1

Nigerias Political Violence Research Network (NPVRN)

The East London Mosque (source: http:///www.googleviews.com)

Structural Drivers that Facilitate the Growth of Islam

In East London United Kingdom
NPVRN Working Paper No. 4, London - United Kingdom
For Open Doors International, Netherlands
Authors
Fr. Atta Barkindo is a PhD research student at the Department of Politics
and International Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies,
University of London. He is a Fellow of The Global Initiative on Civil
Society and Conflict, (GICSC), University of South Florida, USA and a
Research Fellow for Open Doors International based in the Netherlands.
Fr. Atta also consults for the Nigerian government on the programme of
De-Radicalization of Violent Extremist in custody. His current PhD
research project History, Memory and Resistance in Northern
Nigeria: The Transformation of Boko Haram since 1995 was
awarded the 2014 Horowitz Foundation grant for Social Policy. Email:
atta.kindo@yahoo.co.uk

Nicola A. Tofowomo, is a graduate of University College London, UCL

and the School of Oriental and African Studies, SOAS. Her Masters
Research interest is Urban Inclusive Economic Development in Lagos,
Nigeria. Email: Nicolamonica@hotmail.co.uk
November 2014

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank students from Goldsmiths
University and Kings College, University of London for their
willingness to participate in the interviews conducted for this
research. Equally, their immense appreciation goes to the
residents of East London, both Christians and Muslims, who
accepted to be interviewed for this project. They have all
asked not to be identified.
Copyright 2014
This work is the property of Open Doors International.
Therefore, no part of this work may at any point and for any
reason be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form, by any means, manual, electronic,
mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise without the
prior written permission of the owner.

Table of Contents
Title Page 1
Acknowledgment 2
Copyright 2
Introduction
3
Limitations of Study

Understanding the Nature of Islam in the UK (Sunni, Shia or Sufi)

3
Area of Study: East London and the Nature of Islam 4
Structural Drivers that Facilitate the Penetration of Islam in East London
4
East London Interviews
5
Findings and Analysis 5
General Analysis of Structural Drivers of the Penetration of Islam
in East London 6
Immigration Policies
6
The Failure of Multiculturalism & Identity Politics in the UK
8
Anti-Christian Policies 10

Pro-Islam Policies
11
British Foreign Policy of International intervention

12

Concluding Remarks 13
Bibliography
14

Introduction
With the rise of international terrorism, many investigations have been
carried out regarding the contextual and structural factors that facilitate
radicalization and terrorist activities, particularly in Africa and the
Middle East. More so, the emergence of the Islamic state in Iraq and
Syria (ISIL) has attracted hundreds of young Muslims from Western
countries to go and fight in the Middle East. In the UK alone, security
experts suggest over 500 young Muslims left in 2014 to fight alongside
the ISIL. Within the context of these issues, the study examines the
structural drivers that facilitate the growth of Islam in the UK with the
case study of East London. Is it possible to say that such growth also
provides breeding ground for some young Muslims to join groups like
ISIL? The paper is divided into four parts: the first part describes briefly
the nature of Islam in the UK. The second part examines Islam and its
growth over the years in East London which is the area of study for this
research. The third aspect provides a tabulation of interviews conducted
about the structural drivers that facilitate the growth of Islam in East
London. The analysis of the tabulation reflects the opinions of the
interviewees regarding the issue under investigation. The final part is a
general analysis on the structural drivers that facilitate the growth of
Islam in East London, and if such growths also helps the radicalizatoin of
some young British citizens. The conclusions drawn are also left to the
reader to make his or her own judgement and conclusion.
Limitations of the Study
The main challenge in undertaking this research was obtaining
information given the lack of sufficient data on Muslim communities in
East London, as also noted by the Greater London Authority [1].1 Again,
many Muslims rejected the request for interview and those who did
accept, requested not to be identified. The increasing securitisation and
politicisation of Islam in public discourse, which intensified following the
rise of ISIL probably coloured the views of those who accepted to be
1 Greater London Authority. (2006) Muslims in London.
http://legacy.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf, p.18 (accessed
November 3, 2014).

interviewed. In consideration of all these, it is necessary to concede that

the purpose of this research is not to contest established facts regarding
the nature of Islam and Muslims in East London. Rather this paper is a
platform to broaden the horizon of discussions regarding the highly
politicised nature of Islam and Muslims in Western societies, with a
contextual analysis of the penetration of Islam in East London. It also
aims to contribute to the broader debate about Western Muslims and
their links to the religious and political contexts of their home countries
[2].2
Understanding the Nature of Islam in the UK (Sunni, Shia or Sufi)
Muslims in the UK are the next biggest religious group and have grown
in the last decade (Office for National Statistics, 2012). The 2001 Census
that was conducted remains a key source of demographic data. Though a
population census was also carried out in 2011, this report combines
both the 2001 and 2011 data, making reference to more recent data sets
and projections. In 2001, the population of Muslims stood at 1.6 million
in the UK. More recent estimates by Pew Research suggests that the
Muslim population has increased to over 2.5 million in the whole of the
UK by 2010 and this figure is expected to reach over 5.5 million by 2030. 3
At least 96 percent of Muslims in UK are Sunni, and about 2 percent are
Shia [4].4 According to the co-founder, of the Sufi Muslim Council, Haras
Rafiq, Sufis count among the vast silent majority of Britains 2.5 million
strong Muslim community [5].5 The nature of Islam practiced in the UK
reflects the pattern of migration, where migrants tended to come or
originate from largely Sunni Muslim countries such as Pakistan and
Bangladesh. The current population of London stands at 8.6 million 6 and
at present the Muslim population in London, according to the 2011
census stands at 12.4 % of the total population of London. 7 Over the past
2 Cesari, Jocelyne. 2009. The Securitisation of Islam in Europe, Challenge, Liberty and Security
Research Paper, No. 14, April 2009, p. 2. http://aei.pitt.edu/10763/1/1826.pdf (accessed
November 4, 2014)

3 Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the
Size and Distribution of the Worlds Muslim Population, Pew Research Center, Washington, DC,
2009. Estimates by Pew for the Muslim population in the UK for 2010 and 2030 are given in the
online interactive map, available at http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population (accessed
July 2015).

4 MuslimsInBritain.org. Muslims in Britain http://guide.muslimsinbritain.org/guide3.html

(accessed October 7, 2014)

5 Casciani, D. 2006. Minister backs New Muslim group. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/5193402.stm

(accessed November 12, 2014).

