This F120 corspods 19 ovat td se spr amet ad veal fre Crus ba ot hon fre equ. AS Specels for sateakments on so goume Boy’ ‘Sepa onted pe patel teseme acne ty ‘Siiemore samos Spenser metho wen heap “ype ea non-ielar sp wre of ce 2 tas 0 ‘of edeforeincination parameier 2 (gure 1). Weonstant ‘Sistem ncliaton impos, he factor of sey 125, ih onto lec ication pane “8 Fai75428 Fgue 2 eign of each for terinie ‘telson sp sac 114 GGRPLEPEPPIEPTE PETE:“Tet tne iit it plo monte a pan iy wg lr etiniion etinge sumed valu and wits contains on sig otal foe eqiitrinm (oma=0), but gt veal moment (libra the swe oan woud soupond te “The macs the inet methods sing ees opinion sigs 2, Hn ne a ot tip ‘Te coaeninol ctor of sty grote eg cant rele th rity of wen pare thet of wera the ster Lin (97) cond emery en 6. Th ty nl es topos to comping the Haein! Ine wel ‘ome Ang ané Tang (1989), Haran Nae ‘as (1990, Becher aod Csi (205), aoa bom sth USACE (199) sighly ote it penal ote wiht Tose mtd a pot Finoer-Lind (10 eh nx ar aber ae, conceded ht many pus els of otal 1 eo ee ene rit eons mon tho! alin Core pave he Taylors ‘er muha ted oo Tar aces epaion 2 the ‘ormanoe faina swt the eapesed alae? The Sho survey af he exing Keeton probable ‘Mloagh te HttrLind ide manent ort fst a be rs ne th "Teconcpa snd implenenaton aris couniog tae HasfrLind ind for coveted orale and he 2000) by sloping an epenig. epersion lis “The mat orm ofthe Hate ind (1974) eSaiy laden nen 197, Die 18 eee hoe xa esto ptt te tf om sia, {the en save. Cte conse att & the (Sutton bese corona Seema et Sh and compe the conelaon sone ce ply eco . epiineexponet of the ee roa Sexy Lime stat surface: boundary betieen j= ‘andunsafe conan. Friction engl, (¢egroes) ‘Conssion,¢ (a) Figs. Rally ine 9 tines pace 118Spe eye esting fo pa rie i marie somal penion eid expands, i x ong sacar ae contour of seeeany poubl'y ‘tus Hens 10 mininze f(r in he sve nl ‘Snort oma ae ot nd haat lipo ange be i ate sre ‘Etat to ath mops re pn sey) Thea lranghe ‘pout a Shine (1989. "Ie pot adequcirof FORM in sme spi cots hve Bsns od move fit aerate Sop Chen a Lin (1985, De Kehna ist, Wand Wiring (987, Ege ot Racks. (Qo), Zao aod Ono (199, 201, spe Staods 2007). On Seth nd Rakes Gat he ene ‘Sanne wee emma te ter ere ate od “ribs noted thei lls namie 4 om determin pbs ope aby ante Thelin equa soe sat formuon onions Sand fp) it exe low to 9 sade ‘snby sed ‘se como. ptzaon of ‘tpt Oe precy no by and rf (1970), Visine (97, amd (Goen, Tang (999, Chowdhary and a (983, Cn Sra!) Moons (97 La a (930 Haman {od Wot (i395, Get nd Feten 206), Nasi ea (ios) among there iy saw pert nse Ponce at acne Seat teh i a he ‘nom ata The cooling betwee uefa i rower sow snp by etesng els in el Casts an Pasa of Gee Ito seal ales om {he URL penta Low 03) Spt cretion in eat [Dead ws mee inte ion aio Gere Sumip ar anocnvltin dees () of 3m in the a) Farce noo ona teen peste ge 2 sol te conan! emsnon appeh a em rm! dtrbuons we ead an eat somal tips cetera ota the orignal mean ofthe nog ‘Sova dition beta on atin somalia a ‘aril 0 dtigush ftom the mbox C-oeordinate "Taro aed to gone te corel matic (oth eel to rotaag te me of ee) inca GP) and eget norm ander evan eostrale optiniton sr Mare cis Gas nfo Es fis) oa Feared NE cosine! opinion of spelt dagen ‘Mipentn spd a Raho Fase (97H me Iowan Tag Guo ad Low (085). sure of ie het les of ae wee {o'0 