Dominant Cultural Values:

Content Analysis of the U.S.

and Indian Print Advertisements
Durriya H. Z. Khairullah
Zahid Y. Khairullah

SUMMARY. This study expands on previous work in exploring dominant cultural values portrayed in print magazine advertisements in the
United States of America (U.S.) and India across and within product categories. A modified version of Cheng and Schweitzers (1996) coding
framework is used for the study. The differences and similarities in the
observed frequencies of the dominant cultural values portrayed in the
print magazine advertisements are discussed. The analysis shows a commonality of the dominant values frequently portrayed in the magazine
advertisements of both countries although statistically significant differences in their frequency of occurrence are also present for several of the
observed values both across and within product categories. The results
are consistent with those of researchers advocating a middle-of-the-road
Durriya H. Z. Khairullah is affiliated with the School of Management, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, NY, and is Associate Professor, Marketing, Saint Bonaventure
University, Saint Bonaventure, NY 14778. Zahid Y. Khairullah is affiliated with the
School of Management, State University of New York, Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, and is
Professor, School of Business Administration, Saint Bonaventure University, St.
Bonaventure, NY 14778.
Both the authors have contributed equally and are listed in alphabetical order.
The authors wish to thank the Editor and the anonymous referees of JGM for their
guidance and helpful comments.
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: Dominant Cultural Values: Content Analysis of the U.S. and Indian
Print Advertisements. Khairullah, Durriya H. Z., and Zahid Y. Kairullah. Co-published simultaneously in
Journal of Global Marketing (International Business Press, an imprint of The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 16,
No. 1/2, 2002, pp. 47-70; and: Strategic Global Marketing: Issues and Trends (ed: Erdener Kaynak) International Business Press, an imprint of The Haworth Press, Inc., 2002, pp. 47-70. Single or multiple copies of this
article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc.com].

2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

47

48

STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

approach in the standardization versus adaptation debate of advertising

messages. Advertising campaigns in each country should be assessed
carefully in terms of target market, cultural and environmental factors,
and also upon the nature of the product. [Article copies available for a fee
from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.
com> 2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Advertising, content analysis, cultural values, standardization/adaptation

INTRODUCTION
Several cross-cultural studies have stressed the importance of culture
in analyzing consumer responses to marketing stimuli in different countries (e.g., Clark 1990; Farley and Lehmann 1994; Kaynak and Cavusgil
1983; Takada and Jain 1991). The use of cultural dimensions to explain
differences in advertising between two cultures is based on a commonly
held belief that consumers reactions to advertising are influenced by cultural norms (Albers-Miller and Gelb 1996; Freidmann 1986; Mueller
1987). Culture is defined as the sum total of learned beliefs, values,
and customs that serve to direct the consumer behavior of members of a
particular society (Schiffman and Kanuk 2000, p. 322). Value, an important part of culture, is defined by Rokeach (1973, p. 50) as: A value
is an enduring belief that a specific mode of or end state of existence is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end state of existence. Thus, cultural values are very important determinants of behavior, both personal and social life (Srikandath
1991). The elements of culture are transmitted by family, educational
institutions, social institutions, houses of worship and mass media, all
of which play a major role in the transfer of culture throughout society
(Schiffman and Kanuk 2000).
Consumers are exposed daily to advertising, an important component of mass media. Advertising not only propagates information about
editorial or programming contents to a large number of audiences at the
same time and at an economically feasible price, but also transmits important cultural information. Although the function of advertising is to
influence demand for specific products and services, nevertheless in a
cultural context the role of advertising is to reinforce conventional cultural values and help communicate new tastes, habits, and customs.