6 BBC News - London's population hits 8.6m record high www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london31082941

7 The 2011 census Office for National Statistics.

few years, there are estimated to be up to 100,000 converts to Islam in

the UK from a variety of different ethnic groups, including from the white
British population.8 London has the highest proportion of Muslims in the
UK followed by the West Midlands.9 This reflects the findings from the
2011 census that indicated that London was the most diverse region in
the UK in terms of religious affiliation with over a fifth of the population
identifying with a religion other than Christian. 10 In England and Wales,
there has been a drop in the population reporting to be Christian, from
71.7 percent in 2001 to 59.3 percent in 2011, and an increase in all other
main religions. The number of Muslims increased the most from 3.0 per
cent in 2001 to 4.8 per cent in 2011.11 Even more startling, is that the
lowest proportion of people who identified themselves as Christian was in
London where under half of the population were Christian, while London
also experienced the largest increase (3.9 percentage) of Muslims in
England and Wales.12
Area of Study: East London and the Nature of Islam

Source: London Partnership Maps (http://pro-activeeastlondon.org/page.asp?)

East London is the north-eastern part of London with seven boroughs:

Redbridge, Barking and Dagenham, Havering, Hackney, Tower Hamlets,
Newham, and Waltham Forest. East London is renowned for its global
8 Office of the Mayor of London, Muslims in London, Greater London Authority, London, 2006,
available at http://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CBsQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F
%2Flegacy.london.gov.uk%2Fgla%2Fpublications%2Fequalities%2Fmuslimsinlondon.rtf&ei=t93FTrjEH6KniQLM 536BQ&usg=AFQjCNEtEGdDFtBEScOw yk0TTaGYCl0X2w
(accessed November 2011) (hereafter GLA, Muslims in London).

9 Office for National Statistics. 2012. Religion in England and Wales 2011, p. 4.
http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_290510.pdf (accessed October 29, 2014)

10 Ibid.
11 Ibid: 3.
12 Ibid: 6.

cultural diversity13 and in regards to Islam, it is home to the largest

concentration of Muslims in London.14 As earlier mentioned, London has
a population of 8.6 million people15 of which 12.4 % are Muslims. Out of
this 12.4 % Muslim population, East Londons boroughs of Tower
Hamlets and Newham have 34.5 percent and 32 percent respectively,
while Redbridge and Waltham Forest also boroughs in East London, and
have proportions of their population higher than 20 percent, according to
the 2011 census.16 Also noteworthy is the fact that there were several
areas outside London with proportions higher than 20 percent. 17 Of all
the areas in England and Wales, Tower Hamlets has the highest
proportion of Muslims, over 7 times the England and Wales figure, and
also has the lowest proportion of England and Wales population reported
to be Christian, at 27.1 percent. 18 This is in comparison to all other local
authorities, where Christians formed the largest religion in all local
authorities. Tower Hamlets is the only local authority where there were
more people who identified as Muslim, with a population of over
71,000.19
Structural Drivers that Facilitate the Penetration of Islam in East
London
Census data published by the British government showed that Islam is
set to become the dominant religion in Britain within the next
generation.20 with much of the increase coming from East London, and
indicative of the penetration of Islam in Britain. To find out what
structural drivers facilitate the penetration of Islam in East London, the
research used a two-method approach. The first approach is an interview
conducted in East London and the second is a qualitative research
approach that extracted data from journals, reports, media information
and newspaper articles.
13 Visit East London. (2014) http://www.visiteastlondon.com/ (accessed November 10, 2014).
14 Ibid.
15 BBC News - London's population hits 8.6m record high www.bbc.com/news/uk-englandlondon-31082941

16 Greater London Authority 2006: 8.

17Ibid.
18 Ibid: 1-7.
19 Ibid: 18.
20 Kern, Soeren. 2013. Islamization of Britain in 2013, Gatestone Institute, International Policy
Council,
December
30,
2013.
(accessed October 20, 2014).

http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4112/islamization-britain

East London Interviews

In this approach, 50 people between the ages of 18-50 were selected for
interviews which included both Christians, Muslims and atheists. They all
came under the category of residents of London or East London. It
combines both face-face and phone interviews that involved only one
question: what factor, in your opinion, derives the growth of Islam in East
London? It was tagged the Growth of Islam Index
Question: What factor, in your opinion, derives the penetration of Islam
in East London?
Table: The Growth of Islam Index (50 Respondents for this one
Question)
AntiBritish Foreign
Identity Politics
Christian/proPolicies
Muslim Policies
80.0%
45.0%
70.0%
Always
15.0%
05.0%
20.0%
Sometimes
05.0%
50.0%
10.0%
Never
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total

Findings and Analysis

From the respondents point of view, the three prominent drivers that
facilitate the growth of Islam in East London are: identity politics, antiChristian/pro-Muslim policies and British foreign policies. These answers
do not only tell us about what facilitates the growth of Islam in East
London but also about the opinions of those interviewed regarding the
factors that facilitate the growth of Islam in East London. Furthermore,
this to a certain extent probably reflects the opinions of ordinary Muslims
and non-Muslims alike, including security experts, policy makers,
religious leaders and politicians on the factors that facilitate the growth
of Islam in East London. For instance, 80% all accepted that identity
politics play a massive role in the penetration of Islam compared to 15%
who said sometimes and 5% who said never. Identity politics briefly
reflects how people manipulate identity, religious or ethnic to dictate
government policies in their favour. Knowing that Islamic religious
identity is of massive advantage within government policy circles,
Muslims decide to be more segregated. They have taken over
Whitechapel, Upton Park, and Bethnal Green. Theyve turned East
London into Slumdog Millionaire. They dominate East London with the
rise of halal shops and Muslim dress.21 Living in a Muslim community, a
respondent claims, encourages the growth of Islam in the UK. The
segregation is necessary because we are not fully accepted. We are
tagged, extremists, terrorists and the only safety net is to protect our
religious identity and heritage. Again, the more we stick to our religion
the more we grow and protect our families. There is nothing wrong in
21 Interview, Aysha Usman (not real name), November 10, 2014.