aad reps They ales fe ge 4 ee ity sped ek ops nnn we Se mie te guns fom of equation 18 Sino! equalnt Ayptclipld I ora tome) te ol Ip lamang be ie rnd vite few and he 28 rine ales ‘rao a iit sate) ‘moka! tte soutoine It's, 2h ‘anendana casa, 020, stn Seon SRoees= 220, ad onde Sone Laws hunni ea th sore "To inex 106 forte en wt logo vier (Gore. The comsponing probity of fe asd ‘othe igen semis 2 Te elit sd fetta ip sass owe age 5. Th ie Sato ia Be # defo he ox probe are pois Ube ttante ear (PD oe labled el ‘ales are slip higher than dhe repetive mean values ‘Foepolary i bbe Dns ra othe tit weigh of the enka us SE rete denne of eon rack rh (an 16 PEREPRPPPEEAnay foreta: OrwSha, then Enter 55] snormedist(B) SRT SCC RTE TGTET ‘Coetation ati, Yrmat™ Jn Su Se So Sw Os Function EqiN(istibuionName,v, mean, iDev, code) Select Case UCase(Tem(DistibutorWame) iim eacngtealing spaces & convet to uppercase ]Case°NORMAL® Weage = 1 Then EqyN= mean If code = 2Then EqvN= SiDev | case"LOGNORMAL: Iv «0.000001 Then = 0.000001 lana = Logimear) - 0.5" Log + Dev! mean)* pre 4. Relay ana of tec owe I, sous or pth arin of wns ser enh vere fi on cu sine the euon k= celta a tip ining colt ean alae Selvoting Siero oie Pind o 186, ws orreponding prota Tie eal 3.2% com "hea withognomal variates ab Yoth ny hy tee om he termini ee nn ear efar thease ead ering ety ant tse ‘he velaly nds, * cll) 1 dated he rin conlsion mi) of hen. 2 teins ‘Ser ap sathws (he two per canes fo Rr Srines and Tonormal vrs) tthe eterna WwSipe lay a com fr pa rion ry “Tie 2 Relat infor thea mbar olin ea orm amon, a mgt Ia Der Kishan To's ios Sone ee of he al p/n ar ena epee (09). ang se fom usta bec the colton mar ths toad ‘iter oly ay fom th nga cation ma ‘Men sng teu hi sy ein the ‘ign unodd Coen mates Tow GON) ied elect of dcretied oe nemo nado pose om the compte rey {ato and found tt cope inex wa pracy these ee othe amb of iret pit eo feprat te onedineaal room fl, provided ‘Miustnn of Vanna (90) that no sen on ‘Mansel vin goed when te ope Ist then the se af actuation etch fe fo nes tSteorcton tance stcneatn Te ode By the epson oe “1 ving patty diy ns fm ree ‘ates am compari wit ot Cal sis “The iy dx in igs wa bine with respect Toth lin at sre deine by F=10. Themen ve pln ened seu the 12 area cot [stl te demise nowceaa sip sue ‘Shc gue 2A dapeson Inertia eens ‘om he eu sane pot il och the it ‘te inthe aaa ae Te rota 0 Cae Ercan eri of ray dn probity dey function of uk (tor of sfety by [ting tient src fr trent F ves. The fete are shown gue 6. The ebay deity Fincton (DE) plow i Bgue 6 (obi cue) wee ‘Stanly aping este soe ernie (ee ‘Rrguig 198) othe CDE Another leave ws ees fe Tate and Nadie (190, who sain i a loacy an aprons or CDF by arpropite po sofware @RISK (tpstennpliadeco wih Lala Hijab spl nly the dom ables were etned orm iia, then prom dt fom ie tw age oat wl wah he Monte (Cao POF cures ied carves Mie 5 Case stl os dy sloe noth Ney ‘clay ope in others Norway wa ead deri {sty and pst Vann sl 2005 ‘hing te SLOPED soar SLOPEW ae Mente Ca Smog oacnt fo orbs pl tin fal ropes te the poset the ame slope as Tebosd wong the Law (00) seabed Kt ‘ulin frason (eons 18 8 he ete ‘cone by mt Low snd Ty 997,208. “Te ude shen tenet ofthe se (snes nd Usain esa he Borat ete ah aso ‘ih dept ows eet eC) wher the net «asi lm Bf 109 de bear eet ntropy Gist, cp the led seat fie tp fhe ly