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

49

Since advertising acts as an agent of social change in society, it is necessary for marketers to design advertising campaigns in a way that reflects
the cultural values of their target audience (Srikandath 1991).
The impetus for cross-cultural research of cultural values in advertising content is sparked by a continuous debate over standardization or localization of international advertising messages (Mueller 1987; 1992).
Standardized advertising refers to messages which are used in global
markets with virtually no change in theme, illustration, or copy, except
in case of translation where required. Proponents of standardization argue that improved, faster communication has stimulated a worldwide
acceptance of art, literature, tastes, thoughts, beliefs, language, and
therefore advertising. Although people are different, their basic physiological and psychological needs remain the same (e.g., Fatt 1967; Levitt
1983). Localized campaigns on the other hand require adaptation or
customization of advertising messages in global markets (Caillat and
Mueller 1996). Tansey, Hyman and Zinkhan (1990) contend that it is
important to understand cross-cultural differences in the way the values
are conveyed since they provide situations for interpreting advertisements, are frequently implied by advertisements, vary across countries,
and may be used for market segmentation. According to Pollay (1983,
p. 74) values are manifest in advertising in every way possible. Other
researchers are of the opinion that targeting consumers by using their
cultural values is a potent marketing strategy in developing successful
international advertising strategies. (e.g., Henry 1976; Munson and
McIntyre 1979; Vinson et al. 1977) and consumers reward advertisers
who understand their culture and tailor advertisements to reflect their
values (e.g., Boddewyn et al. 1986; Harris 1984). In light of this debate
several studies have content analyzed cultural values of advertisements
of several countries and compared them with those of the U.S. (e.g.,
Albers-Miller and Gelb 1996; Caillat and Mueller 1996; Cheng and
Schweitzer 1996; Frith and Sengupta 1991, and others).
Against the background of the globalization debate and within the
tradition of content research, the aim of the present study is to expand
on previous work and to explore what dominant cultural values are frequently manifested in the U.S. and Indian magazine advertisements
across and within product categories. A modified version of Cheng and
Schweitzers (1996) coding framework is used for the study. It should
be noted that this study does not intend to test any hypothesis. The study
is an exploratory research. It tries to examine differences and similarities in dominant cultural values of magazine advertisements of the two
countries and to examine whether a case can be made for standardiza-

50

STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

tion or adaptation of cultural values in magazine advertising for the U.S.

multinational marketers operating in India.
U.S. and Indian Advertisements
We selected advertisements from the U.S. and India for comparison
for several reasons. First, the U.S. is the advertising capital of the world
and it has the largest and most influential advertising business in the
world (Baudot 1989). In 1999, the total estimated advertising expenditures in the U.S. was $215.229 billion (Statistical Abstract of the United
States 2000). As the worlds largest advertiser, the U.S. contains the advertising sponsors who are most likely to attempt standardization across
countries (Cutler and Javalagi 1992). The liberalization of the Indian
economy in the 1990s and accompanying media boom, multinational accounts, and severe competition has revolutionized the advertising industry. The industry which had less than $300,000 annual turnover in the
1950s now had a turnover of more than $1.145 billion in the late 1990s
(Sengupta 1997). Second, most studies of the cultural content in advertising have been conducted between the U.S. and developed countries
or the developing countries (e.g., Cheng and Schweitzer 1996; Frith and
Sengupta 1991; Hong et al. 1987; Mueller 1987, 1992; Tansey et al.
1990). These studies have used the U.S. as either a reference frame or
a model of typical western culture (Cheng and Schweitzer 1996). The
U.S. is a highly developed nation and has one of the largest democracies
in the world. India too is considered one of the largest democracies in
the world (Jain 2001). India is considered also to be the fastest growing
industrialized nation among Third World countries (Frith and Sengupta
1991). It is considered to be one of the Big Emerging Markets
(Cateora 1999) with its imports amounting to $60.8 billion and exports
of $43.1 billion in the year 2000. The U.S. is one of its major trading
partners with imports from the U.S. amounting to $5.47 billion and exports to the U.S. amounting to $9.48 billion in the year 2000 (The World
FactbookCIA 2001). India is a major center for multinational corporations operating in Asia (Frith and Sengupta 1991). The direct investment of U.S. in India went from $0.37 billion in 1990 to $1.48 billion in
1998 (Statistical Abstracts of the United States 2000).
The middle class population in India is growing very rapidly. An estimated 100 to 300 million Indians have enough disposable income to represent an increasing consumer class for both durable and non-durable
products (Chakravarti 1997; Jain 2001). Most middle-class Indians can
write and speak English and can afford 20-inch color televisions, wash-