being different.22 Other respondents believe the growth of Islam is

because Muslims separate themselves in certain cultural and religious
ways, but are integrated economically.23
Regarding anti-Christian or pro-Islam policies, 45% of the respondents
believe the government enacts anti-Christian policies while promoting
policies that support Islam. This opinion is coming from those who mostly
identify themselves as Christians. Yet 50% of the respondents who are
mostly Muslims indicate that they do not consider any government policy
as being pro-Islam and promoting the penetration of Islam. Interestingly
they do not appear to deny the existence of anti-Christian policies as
paving the way for the penetration of Islam. Somewhat, the UK has
suppressed Christianity but is afraid to upset Muslims, they do not want
tension between different religious groups especially with the war in the
Middle East on-going. So they seem more anti-Christian, while promoting
Islam.24. No the UK is not anti-Christian; its just that Christianity is
not as prominent as we would like it to be since this is a Christian
country. Muslim holidays are not public holidays but Christian holidays
are, so the country is not anti-Christian. The country tends to provide
more aid to Islam.25 Britain is neither anti-Christian nor pro-Islam. It is
just more secular.26
In the context of British foreign policy, 70% of respondents indicate that
British foreign policies and its intervention in foreign countries led to the
increase in the number of refugees and Muslim migrants in the UK.
However, 20% agreed the policies sometimes push for the penetration of
Islam into the UK and only 10% said never. Yes definitely, British foreign
policy has played a role in mobilising Muslims, but it is merely one of the
reasons, and not the only reason. The internet agitates Muslims and
encourages Muslims to become extreme. The Daily Mail and other media
outlets encourage Muslims to be angry, thus they want to defend their
culture and prevent Imperialism. Britains presence in Muslim countries
is not for the benefit of Muslim people. The British have a hidden agenda,
as their history in other third world countries demonstrates. 27 Foreign
policy has definitely played a role in mobilising some Muslims. When you
go into another country to kill, people get angry. Many have the idea that
22 Interview, Faizal Awwal (not real name), November 11, 2014.
23 Interview, Joe Nickleson (not real name), November 11, 2014.
24 Interview, Joyce Ed (not real name), November 12, 2014.
25 Interview, Ibraheem Daggash (not real name), November 13, 2014.
26 Interview, Jazmeen Kelly (not real name), November 13, 2014.
27 Interview, Stessy Christian (not real name), November 14, 2014.

Britain is killing their people so theyre going to kill theirs. 28 Other

respondents believe differently, there has always been a lot of Muslims
in East London, because the UK is a multicultural society. British foreign
policy is not a justification for the increased presence of Islam, although
people do speak about it more now than they did before.29
It is necessary to indicate that within the context of the findings of this
research, certain measures have also been undertaken by the British
government to facilitate the socioeconomic integration of Muslims.
However, the extent to which that integration has been achieved is a
matter of personal judgement and at the moment there is no current
research to clearly demonstrate that. Perhaps what is certain is that
critics of increased anti-terrorism legislation and security measures in
recent times in the UK appear to suggest that Muslims are being
targeted. They argue that the recent security policies have fuelled the
desire to compromise civil liberties and restrict Islam from the public
space. In other words, these anti-terrorism measures give the impression
that the Muslim community is being targeted.30 Other critics also claim
that the Muslim community is being singled out as being responsible for
the incubation and growth of radical Islam. This perception provides
stereotyes that dictate government policies against Islam and Muslims.
Additionally, such critics believe the policies tend to halt if not slow down
the growth of Islam in Britain.
Contrary to the claims of the anti-terrorism legislation critics, this
research argues that outside the anti-terrorism measures, other
measures have been undertaken by the British government which have
helped to facilitate the growth of Islam in the UK in general, and in East
London in particular. Thus, East London provides the clearest depiction
of such growth, with its high Muslim population, and the visual
prominence of Islam in the area. For example, the East London mosque
serves the UKs largest Muslim community, and the recent Muslim
sharia patrols. Thus as a means for socioeconomic integration of
Muslims in the UK, government policies seem to be compromised to
accommodate Muslims, as opposed to the reverse. Some Muslim families
are placed on social benefits, given subsidized housing and the licence to
operate separate halal (permissible) shops and restaurants to exclusively
cater for Muslim needs according to Islamic belief systems, even if such
policy may be against the principle of integration. As such, several
Muslim communities have taken advantage of these policies to facilitate
the growth of Islam in the UK.

28 Interview, Fatimah Saidou (not real name), November 16, 2014.

29 Interview, Banda Donatus (not real name), November 17, 2014.
30 Cesari, Jocelyne. 2009: 2.

10
General Analysis of Structural Drivers of the Growth of Islam in East
London Immigration policies

Immigration is one of the most fiercely debated issues of today. Recent

focus of immigration in the UK has been on EU-immigration, thus there
has been relatively less attention paid to non-EU immigration by analysts
and policymakers. Subsequently the debate on immigration in the UK,
pushed forward by far-right groups like UKIP, centres on the UKs EU
membership. Indeed far right groups and other euro-sceptics want to
close its borders to Eastern European countries with large Christian
populations, and therefore call for an end to the UKs membership of the
EU. In comparison it appears Britains governing class, is rather
indifferent to non-EU immigration given that the UKs Muslim population,
which is predominantly non-European, is rising and debates remain
deeply concentrated on Europe. On the contrary public opinion surveys
consistently show that voters in Britain view Islam and the question of
Muslim immigration as a top-ranked public concern. 31 As such this
section looks at how policies on immigration in the UK have advantaged
Muslim immigrants, providing them with scope and leverage to penetrate
East London and beyond, not simply in terms of population but also its
institutions both formal and informal. A brief discussion of the history of
immigration policies and the subsequent inflow of Muslims into the UK is
necessary, before we begin to expound on how recent immigration
policies have facilitated the penetration of Muslims in East London.
The immigration of Muslims to Britain may go back centuries, but
migration to Britain leading to the evolution of settler communities can
be traced to the mid-nineteenth century when the first relatively
permanent Muslim populations were established in Manchester, Cardiff,
Liverpool, South Shields, and East London. 32 Though there are Muslims
across many different ethnic groups, Muslims that migrate to the UK
tend to come from south Asia, hence aside from London, Muslims of
south Asian origin constitute 84 percent of England and Wales Muslim
population.33 As earlier mentioned, London has a population of 8.6 million
people34 of which 12.4 % are Muslims. In London however the Muslim
population is more diverse, and out of the 12.4 % Muslim population, 58
% of Muslims are south Asian (Bangladeshi, Indian, Pakistani, and Other
Asian), while almost 20 % of Muslims are white, and a little over 13
31 Kern, Soeren 2013.