pd tye (hth The cated sh enh ate owed oat, clan ner mot sin of cordinas {3s atone yt et pot inf 7. Tae 3 ‘Shon the tne pares we ote aa The ‘Theis for of ley, Bae 8 enh vals of farsa e PLM, abn ng Eu Ser wth ‘Src fore ct sip serie (ie, Th be lacy aoa by ae feat (2th sane devin oie shen eng ceed anfiai teem Od in wich etait coats eae function he pontons ofthe op an botom of «ce, pe the ea ale eu an ep ee uns "Te lgnowal dnibaon & ane fr random ties Tn ss fhe ao ae oe bse nite eublsed gone auecretat oon ‘pa vara 1182g aie is Wort] 22] tem Ae ‘opemal 5 ern a ceites | 72 1m cite “oe s) sa] mam 1 ‘ os os ° 0 as 0s 1 42 14 18 48 05 O8 1 12 14 18 18 Factor ety Feta ste : 3 Teihenerts 28] thanestont 7 Nepean] 25] BRO OA tee | 2 | A oteer zi eee x z femme, Bis gis] har. J 1 1 7 ‘ zg tonto a of o = os 08 1 12 44 18 18 Factor of ety 05 08 1 12 44 18 19 Factorefotey Figure 6 Pobiy ety fnstions (PDF) baie om ety ees and Monte Caro mans. ‘Noma ‘nese nat alread neal aint bdLaprrl” noha crea lpm ae. cy ‘uted lab incr ee inept in te Loman ‘Taner laity mend vin ome opi ‘ona Exe The owing pein equation he Fede fcr ry Choma 980) war dt ede {ake when te sy i 9 rater tan he mle fF ctansne By egul to tice the eaecorlton ame rayer dsb, 10) VE be, 08 5. Retna ofl ope acon fo sata Sin of ston as 8 fe ok ‘ado vats ee weed a lone pers forthe sedis gua lipid apronch of {oe atone rcliey tacos mere wed Al our Scar the ut wiht a te ny yr rtd 2 etre The codaion mat bat 2038 eniee tae cave, oheaed fom Brot —e9), the retort are nar 1). “Soi 3 the rly nde ave ed 24 21 capes palsies sod 2 spiny comet ent wih ao The sae of te {ate i shown by oe comaponingy bo cue ia ewe 30, omeypond i. pail come eval 200 on ‘aoa vara of wat weight fr theese dope The Sandan dvnton ft ng aly = 0975 ‘inn aetgeauin 5, ch078380 $s ier pbaiiesofflurear bow bye uted crer i gre 8). Fo the searon te faconettin sna apis nt the 2 nated 19| = # ppl )+ rote depth) | rE une = 900008 -021% + 49.950 j gs j to | da ‘ Soop are ne oreeaa aa! | os 1m Wo mo mm0 ‘ toate Fee 7. Unda shar stent model fy ope nai nto REREEEERERE REE ' 120 al ;Figur Rly nds f dees (0) 20d pay fre (fre forbids) nee (2 Shscrltin Stas of sed her Sag (ad ‘tebe pty sored ep ee Comping th ‘teinitc ' curve and the “24 satay caries 7 eve, tbe eee eae the Fey aera §-o1'm GD yn 70) © hee Than te ieee a7 #100 (152 vere 12. Hower, Sous ofthe oosnety In &=t— 8D), the dlewace im pti of flue ef B=1 ge Prctaly Iga compared ih Sat (vera Ta 1000 ion (eal ot whee Sym ‘tu the th othe domain posing the in ‘Bhdom The celled 24 spatial oie tod Tran wih sed cae totus ling ‘patil corte 7, due othe approves eatre ofthe ‘eta nao in uta (9). sy pe i hl) ‘Sodan! devon. itty to be xpd at Siar stern en) ome the aa inde nd inet prota offre sbliy tare cana be tasted fon) te naeiog Sil ms ia a ip ae et rnemecl meted i dace om wish psu (© bowenad ar uniom varies nol) he aed Protanlity dttaens (puoi is as) eel "on nructre Gniting pal aro sa astceoel. ‘in mol wre peed, “eof ay a a ol nthe SORM) in he me ay tt the a of Germs Sub ar oly goed a he dete ipa ad eho wo (ep Spesr moder oe) A slaty ‘abu role adtona sail lop iomation tia so ruled Ia a dsermaise atacocaney {2 perOmance fenton and the des ft at ‘Misi remit an "Ameer apron as are the ender ati orlatons tad sil snanptons st ‘iso nate the mort eo comsnan of paramere ‘ater wbsh mold ease are wo