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

51

ing machines, motorcycles, mopeds. They drink Coke and patronize U.S.
fast food outlets. The U.S. multinational companies are very active investors in the Indian economy. These multinationals include General Electric, Texas Instruments, Motorola, Ford, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Philip Morris,
Timex, Kelloggs, McDonalds, and others (Fuhrman and Schuman
1994; Jain 2001; Ranjan 1997). Furthermore, India was under the influence of British rule for over 200 years and western influence is still prevalent in the daily lives of urban Indians. For instance, they wear western
clothing, speak and write in English, use western products, discuss their
trips abroad to Europe and North America, watch popular western television shows and movies, and read western magazines and newspapers
(Cox and Daniel 2000; Israel and Grewal 1985).
The Indian press has experienced remarkable growth since its independence from the British rule. In the 1970s, photographic reproduction in publications became sophisticated and color advertisements in
magazines became very popular. Moreover, data on consumer reading
habits became available. These advances created more media opportunities and provided Indian advertisers with means of evaluating effectiveness of media (Doctor and Alikhan 1997). The growth of literacy
and the spread of consumerism during the 1980s led to the speedy
growth of newsweeklies and other periodicals. The liberalization of
government economic reforms in the 1990s led to the growth of the
private-sector, which in turn led to an increase in private-sector advertising (Heitzman and Worden 1996). Although the majority of publications are in local Indian languages, the English-language press has a
wide circulation amongst the upper and middle-class Indians throughout India (Heitzman and Worden 1996; Turner 2000). A comparative
study of cultural values depicted in the print advertisements of these
two countries would provide a good test for the case in standardization
versus adaptation of advertising messages. A review of the literature indicates that little, if any, research has been done on cross-cultural values
manifested in Indian magazines advertisements versus those depicted in
the U.S. magazines of the same product categories. The present study,
therefore, seeks to offer some insights in this area of mass media research in India.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section addresses briefly the literature on cross-cultural differences between the U.S. and other countries in the way advertisements de-

52

STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

pict cultural values. Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) found that magazine
advertising appeals varied across countries (e.g., Japan, Chile, Brazil, India, Israel, Mexico, United States, France, Finland, Taiwan, and South
Africa) in terms of cultural dimensions of individualism, uncertainty,
avoidance, power distance, and masculinity. A study by Biswas, Olsen
and Carlet (1992) found that French advertisements made greater use of
emotional appeals, humor, and sex appeals, while the U.S. advertisements contained more information cues. Another study found that the TV
advertisements of beer in the U.S. focused more on American cultural
values such as achievement, individualism/independence, and modernity/newness, while British advertisements focused on predominantly
British values of tradition/history and eccentricity. British advertisements
used humor appeals almost exclusively while the U.S. advertisements relied on emotional and sex appeals (Caillat and Mueller 1996). Cheng and
Schweitzer (1996) found that the U.S. commercials used both symbolic
and utilitarian values, while the Chinese commercials used more symbolic values. The commercials of imported products in China depicted
more western cultural values so did commercials for joint-venture products. Frith and Senguptas (1991) study indicated that the cultural value
of individualism was most pronounced in TV advertisements in the U.S.,
less pronounced in Great Britain, and least pronounced in India.
A study by Hong, Muderrisoglu and Zinkhan (1987) found that Japanese magazine advertisements used more emotional appeals and less
comparative appeals than the U.S. Japanese advertisements were also
found to contain at least as many information cues as the U.S. advertisements. The results of Muellers (1987, 1992) studies indicated that depending upon the involvement level of the product, Japanese magazine
advertisements used soft sell and status appeals more than the U.S. advertisements. Also, the westernized appeal of individuality and independence was utilized in many Japanese advertisements. Tansey,
Hyman and Zinkhans (1990) study found that urban themes were used
more frequently in Brazilian advertisements than in the U.S. advertisements. Leisure themes were used more frequently in the U.S. advertisements than in Brazilian advertisements. Work themes appeared as
frequently in Brazilian advertisements as in the U.S. advertisements
and the work themes appeared more frequently in the U.S. advertisements as the 1970s progressed.
The findings of a longitudinal study of advertising appeals from
Hong Kong, China and Taiwan by Tse, Belk and Zhou (1989) showed
that Chinese advertisements emphasized utilitarian appeals, promised a
better life, and focused on states of being as a consumption theme. The