32 Ansari, K. H. 2003. The Muslim Presence in Britain Making a Positive Contribution. The
East London Mosque & London Muslim Centre.
http://www.islamawareness.net/Europe/UK/Muslim_Presence_Britain.pdf (accessed November 12,
2014)

33 Greater London Authority 2006: 20.

34 BBC News - London's population hits 8.6m record high www.bbc.com/news/uk-englandlondon-31082941

11

percent are black.35 In terms of immigrants, 39 % of Londons Muslim

population (which is 12.4% of 8.6 million people) was born in the UK. In
Tower Hamlets where the total population of Muslims is 34.5% (of the
12.4% from the total of 8.6 million people in London), 45% from the
34.5% are born in the UK while 48% of the 34.5% are born in
Bangladesh, outside the UK.36
Until 1962, Commonwealth citizens had an unrestricted right of entry
into Britain, and the steady inflow of settlers was a response to the
growth in demand for unskilled labour. But in response to popular
protests from the indigenous majority, a series of measures to control the
influx of (non-European) immigrants were taken. 37 However,
paradoxically, legislation designed to control immigration played a major
role in persuading Pakistani settlers to reunite with their families
overseas.38 thus expanding Britains Muslim population. Almost all
Pakistani settlers obtained British citizenship. In addition to the backlog
of family reunion cases, there were rapidly rising numbers of applications
from young people who had grown up in Britain but had married in
Pakistan. As more and more migrants children reached marriageable
age, the frequency of marriage with partners back in Pakistan rose
rapidly.39
There were also applications from families who had lived in Britain, but
who had subsequently returned to Pakistan, and now wished to return to
Britain once again.40 More recently, the number of immigrants coming
into the UK increased enormously when Tony Blair relaxed the rules
restricting entry.41 Given the pressure of a continuing inflow from the
Indian subcontinent, the loss of control over asylum and the
governments decision to encourage immigration on the grounds that it is
good for the economy, Britain now has a net inflow of approximately
220,000 immigrants per year, four times the rate between 1985 and

35 Ibid: 21.
36 Ibid: 25.
37 Ballard, R. in Eades, J. 1987. Migrants, Workers and the Social Order: The political economy
of p. 24

38 Ibid
39 Ibid: 27.
40 Ibid: 26.
41 Palmer, A. 2014. We can't avoid the threat of Islamism.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/10882891/We-cant-avoid-the-threat-of
Islamism.html?mobile=basic (accessed November 3, 2014)

12

1995.42 Many of Britains new Pakistani and Bangladeshi immigrants

settled in the communities that had been settled and shaped by people
who came from the same area as they did. 43 Britains demographic profile
is radically changing, not only because of increased immigration but also
increased emigration. Since 2001, the number of Britons who are
emigrating shot up from 50,000 to 120,000 per year. 44 Additionally it is
important to note that the likely reason for the recent rapid increase in
the Muslim population of Britain is a mixture of immigration and higher
birth rates [41].45 In East London large Bengali families produce an age
profile that is heavily slanted towards the younger end, and the 2001
Census found that 40% were under 16 (compared to 12.5% of the
boroughs White British population).46 The age profile already has
implications for schools, and the growth of Muslims in the borough in
general also means that the area will become even more dominated by
Muslims. As the Muslim population in the UK increased, so too have
policies and institutions that accommodate to them, such as the policies
on housing, immigration, the need for more faith-based schools, the
demand for sharia courts and the registration of more halal shops.
Immigration is one thing, but how Muslim immigrants integrate into
British society is another. Integration into British society simply means
adopting British values, which is generally adhering to secular
democracy, freedom of conscience, tolerance and the equality of both
sexes before the law, according to journalist, Alasdair Palmer. East
London appears to be a manifestation of the preference of Muslim
immigrants to create diaspora communities that do not integrate into
British society given that their values are rather incompatible. Rather
than adopting British values, Muslim immigrants in the UK organise and
mobilise to influence British politics in a way that allows Islam to flourish
unabated, despite its conflicting tenets with British laws and customs.
More Muslim immigrants in the UK mean more mobilisation and
organisation to allow the penetration of Islam into a traditionally
Christian country. More importantly, Muslim immigrants themselves
become part of the government, as they garner votes from other
Muslims. In Tower Hamlets for example, the first directly elected mayor
and previous leader of Tower Hamlets London Borough Council, Lutfur
Rahman, is Muslim, born in Bangladesh. Recently, an investigation by
42 Phillips, M. 2006. Londonistan, Gibson Square: Clays Ltd. St Ives plc., p. 108.
43 Palmer, A. 2014.
44 Phillips, M. 2006: 108.
45 Worrall, P. 2013. FactCheck: will Britain have a Muslim majority by 2050?
http://blogs.channel4.com/factcheck/factcheck-will-britain-have-a-muslim-majority-by-2050/13690.

46 Glynn, S. 2008. Playing the Ethnic Card politics and segregation in Londons East End.
Urban Studies. 47(5):4. http://www.sarahglynn.net/Playing%20the%20Ethnic%20Card.html

13

BBC current affairs programme Panorama alleged the council favoured

Bengali organisations when awarding grants47 an allegation confirmed
by the PwC report commissioned by the UK government, which claimed
Tower Hamlets council failed to comply with its best value duty and
had a lack of transparency over its grant awards.48
Notable journalist and author Melanie Phillips refers to the lax attitude of
the British government, enabling the growth of Islam in the UK, in her
book Londonistan. MI5 and the Home Office converged on a policy of
leaving alone religious fanatics who took refuge in LondonThe French
security services derided that policy as criminally short-sighted and
coined the term Londonistan, suggesting that the effect of that policy
was to turn London into a haven for Islamic and other terrorists. 49
Immigration alone was not solely responsible for the penetration of
Islam, critically, according to Phillips, British society presented a moral
and philosophical vacuum that was ripe for colonisation by predatory
Islamism.50 In other words, Britain has progressively undermined the
values, laws and traditions that make it a nation, creating a space that in
turn has been exploited by radical Islamism. 51 In other words, in trying
to create a tolerant and multi-cultural society, Britain has sacrificed its
Christian heritage and traditional values. Yet without these values,
Britain brought nothing to the table of multi-culturalism. And since
Britain has less to offer in terms of its religious and cultural values,
immigrant Muslim communities that are fundamentally and essentially
religious turn to their own religious values for inspiration while
exploiting the economic benefit Britain seems to offer.
Development economist Paul Collier showed that the impact of
immigration inevitably becomes a self-reinforcing process; each diaspora
community gets more entrenched in reproducing the values of the society
from which they came from, which in turn attracts more migrants from
that society to it, which then ensures that it is less integrated with the
host society and more attractive to the immigrants from the traditional
society.52 Thus Collier thinks that unless the state takes definite steps to
stop this process, it will continue, with the result that migrant
47 Silvera, I. (2014) East London's Tower Hamlets Council Criticised After Bangledeshi