he composing ‘by ide, boo ing on i! paral fats. ‘Semuio 2 fie ® sore 10 24 spat cers a a 24 pal cored ul weit {lien poe stained by Tae aber repre te mo Srotible combination ofthe 2¢ sauce 3 ‘Ser of 7 sch would enue alr At xpd er ‘otis parmtery the 34 sau of ond shee the San pot at all ont tha Cir nats (conten eto 12) On {Bre no, the scorn dane 10m ttoner ar thonn in gar, he eign pit ney Stel Gi pe wh pot ale ‘ee abovethirmenn le rex orang forces, tt some prado thee ae some {Egmont fy ear he osc elo ‘pee ln The ingen th the sap os ae ies et nnn he ee 1 women! etre Ths plane ca be eid 1 determine ros wg igh» wales nea i oe ‘i esuing habe ir oft woul be ie Teed code commie to cont pata fo: ‘eh tthe pn as of ae ove the et long ‘ons Inthe reset rey aati by the rete Ouitiscoosaie! pion progam Sede sey ad He enraged ‘Stn Sno sy spa TA hipber tales of atocoreon tance 4, ee someon couse spon 1) by equation 1 he ‘Bon pois nds of 7 of te 2 es approach ‘ommot re ashore byte ay tvs ein m1Soe ity eircom fr i ition 1 Fieve 9, Deen pot nde of cy uit weit at = fussion of hoz atsoriatn tance Sia mee, fae 9 fr 1000 Te Ss poi indies afc Aioed a8 (gage the 2s ho apes sre ay fo ei etn tego be ieee toa the cane of no sake eri. The fuente ved wares ne Oe each cnntyfncon forte ron dept The sppe ala tty index eune andthe Ter posi of ce fuse is are Ite he ate abe orepoodagy 16 ot cone. The impeons of ot cone, Sed on sore ting tesa ar sand e thown bythe 00 a of cee For example 810 ey inde dean fon 2.46 99 oon Sluts, wh commenting pies of Eee Inoaig ou 07 038% 30 the ay aeetgen Index dete fom aout 1.5 fo 9 eon 0 show 125 wee eoion depth model by be epoteta deen wa epee pba ff saat ofa ay ape eso be noted hatin some esol stations & weak aera age my eon Tier pwr ach api! socardaon ‘ot ssondary pore ‘Sissons pron a te wes doe pockaps Pe adhntage ste he ebanesd pariiption Sil ge eo Imporedundrsung a epretation th rine he rece erase trigu fterese sniseopy)ca Deeley ng Senda softwar and (i th ee ih Which the ‘Ereminice anaes cn be etendd ino Sender ‘sabi soi the relly analy the HooeLind ety Index sexi! wag the peste an epi: Spent catered the mesa tthe oa dh pe ay rms ae he ‘terete aenies dapenion hype nn fo The imitate race When o-ormae tei he tom pecan premfod beta aie the sae el Sy noe othe coal osner Lied od for {teats spprech, Sarl protaliy of tale ison gods te Safe mode tol the stata imu ening steeping poy fl depend on) au 1, Variton oe stp suc wih depth of seabed ein 12i = ie Rly ns einer ty ff oon oral esr tos wh amt ‘thou weer there Del a the sndehing sna mol, i the mb of pr ‘co tne random ate a (i) teats ‘mpi feng meas values Hand desnions Drotahiy bony coeon ctr Calg ial ation and socoreton odd ere pt Safe intomaton st ie Inport lst te "he pres dy rover compet oss eaesry ‘inten Heer Lind hilt dese the tet ‘bata! eset he eral Caner Geb UNGL Oso, Nowy te smn of 06 Mesure ‘wish to thank En Sturces,Borm Ver Vangie sod Maro Uhl pois tc cy ope 123Eiieemncca STcae ce ‘suuiog wea 'sadois ‘jqesun jo 820} 21938 sessamng Mies « (Gumyoid-ay) uoneoylpow edoqs + esas teaee eet ated ta eee gE pue Joqem aoens jo oBeulEsa + uopeziiiqeis edois jo souoBaye9 weysAs Buyusem opuispury + (uonezyigers odoys) sodoys ‘eziyqeis 0} saunsvou jeojsud os7 « tuononnsuoa pue ‘Buydeospue} ‘Supe ‘Buneneaxo 404 sopoo dojenog + eave ouosd-opiispue| plony + :eBeutep jenusjod