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

53

Hong Kong advertisements stressed hedonistic values, promised easier

and American-type lifestyles and focused on doing things. The Taiwanese advertisements were a blend of values emphasized in China and
Hong Kong, however they were converging more towards the Hong
Kong advertisements in consumption appeals over time. Ueltschy and
Ryans Jr. (1997) found that the good things in life, harmony and beauty,
mental characteristics, societal requisites, and Christian values were
more important to Mexicans than to Americans. The results of two studies (e.g., Zhang and Gelb 1996; Zhang and Neelankavil 1997) noted that
the U.S. subjects preferred individualistic appeals to collective appeals,
while the Chinese subjects generally preferred collective appeals particularly in case of their rating scores on non-personal products.
METHODOLOGY
The method used in this study was content analysis that focused on
the content of verbal, written, and pictorial communications, such as the
copy, headline, art composition, etc. of an advertisement. Content analysis can be used to objectively evaluate the social and cultural changes
that have occurred in a specific society. It is also used to find trends in
styles and layouts of various types of advertising. Content analysis is
useful to marketers and public policy makers interested in comparing
advertising claims of competitors within a specific industry, and also
for evaluating the nature of advertising claims aimed at specific target
groups (Schiffman and Kanuk 2000). It is a method that is commonly
used in the study of cross-cultural advertising to help international marketers decide what strategies to adopt in overseas markets (Firth and
Wesson 1991; Hong et al. 1987; Rice and Lu 1988).
Print Magazine Advertisements Used
In order to examine the cross-cultural differences in dominant cultural values in advertisements appearing in Indian magazines and advertisements appearing in the U.S. magazines, some of the popular
Indian and U.S. magazines from the years 1999 and 2000 were reviewed. To maintain comparability, the magazines of both countries
were selected based on similarity of format, content, audience demographics, and product categories advertised. The advertisements selected were limited to five popular durable and non-durable product
categories.

54

STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

The products were selected because they were the most frequently
advertised in the Indian and the U.S. magazines that were reviewed. A
list of the five product categories selected for the present study together
with the names of the Indian and the U.S. magazines in which they were
advertised are presented in Table 1. The frequency distributions of the
selected advertisements for the five product categories are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 1. U.S. and Indian Magazines and Product Advertisements Selected
U.S.