Favouritism
Claims.http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/tower-hamlets-council-criticised-over-lacktransparency-meet-best-value-duty-1473042

48 Ibid.
49 Phillips, M. 2006. Londonistan.
50 Ibid: 22.
51 Ibid.
52 Palmer, A. 2014. Op. cit.

14

communities become ever more alienated and remote from the society to
which they are supposed to adapt. 53 But as will become apparent in the
chapter on policies that favour Muslims, the state has taken steps in a
direction that seems to be enabling the growth of Islam in East London,
and indeed elsewhere in the UK as a way to appease Muslim demands.
David Cameron launched a fresh attempt to persuade Indian students
and businessmen to come to Britain to boost the UK economy. Mr
Cameron arrived in India to assure the country that there is no limit on
how many Indian students can come to Britain. 54 Despite Paul Colliers
argument presented above that immigration seems to facilitate the
growth of Islam in East London, not everyone among those interviewed
agreed with it. Two interviewees, both Muslim and non-East London
residents argue that immigration policies have not been lenient towards
Muslims, rather, tighter immigration policies defined the current British
political landscape, therefore it is harder for Muslims to enter the UK.
Consequently, although diaspora Muslim communities are entrenched in
the UK, reproducing Muslim values and attracting other Muslims to
migrate to the UK, such migration has not been possibly or positively due
to tight immigration policies against Muslims. In fact they insist that the
growth of Islam in East London is due to high birth rate among Muslim
families rather than immigration policies. East London, to these two
interviewees has remained predominantly white and British.
The Failure of Multiculturalism & Identity Politics in the UK
Multiculturalism in Britain has a long history. In recent years it is a
concept that considers the many different cultures in Britain to all be
equal, and therefore to be regarded in an identical fashion, thus the
majority culture should not be imposed on the cultures of minorities. 55
Multiculturalism is the orthodoxy of Britain. 56 Multiculturalism here is
understood at two levels: the first level is the national level
multiculturalism, where according to Lord Sacks it is intended to create a
more tolerant society, one in which everyone, regardless of colour, creed
or culture, felt at home, with a simultaneous message that there is no
need to integrate.57 The second level is the regional multiculturalism
which is part of the wider European phenomenon of multiculturalism as
dissolving national identity, shared values and collective identity which
makes it impossible for groups to integrate because there is nothing to
53 Ibid.
54 Dominczak, 2013. Available at:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/10448670/David-Cameron-makes-freshattempt-to-persuade-Indians-to-come-to-Britain.html

55 Phillips, M. 2006: 107.

56 Ibid.
57 BBC News. 2011. Multiculturalism: What does it mean?. Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine 12381027 (accessed November 8, 2014)

15

integrate into.58 In British Prime Minister, David Camerons speech, the

doctrine of state multiculturalism is defined as a strategy which has
encouraged different cultures to live separate lives, apart from each
other and apart from the mainstream.59 In 2004 Trevor Phillips,
chairman of the Equality and Human Rights Commission said that
multiculturalism was out of date because it suggests separateness and
should be replaced with policies which promote integration and assert a
core of Britishness.60 These viewpoints give a sense that
multiculturalism in Britain has failed, as State policy in Britain over the
last two decades has fostered the formation of unintegrated diaspora
communities: multiculturalism, which was for many years the dominant
approach, encouraged communities to hold on to their own values with
the inevitable result that they have become more entrenched. 61 As a
result, the attempt to establish a separate Muslim identity is growing
more intense.62 An indication of this is the persistent pressure for official
recognition of Islamic family law, the rise of a de facto parallel Islamic
legal system, demands for highly politicised Islamic dress codes, prayer
meetings or halal food to be provided by schools and other institutions.63
Multiculturalism has been a vehicle in which Islam has been able to grow,
not only East London but Britain. Multicultural Britain is not about
assimilating Muslim immigrants into a national identity. In fact it seems
multiculturalism has eroded British national identity that was centred
upon traditions, laws and customs arising from its Christian heritage. 64
As such British Muslims have been able to push their own agenda in
Britain. In a speech aired on Al Jazeera, former Libyan Leader Moammar
Gaddafi said Islam will take over Europe without violent force within a
few decades, we have 50 million Muslims in Europe, and there are signs
that Allah will grant Islam victory in Europe without swords, without
guns, without conquests. The 50 million Muslims of Europe will turn it
into a Muslim continent within a few decades.65
58 Ibid.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid.
61 Palmer, A. 2014. Op. cit.
62 Phillips, M. 2006. Op. cit., p.23.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid, p. 109.
65 WND. 2006. Gadhafi: Islam Taking Over Europe. Available at:
http://www.wnd.com/2006/05/35992/ (accessed November 9, 2014).

16

Thus it seems that far from integration, multiculturalism has been a

structural driver that has facilitated the penetration of Islam in East
London. The failure of multiculturalism saw that Novelty pig calendars
and toys were banned from a council office in case they offended Muslim
staff... and various councils ban the concept of Christmas, on the grounds
that it was too Christian and therefore offensive to peoples of other
faiths, replacing it with references to winter festivals. 66 Therefore it
appears that at the heart of the failure of multiculturalism is a
repudiation of Christianity, the founding faith of the nation. Under the
rubric of multiculturalism and promoting diversity, local authorities and
government bodies are systematically bullying Christianity out of
existence.67 For Phillips, multiculturalism seems to be an attack on
Christianity, as Christianity is eased out, while other faiths such as Islam
are being encouraged to fill the gap.68
The failure of multiculturalism is also related to the issue of identity
politics. In stark contrast to the British governments failed attempt at
multiculturalism, community and religious leaders from some religiousethnic minority groups seek the granting of resources, rights, separate
laws, and exemptions to the law for their respective communities. 69
There has been the absence of any attempt to forge commonalities.
Separatism and segregation have been the inevitable outcomes; indeed
what has arisen in towns and cities across the country are ghettoised
monocultural and monofaith neighbourhoods.70 Political forces are
therefore structural drivers in the evolution and development of
segregation in one of the most physically concentrated immigrant
communities in Britain, that of the Bengali Muslims in Tower Hamlets.71
The seemingly separatist nature of British Muslims is rooted in the notion
that the West is at war with Islam and that it is not possible to be a true
Muslim and live an integrated life in the UK.72

66 Phillips, M. 2006. Op. cit., p. 112.

67 Ibid: 116.
68 Ibid.
69 Hasan, R. (2013) The tensions between Muslim identity and Western citizenship.
https://www.opendemocracy.net/ourkingdom/rumy-hasan/tensions-between-muslim-identity-andwestern-citizenship (accessed November 11, 2014).