sonpas 40 spuezey Buipjone Aq ‘seunje} edojs 0} ‘np Sasso} e}00s pue awuouode aziwuUIW Of juaweBeuew prezeH epiispuey uopeziyaeis edojg uo seouasejeqGOPRDPGGGG aes eee es ‘payeysujas pue yno Bnp Bureq ‘81 pur (pex90)q pasn useq sey pean ueod seu, paueg anny ovo uso. owed 20) ue pvoBne pu oun. stot wane ‘uonuenesd diispuej Ul SuIeyp Yous,a ‘Apmis “ydsues, Jo aq eIWOHIED sejoyaiog jewuozuoY-1waU uy suesp BuIeISULoy Shem o Ajauen & ul pojjersut o1 sujesaez ous @pHs}20u “= yeduu 4} Glosqe 0} J004 UO SBUK} PIO UBSOWIET Jo Uno} aX UI BBEIIA e YBNOILA ‘pISpUE} Buy Aule0 0} auuny BIaI0U0 y eouepiony epiispueySiabilzing Zenion ground anchoring ‘Anchored Crib-Wall, and Anchored Wall 130 HPEEEGE ! |rer “998) oyun pue ysou uapn odors poyeu wosPGGGGGGGE cer “sipjowoz21é pur sigjowourouy snosouny + seuzup 226uns Jo w ope's ple tetped 961 stouuns eBuresp jo. aoe's ‘Svoyaue y2ou pessonsoud sor + ‘quoupas 1011 poroeduoa ‘uo pepury ssaining 90) £41 900'99% - way opHePUeL nud ul weg @40 sadoys Bur 40} SaunsvoUu pauiquiog ojeag 6167, \\_/edojs paweirios | sae |Reference: JM, Duncan nd S. G. Wight (2008) Sol Strength an Slope Stab, Wiey, Chapter 6. Strengths of Natural Deposits of Granular Materials, tis not possible to obtain undisturbed samples of granular materials, except by exotic procedures such a feezng and coring the ground. In most cscs ction angles fr natural depos of granular ‘materials are estimated using the resus of in ita tests soc asthe standard penetration test (SPT) or | the coe penetration text (CPT), Corelations that ean be used interpret vals of rom in sity tents ee discussed below Strength correlations. Many tefl correltions have been develope tht canbe wd to estimtethe strengths of sands and gravels based on correlations with eative densities or the resus of in ita tess ‘Tho carlest coneltions wore developed bafoe the lflunce of confining pressure on was Wel understood. More recent correlations tak confining pressure into acount by eomelating bth by and ‘6 with relative density or by including overburden pressure in comlatons between andthe esl fin st tet. ‘Table 5.2 relates vals of and A to eave density values for well-gaded sands nd gravels, poorly graded sands and grave, nd sity sands, Figures 58 and 56 canbe te fo imate insta relative density based on SPT blow count or CPT cone resistance, Values of relative ceiyerinated ‘sing Figue 5 or 5.6 canbe used together with Table 5.2 10 estimate values of and fe natal epost, Figures 5.7 end 58 relate values oft overburden presse and SPT blow count or CPT cone 7 “able 52 Vales of @ and 8¢ for Sands and Recaption me +The drained shear sents of sands, gravels and ‘Standind— Rebaive sock materials can be expressed a8 = a tan Unites Pronto densi 1 Values of for these materials ae controled by | Stssifewion _RO"()_D*(%) _Geg)_ (Gee) easy, prada, and conning pres. ew, sw ws + The vataon of wih confining pressure can To ot be represented by 95 o 0 6 ty ole lee < & case 1 ee 86 ob i st al oe where of isthe confining pressure and p i a 0 % BB | , mosphere esr. SM fle + Wher large particles are removed to peepae spe % - M6 | iment for boratory tests, the tes specimens 2 - 2 4 | shouts be prepared atthe same elative densi as ae ie the original material, atthe same void rat. + Vales of @ for granular mates can be est- med based on the Unified Soll Classification, felave density, and