Indian

Magazines

Advertisements

Magazines

Advertisements

Business 2.0

Airlines, cars, computers

Business India

airlines, cars cigarettes,

computers, hotels

Business Week

Airlines, computers, hotels

Business Today

airlines, cars, cigarettes,

computers

Forbes

Cars, computers, hotels

Business Week

computers, hotels

Ladies Home Journal

Cigarettes

Business World

cars, computers, hotels

Newsweek

Airlines, hotels

Femina

cars, cigarettes

People

Cars, cigarettes

Filmfare

airlines, cars, cigarettes,

computers

Sports Illustrated

Cars, cigarettes, computers,

hotels

India Today

airlines, cars, computers,

hotels

Time

Airlines, cigarettes,
computers, hotels

Stardust

airlines, cars, cigarettes,

hotels

U.S. News & World

Report

Airlines, hotels

The India Magazine

of Her People and
Culture

airlines, cigarettes, hotels

Vogue

Cigarettes, cars

TABLE 2. Frequency Distribution of Advertisements

U.S. Magazine Advertisements
Product

Indian Magazine Advertisements

Count

Count

Airline

16

14.8%

26

28.3%

Car

29

26.9%

19

20.7%

Cigarette

24

22.2%

17

18.5%

Computer

13

12.0%

13

14.1%

Hotel

26

24.1%

17

18.5%

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

55

A total of 200 Indian and the U.S. magazine advertisements were

content analyzed in this study. Duplicate advertisements appearing in
different magazines were discarded. The unit of analysis was restricted
to full-page black and white and color advertisements. All of the Indian
magazines reviewed were in English and all the advertisements selected
from them were in English. Although India has obtained its independence from Great Britain in 1947, English still today remains one of the
official languages used in India to conduct official business and commercial transactions (The World FactbookCIA 2001). Educated Indians in urban areas of India are proficient in both spoken and written
English (Mehta and Belk 1991), and many popular national magazines
are in English and advertisements that appear in them are in English as
well.
Killough (1978) has suggested that one way to look at international
advertising is to consider two major elements: (1) the idea proposition,
which is the message to be conveyed or the content and (2) the creative
presentation that includes the headlines and all the visual and verbal elements. In this study, as in several other comparative advertising studies,
this separation of the two elements proposed by Killough was not considered. However, researchers did observe a number of similarities as
well as differences in the U.S. and the Indian print advertisements
across and within the selected product categories.
An attempt to describe the 200 advertisements used in this study
would be beyond the scope of this paper. However, the following brief
comments regarding the description of advertisements of two of the
product classes, cigarettes and computers, may be useful as examples.
The cigarette advertisements often had outdoor scenes, e.g., there were
advertisements showing men on horseback and others with scenes of
mountain climbing in the magazines of both countries. All the cigarette
advertisements of both countries had very limited copy. On the other
hand, a few U.S. cigarette advertisements portrayed a romantic scene
and a few others showed a woman smoking, but there were no romantic
portrayals in the Indian advertisements and no Indian advertisement
showed a woman smoking a cigarette. The majority of computer advertisements of both countries had a plain background with a lot of copy
describing the product features. In some instances the computer and
components were prominently shown while in many others there were
small pictures of the computer and components. There were no persons
shown in the U.S. advertisements for computers while in some Indian
advertisements family members or individuals working together would
be shown around a computer.

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STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

Coding Instrument and Procedure

The coding design for the present study was based on Cheng and
Schweitzers (1996) modified typology of thirty-two cultural values
manifested in advertising, that was originally built on Pollay (1983) and
Mueller (1987, 1992) frameworks (see Table 3). Pollays typology has
been subsequently adapted by several other studies on cultural values
(e.g., Cheng 1994; Firth and Wesson 1991; Mueller 1987; Srikandath
1991; Tse et al. 1989).
A portfolio containing a mix of Indian advertisements and the U.S.
advertisements of the five selected products were given to four
Asian-Indian coders. These coders were educated, middle-class Indians
residing in Mumbai, a major metropolitan city in India. All of them
were fluent in both spoken and written English, had been constantly exposed to western culture through magazines, movies and television, and
had traveled widely in North America and Europe. Thus they were familiar with the Indian as well as the American cultural values. These
coders were provided with a coding sheet and a sheet explaining each of
the thirty-two cultural values. They were instructed to first spend some
time familiarizing themselves with the thirty-two cultural values and
their descriptions. Then they were requested to answer a brief questionnaire covering demographic information. Next they were asked to identify the dominant theme in each advertisement that was manifested in
the copy, headline, pictures, and situation or context of the advertisement. They were asked to focus on the cultural values depicted in the
advertisements rather than the qualities that flowed out of the advertised
product itself. Reference to descriptions of the thirty-two values was
permitted throughout the coding task. The four Asian-Indian coders
worked independently in completing the tasks assigned to them.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
As mentioned at the outset, the purpose of this study is exploratory in
nature. The objectives are to examine which cultural values are most
frequently depicted in Indian and U.S. magazine advertisements across
and within product categories, and to explore similarities and differences in these values as manifested in the advertisements of these two
countries. While interpreting the results of this study it is important to
take into consideration the socio-economic characteristics of the coders
who participated in this study, the product categories considered, and