70 Ibid.
71 Glynn, S. 2008. Op. cit.
72 HM Government (2013) Tackling extremism in the UK: Report from the Prime Ministers Task
Force on Tackling Radicalisation and Extremism. Crown copyright, p. 1.

17

In East London the political drive towards the Islamization of Tower

Hamlets originated both in the growth of Islamist organisations around
the East London Mosque, and in New Labours courting of faith groups to
play a bigger part in civil society and local governance. This inclusion of
faith groups can be seen as furthering the multicultural agenda. 73 The
London Muslim Centre in Tower Hamlets, one of the largest cultural
centres in Europe, is the result of joint work between the Council and its
partners in the Tower Hamlets Partnership, the East London Mosque, the
Greater London Authority and the European Development Fund. The
centre has an open door policy and is anxious to engage with nonMuslims dawah, spreading the word of Islam.74 This joint work and,
giving the mosque such a pivotal role in civil society is yet again a
structural driver in the penetration of Islam in East London. Again in
Tower Hamlets, the effective collapse of the British Left allowed Islamist
groups such as the Young Muslim Organisation to present themselves as
the only significant challenge to an establishment that has failed many in
Tower Hamlets.75
Organisations such as the Islamic Society of Britain posit increasingly
that the presence of Islam in Britain has taken on a more British flavour,
and that the Muslim identity and British identity are not at odds. 76
Although this claim by the Islamic society of Britain gives the impression
that there is an increased integration and social cohesion between British
and Muslim values, contrary is rather the case. In fact, one can argue
that there is an alienation of British Muslims, which is implied by the
terms you i.e. Britain, and we i.e. Muslims. These words were used in a
speech by Mohammed Sidique Khan, the leader of the first bomb plot,
born and raised in Britain.77 His allegiance was to the worldwide
community of Muslims, the ummah.78 Islamist extremists deem Western
intervention in Muslim-majority countries as a war on Islam, creating a
narrative of them and us.79 Evidence suggests that a frighteningly
large number of British Muslims dislike British values, and would like to
73 Ibid.
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/263181/ETF_FINAL.
pdf (accessed November 11, 2014).

74 Ibid; Phillips, M. 2006: 155.

75 Ibid.
76 http://www.isb.org.uk/loyalty/(accessed November 3, 2014)
77 Phillips, M. 2006: 153.
78 Ibid.
79 HM Government, 2013. Op. cit., p. 2.

18

replace them with tenets of Islam.80 For instance, it is alleged that 32

percent of Muslims believe that Muslims should seek to bring an end to
Western society, while polling evidence revealed a dismaying amount of
anti-British feeling among Britains Muslims.81 This is also reflected by
the Shoebat Foundation July 2015 poll in the UK that shows 1. 5 million
British Muslims out the estimated 3 million (50%) identify themselves as
supporters of the Islamic State terrorist group.82
Pressure groups such as The Muslim Public Affairs Committee UK
(MPACUK), which aims to insure Muslim institutions are accountable to
the Muslims they represent, and insure that Muslim institutions and the
wider Muslim public understand the immediate need, importance and
priority of civil and political engagement in the UK, highlights the use of
identity politics as a way to facilitate the growth of Islam across the UK.
They argue the power of politics can be harnessed by Muslims.
Influence of Muslim lectures and students in British universities has also
been a driver that facilitates the growth of Islam. In extreme cases
British universities have been exceptionally important breeding grounds
for Islamist radicals, not because Islamist radicals happened to be going
to British universities, rather British universities were being used to
create Islamist radicals as universities had failed to put in place
safeguards to prevent such recruitment.83
Anti -Christian Policies
According to Phillips, it appears that Britain has become a largely postChristian society, where Christianity, the creed that formed the bedrock
of Western civilisation, has been pushed aside and traditional morality
systematically undermined, and replaced by an anything goes
culture.84 This view stems from the numerous instances where signs and
elements of Christianity have been denounced or in some cases banned.
For example, in 2011 a Christian owner of a caf where bible verses were
displayed was told by police that he was breaking the law. 85 The fact
that the British police would consider the displaying of Christian
scripture an illegal offence is a concerning indication of the mentality
80 Ibid: 138.
81 Ibid: 140.
82 Shoebat Foundation. 2015. Polls Show As Many As 1.5 Million UK Muslims (Out Of Approx. 3
Million) Are Islamic State (ISIS) Supporters, July 8, 2015. http://www. shoebat.com (accessed
August 18, 2015).

83 Phillips, M. 2006. Op. cit., p. 150.

84 Ibid: 25.
85 Wilson, T. J. 2011. No Wonder Christians Feel Discriminated Against in British Society, a
Disturbing Trend is now Emerging. http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/tom-j-wilson/no-wonderchristians-feel_b_1002157.html (accessed November 14, 2014)

19

that British society has come to adopt towards all things Christian. 86 The
recurring matter on wearing a crucifix is another example of Britains
current attitude toward Christianity. In Derby a student was sent home
from Sinfin Community School for wearing a crucifix necklace, while, as
her mother pointed out, Sikh children were allowed to wear a steel
bracelet.87 The high profile cases of British Airways employee Nadia
Eweida and nurse Shirley Chaplin, who were barred by their employers
from wearing Christian symbols, also illustrates the increasing
discrimination Christians face in Britain.88
Whether it is the case of the nurse who was suspended for offering to
pray for a patient, the van driver who faced disciplinary action if he
refused to remove a palm cross from his dashboard, the couple who were
prohibited from fostering because of their Christian beliefs or the supply
teacher who was dismissed when she mentioned praying for a childs
family. The list goes on and on.89 Thus there seems to be a sustained
assault against Christians in Britain90 as the right for Christians to
express their faith is being denied while the room for Muslims to express
theirs is being expanded. Indeed the fact that there were protests in
2010 against the Popes visit to Britain but no demonstrations against
extremist cleric Yusuf al-Qaradawis sponsored visit to London by the
then Mayor Ken Livingstone, further highlights this double standard. 91
Dethrone Christianity i.e. remove the monarchs title of Defender of the
Faith, and the job of subjugating the West and indeed East London to
Islam is halfway done.92 Heir to the throne Prince Charles has floated
the idea that when he becomes King he will no longer be Defender of the
Faith but defender of faith, implying that he believes Britain is a
multicultural society.93 The overall implication of this recent attitude
86 Ibid.
87 Britten, N. (2005) School ban on girl wearing cross discriminatory.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1504822/School-ban-on-girl-wearing-crossdiscriminatory.html (accessed November 4, 2014)