confining pressure + Values of for granular msterils ean also be uma based on reals of standard penetration fessor cone penetration ts ‘Sowce: Wong ana Dass (197) SRC = relative compctcn ™ 9) Yu % 1008. Dy Cena ~ Olen ~ fn) X1ODR. “$= bo ~ So oem olfp, where p, i amospherc press 133Reference J. M. Duncan and 8. G. Wight (2008) Sal Strength and Slope Stab, Wey, Chapter 5, 9 hy ; 7 r Noh IN IHRE A CUI 1 bei IMI MALS i WAL el ‘ewe 6 Relay mong CF” cone misao fee jesse ao rae erty of snd Tigere £5. Relaonsip among SPT blow cout overburden ‘Sshmerza, 1578) rnsre, and lave dent for sande (ater Obed iste, ag7, and US. Dope nein 19759 owe me > m te | i a \ P| y PAWS : i dos a : ‘ ry i . i = Pave Gis & Yeo 5 eh a oaonatn te Figure 58 Relationship between CPT cove rite, ove. ‘amen pressure, and g? for sands (Afr Roberton and oa ae aaa Campancia, 1983.) ‘eT ow count to ue 5.7 _Relaonsip among SPT Maw cous ovebudes| esr, and for sae (Aer DeMelo, 1971, and Sanarana, 1975)Reference: JM. Duncan and 5. . Wight (2008) Sol Strength and Stop Stabity, Way, Chapter cuays “Through their complex interactions with water, lays are responsible for a large percentage of problems with slope stably. The stongth properties of lays ae complex an subj to changes ‘over ime trough consolidation swelling, weathering, development of slikensies snd creep Undrainedstengis of lays are important for shor-erm loading conditions, and dra ned stents sp import for longteem conditions. The shear strength of clays in tems of effective stress can be expressed by the Matr-Coul strength erierion as sec'+o'ung! 6o whores th shear sent, the effective stress cohesion intercept, and the effxtive sss ‘ngle of internal ton “he shear strength of clays in trms of ttl ses can be expressed as crown on Where and gare the total stress coeson intercept and the total ses friton angle, For saturated clay, sequal oz, snd the undraned strength an be expressed 5 me (580) O=H=0 Gan wheres she undrained shear tenth indopendent of total onal tess, and he otal stress Fiction angle Factors Affecting Clay Strength Low undraned strengths of normaly consolidated and moderately overeonsoldate clays case ffequent problems wit stability of embankments constructed on them. Accurate elton of undraned strength, erica actor in evlusting tabi, edtfiult beease 3 mary factors Inuence th results of aboraory and in sit tests for clays. Disturbance. Sample disurbanesredaces strengths measured in uncensoldated-undrned (UU) tests inthe laboratory. Strengths measured using UU ests maybe considerably lower an the Uundrained strength in situ unless he samples are oF igh quality. Procedures have bet developed 10 mitigate disturbance effacs Jamiolkowskl etal, 1985). “Anisotropy The undrined stength of lays is anlsot-ope thai, varies with the venation of the fll pane. Anisowopy in clays is dus o two effets nherentanisetropy and sts system Indeed eisoroy. Inherent anisotropy ia ntact lays results rom theft that plate-shaped clay parties tend to become oriented perpendicular tothe major principal trun destion during conzolidion, which rests indzetiop-dependentstifiess and stengt, Inherent anisotropy in si-ssed clays also resus from theft dat sures are panes of weakness Sires s)tem-induced anisotropy i de to the fact hat the magnitudes of the stesi during

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