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

57

TABLE 3. Listing of Cultural Values

Cultural Value

Adventure

Brief Description

Suggests boldness, daring, courage or thrill in use of product

Beauty

Suggests enhancement of loveliness, attractiveness, elegance of an individual

Collectivism

Emphasis on belonging to a reference group

Competition

Emphasis on differentiating the product from its competitors

Convenience

Suggests product is handy and easy to use

Courtesy

Suggests politeness and friendship towards consumers

Economy

Suggests inexpensive, affordable and cost-saving characteristics in product

Effectiveness

Suggests power and capability of product in achieving desired results

Enjoyment

Suggests users of product would enjoy it

Family

Emphasis on family life and use of product by entire family

Health

Suggests use of product enhance vitality, strength and general health of the body

Individualism

Emphasis on the self-sufficiency and self-reliance of an individual or on the person being

unique

Leisure

Suggests product will provide comfort and relaxation

Magic

Suggests miraculous effects in nature of product

Modernity

Portrays newness, currency or futuristic qualities of product

Natural

Suggests spiritual harmony between human beings and nature

Neatness

Emphasizes cleanliness and neatness in the advertisement

Nurturance

Stresses giving in charity, help, protection, support, or sympathy to those who need it

Patriotism

Suggests love of and loyalty to one's nation inherent in the nature or use of the product

Popularity

Suggests universal recognition and acceptance of a product by consumers

Quality

Emphasizes excellence and durability of product

Respect
for Elderly

Suggests respect for older people by using older models, asking for opinion and advice of elders

Safety

Emphasizes the reliable and secure nature of the product

Sex

Portrays glamorous and sensual models or had background portraying people in love

Social Status

Suggests use of product elevates social position or rank of user; feeling of trend setting, prestige and pride through the use of the product is conveyed

Technology

Emphasizes advanced and sophisticated technical skills to engineer and manufacture the
product

Tradition

Emphasizes qualities of being historical, time-honored, conventional; honoring established

custom

Uniqueness

Emphasizes the unrivaled, incomparable and unparalleled nature of product

Wealth

Suggests product will make user well-off; being affluent, prosperous and rich is encouraged

Wisdom

Suggests respect for knowledge, education, intelligence, expertise, or experience

Work

Suggests respect for diligence and dedication to one's job and means of earning
a livelihood

Youth

Emphasizes being young through use of younger models; stresses rejuvenating benefits of
product

Source: Adapted from Cheng and Schweitzer (1996).