88 Barrett, D. (2012) Christians have no right to wear cross at work, says Government
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/9136191/Christians-have-no-right-to-wear-cross-atwork-says-Government.html (accessed November 14, 2014).

89 Wilson, T. J. 2011.
90 Ibid.
91 Ibid.
92 Phillips, M. 2006. Op. cit., p. 118.
93 Ibid.

20

towards Christianity is that Muslims are encouraged to see Christianity

as a failure in Britain, and an increased space for Islam to expand.
Pro-Islam Policies
Certain laws and policies have emerged in recent years that seem to
favour Muslims. These policies are essentially facilitators to the growth
of Islam in East London. This section draws on some examples of how
such policies have given Muslims in the UK confidence that it is possible
to conquer the UK turning it into a house of Islam. Firstly, the
government has backed a new body for Muslims in order to tackle
extremism. Politicians from the main parties welcomed the launch of the
Sufi Muslim Council at Westminster in London. 94 Crucially, the
Westminster launch also included politicians, along with Anglicans and
members of the Jewish community.95 Secondly, the Islamic Bank of
Britain (IBB) was established in 2004 as the UKs first wholly Sharia
compliant retail bank. It has pioneered Islamic banking in the UK for a
decade. The bank solely focuses on banking activities that are compliant
with Islamic law and operates without the use of interest. 96 Since its
establishment, IBB has worked to support British Muslims.97
Thirdly, in Britain a network of Sharia courts has grown in Islamic
communities to deal with disputes between Muslim families. 98 Five
sharia courts have been set up in London, Birmingham, Bradford,
Manchester and Nuneaton, Warwickshire. The government has quietly
sanctioned that their rulings are enforceable with the full power of the
judicial system, through the county courts or High Court. 99 Muslim
tribunal courts started passing sharia judgments in August 2007. They
have dealt with more than 100 cases that range from Muslim divorce and
inheritance to nuisance neighbours.100 Tribunal courts have also settled
six cases of domestic violence between married couples, working in
tandem with police investigations.101 The Muslim Arbitration Tribunal
(MAT), established in 2007, runs the courts, and states that sharia courts
94 Ibid.
95 Casciani, D. 2006. Op. cit.
96 Ibid.
97 http://www.islamic-bank.com/useful-info-tools/about-us/history-of-ibb/ (accessed November 2,
2014).

98 Ibid.
99 Bingham, J. 2014. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/10716844/Islamic-law-is-adoptedby-British-legal-chiefs.html (accessed November 1, 2014)

100 Edwards, R. 2008. Sharia courts operating in Britain.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2957428/Sharia-law-courts-operating-in-Britain.html
(accessed November 12, 2014)

21

are classified as arbitration tribunals under a clause in the Arbitration

Act 1996.102 MAT provides an alternative for the Muslim community to
resolve disputes in accordance with Sharia Law. It is estimated that
there are around 85 Sharia bodies operating in Britain. But the new Law
Society guidance represents the first time that an official legal body has
recognised the legitimacy of Sharia principles. This guidance marks a
further stage in the British legal establishments undermining of
democratically determined human rights-compliant law, as solicitors will
be able to write Islamic wills that deny women an equal share of
inheritances and exclude unbelievers altogether, prevent children born
out of wedlock, and even those who have been adopted, from being
counted as legitimate heirs.103 This guidance suggests deleting or
amending standard legal terms and goes on to suggest that Sharia
principles could potentially overrule British practices in some
disputes.104 Indeed campaigners warn it represents a major step to a
parallel legal system for Britains Muslim community. 105 This prompted
Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, to say that the
establishment of sharia in the future seems unavoidable in Britain.106
Another example of how policies favour Muslims is seen in the infamous
Denmark cartoonist debacle in 2006 that saw the unrest of Muslims
across the globe. Many European countries such as Germany and France
stood in solidarity with the Danish cartoonist to uphold the right to
freedom of expression, however the British government responded by
apologising for causing offence to Muslims.107 This was done despite the
violence inflicted by Muslims on non-Muslims around the globe due to
this cartoon, for example in Nigeria where a priest was slaughtered to
death. Former foreign secretary Jack Straw ignored the violence and
instead condemned those European newspapers that had republished the
cartoons.108 Here free speech was advised to be limited to avoid being
insulting or inflammatory, while unlimited to Muslims who incited mass
murder, as was evident when a Muslim demonstration outside the Danish
101 Ibid.
102 Ibid.
103 Ibid.
104 Bingham, J. 2014.
105 Edwards, R. 2008.
106 Ibid.
107Phillips, M. 2006. Op. cit., p. 116.
108 Ibid.

22

embassy calling for bombings and decapitations was ignored by police. 109
Accordingly as the British government succumbs to Muslim values which
are not in line with British ones, further demands are encouraged, and
Muslim values take precedence over British ones. 110These demands can
be seen in the light of the establishment of Sharia courts, the Sufi Muslim
Council at Westminster in London and the Islamic Bank of Britain (IBB).
Perhaps the most critical question to ask is, how can the British
government claim to promote multiculturalism and community
integration, and at the same time construct policies and measures that
favour one religious group over and above others?
British Foreign Policy of International intervention
British foreign policy in regards to international intervention has also
played a key role in mobilising Muslims in East London and beyond; and
as a result has given them a mobilising attitude that has allowed them to
penetrate East London. Aside from this and also frighteningly, is that
British foreign policy can not only induce mobilisation by Muslims to
penetrate traditionally Christian British political space, but may also
induce terrorism. Mr Khan, a Labour MP told the Guardian, that Mr
Blairs reluctance to criticise Israel over the Lebanon attacks meant the
pool of people from which terrorists found their recruits was
increasing.111 He continues, We simply cannot ignore the fact that our
countrys foreign policy is being used by charismatic figures to tell
British Muslims that their country hates them. Current policy on the
Middle East is seen by almost everyone I speak to as unfair and unjust.
Such a sense of injustice plays into the hands of extremists. 112 The ongoing Israel and Palestinian conflict is also linked to this. The Guardian
article also quotes Mr Malik who states British foreign policy
encourages the view in the Muslim community where you think two
wrongs equal a right.113 By two wrongs here, Malik seems to suggest
that British foreign policy allows the invasion of Muslim majority
countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan, and at the same time overlooks
Israeli atrocities over the Palestinian territory. At a time when there is a
polarising debate about Muslim identity and how young British Muslims
fit into the wider British society, there is a vacuum which is being filled
by radicals and extremists.114 who use British foreign policy as
justification for their actions.
109 Ibid.
110 Ibid: 118.
111 Woodward, W. Bates, S. (2006) Muslim leaders say foreign policy makes UK target
http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/aug/12/politics.terrorism (accessed November 5, 2015).

112 Ibid.
113 Ibid.

23

In an East London estate, a nun removed the black flag of radical Islam
which was flying over the entry to the estate. 115 But more worryingly, 20
percent of ISIL is manned by Europeans,116 particularly the British,
pointing to the issue of foreign policy. MI5 never imagined that the
foreign radicals whom it all but ignored might be having a lethal effect on
impressionable young Muslims in British cities.117 Many British Muslims
are currently active as jihadists fighting in Syria, Afghanistan, Pakistan
and Somalia.118 In London itself, the killing of Drummer Lee Rigby in
Woolwich was the impetus to look closely at whether the government was
doing all it could to confront extremism and radicalisation 119 and was
also linked to British foreign policy as the terrorists stated immediately
after slaughtering the victim. Certainly, the scale of British Muslims
radicalized by Islamist extremists suggests a deep systemic problem, one
that is arguably rooted in British foreign policy. In addition to the British
foreign policy is the idea of promoting human rights both abroad and at
home. Britain prides itself as a haven of free speech and democratic
ideals, which has been manipulated and exploited by Islamic extremists,
thus, extremists groups such as Hizb ut-Tahrir remained legal, despite
being banned in many European and many Muslim countries. 120
Additionally, even Islamic states like the United Arab Emirates
vociferously complain and express deep concern about radical groups,
such as the Muslim Brotherhood many of whose members live in
Britain.121 The case of Abu Hamza further demonstrates the abuse of the
principle of human rights in Britain, which allowed Abu Hamza, and
others to preach incitement to violence, raise money and recruit
members for the jihad.122 Not only did Abu Hamza openly incite murder
and hatred, he amassed inside his mosque a huge arsenal of weapons to
114 Ibid.
115 Kelly, J. 2014. http://www.spectator.co.uk/features/9298672/i-see-the-powerlessness-ofpeople-here/ (accessed November 3, 2014)

116 Godlington, K. (2014) How Did IS Come Into Existence, and Why Is It Able to Recruit
Europeans in the 1000s? http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/kevin-godlington/isis_b_5892430.html
(accessed November 11, 2014)

117 Phillips, M. 2006: 114.

118 Kern, Soeren. 2013.
119 HM Government, 2013: 1.
120 Phillips, M. 2006: 112.
121 Gardner, F. (2014) A return to Londonistan? Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/27055108 (accessed November 18, 2014)

122 Phillips, M. 2006: 113.

24

be used in terrorist training camps in Britain, worse still through his

preaching of jihad he had radicalised an unquantifiable number of British
Muslims, including three of the London bombers. 123 Radical extremists
with links to violent groups overseas, even Osama Bin Laden, openly kept
a PR operation in London.124 But despite the concerns of even Islamic
states, for years the Home Office, the Metropolitan Police and MI5
largely turned a blind eye, believing that by providing a covenant of
protection, Britain itself would be safe from attack. 125 Evidently the
07/07/2005 London bombings disproved that.
Concluding Remarks
Since its arrival half a century ago, Caldwell claims, Islam has broken or
required adjustments to many of the European customs, received ideas
and state structures with which it has come in contact.126 This is the
primary vehicle used by Muslims to facilitate the penetration of Islam in
East London and the West in general. This has been feasible due to the
structural elements that facilitate the growth of Islam. The structural
drivers mentioned in this paper such as the establishment of Sharia
courts, the creation of Sufi Muslim Council at Westminster in London and
the Islamic Bank of Britain (IBB) are simply a fragment of the bigger
picture. Indeed there are other factors such as funding from the Middle
East in UK universities, job recruitment policies, economic policies that
allow for halal run restaurants and hotels that recruit only Muslims, and
so on. However due to the scope of this paper, only 4 structural drivers
were assessed. Londons large and fluid Muslim population fostered the
growth of myriad radical Islamist publications spitting hatred of the
West, and its banks were used for fund-raising accounts funnelling money
into extremist and terrorist organisations. 127 Suspected terrorists
wanted in other countries were given safe haven in the United Kingdom
and left free to foment hatred against the West, London had been the
epicentre of Islamic militancy in Europe, Britains capital had turned into
Londonistan a mocking comparison that suggests Britain could be
perceived as a state that sponsors terrorism such as Afghanistan
becoming the major European centre for the promotion, recruitment and
financing of Islamic terror and extremists. 128 Arguably a result of the
structural drivers mentioned in this paper. British Muslims increasingly
push their culture to the forefront of British public space, which is highly
123 Ibid.
124 Gardner, F. 2014.
125 Ibid.
126 Malik, K. (2013) Immigration is not the problem
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/12/immigration-not-problem-hostilitymigrants migration: Pakistan, Britain, and the Middle East. http://archiv.ub.uniheidelberg.de/savifadok/258/1/poleconomy.pdf (accessed November 2, 2014)

127 Phillips, M. 2006: 112.

25

evident in East London, Halal meals and separate prayer rooms are now
commonplace throughout British institutions.129 No other minority group
has encouraged a parallel society to the extent that Muslims have done in
Britain. Typically, minority groups conform to the predominant
institutions of the state, practicing their culture privately. But as
discussed, and supported by evidence this does not apply to Muslims.
Rather, many British Muslims seek the penetrationgrowth of Islam in
Britain and refuse to adhere to British customs that clash with their
culture.
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