58

STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

the medium examined, because these factors could have an important

bearing on the results.
Frequently Observed Dominant Cultural Values Across Product
Categories
In this study, values most frequently depicted in the U.S. magazine
advertisements (with frequencies above 5.0%) are: adventure (6.5%),
convenience (10.7%), courtesy (5.6%), effectiveness (9.8%),
leisure (9.8%), and technology (7.5%). The cultural values seen
most often in Indian magazine advertisements (with frequencies greater
than 5.0%) are adventure (11.2%), convenience (7.6%), courtesy
(5.7%), effectiveness (5.7%), leisure (7.4%), natural (9.0%),
quality (5.2%) and technology (7.6%) (see Table 4).
It is remarkable that most of the relatively high frequency values (frequencies > 5.0%) are common to both the U.S. and the Indian advertisements. The frequencies of the values natural and quality in the U.S.
advertisements are 4.2% and 4.7% respectively which are close to the
5% cutoff frequency we have arbitrarily chosen. So in effect we have a
nearly complete similarity of dominant cultural values most commonly
portrayed in both the U.S. as well as the Indian advertisements. This result can be explained by the magazines selected for the study and the
coders used in the study. The Indian magazines selected were all entirely in English and aimed at the urban population in India. The U.S.
and the Indian magazines (from which the advertisements were obtained) were comparable in nature with respect to their format, target
audience demographics, and products advertised. The coders were all
educated, affluent individuals from a major metropolitan city (Mumbai)
in India, familiar with western media and culture. These factors would
contribute to the fact that similar values would be observed in both the
U.S. as well as Indian advertisements. This finding supports earlier results of the Khairullah and Khairullah (1995) study where educated
middle-class urban Indian respondents, irrespective of their degree of
westernization, seemed to like both Indian as well as the U.S. advertisements of the same product categories.
Three of the values, courtesy, quality, and technology have a
high frequency in both the U.S. and Indian advertisements, but do not
have a statistically significant difference in their frequency of occurrence in the two countries. The high frequency of occurrence implies
these values are important both in the U.S. as well as in India, which is
not surprising since customer satisfaction and quality are increasingly

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

59

TABLE 4. Dominant Cultural Values in U.S. and Indian Magazine Advertisements Across Product Categories
Magazine Advertisements
U.S.
Cultural Value

Column
%

Chi Square Statistic

Indian
Count

Column
%

Count

Significance
** < 0.05
*< 0.10

Adventure

6.5

28

11.2

41

Beauty

0.2

Collectivism

1.9

1.1

Competition

0.9

1.1

Convenience

10.7

46

7.6

28

4.38 **

5.6

24

5.7

21

0.20

Courtesy

2.45 *

1.33
0.00

Economy

4.9

21

0.5

15.97 **

Effectiveness

7.9

34

5.7

21

3.07 *

Enjoyment

3.7

16

3.3

12

0.57

Family

2.6

11

4.1

15

0.62

Health

2.3

10

0.5

5.33 **

Individualism

2.8

12

1.9

1.32

Leisure

9.8

42

7.4

27

Magic

0.2

0.3

0.00

Modernity

4.4

19

4.6

17

0.11

Natural

4.2

18

9.0

33

4.41 **

Neatness

0.9

3.26 *

Nurturance

0.7

Patriotism

0.5

1.9

2.78 *

Popularity

2.6

11

2.2

0.47

Quality

4.7

20

5.2

19

0.03

Respect for Elderly

0.7

Safety

0.7

3.5

13

Sex

3.3

14

1.6

Social Status

2.6

11

4.6

17

1.29

Technology

7.5

32

7.6

28

0.27

Tradition

1.2

1.6

0.09

Uniqueness

1.9

3.3

12

0.80

Wealth

0.2

1.4

2.67 *

Wisdom

0.5

0.3

0.33

0
6.25 **
3.20 *

Work

0.9

1.1

0.00

Youth

2.3

10

1.6

1.00

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STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

important in the global marketplace. The value technology is important also to both the Indians and the Americans. The U.S. economy is
driven by technology that has revolutionized the market place. In India
too technology is making strides with software development becoming
one of its fastest growing industries (Cipriani 2000). This finding supports results of Srikandaths (1991) study where the values, technology,
modernization, and consumerism were predominantly depicted in Indian television advertising.
Values with Statistically Significant Differences in the U.S.
and Indian Advertisements
Among the thirty-two values considered, observed frequencies
showed significant differences between the U.S. and Indian advertisements with respect to the number of times the advertisements conveyed
the following ten values: adventure, convenience, economy, effectiveness, health, leisure, natural, patriotism, safety, and
sex. The chi square values and levels of significance at p < 0.05 and p <
0.10 are shown in Table 4.
It seems that the value adventure perhaps may connote a more
western life-style amongst Indian consumers. Since India was under
British rule for 200 years, this value seems to be still prevalent in India.
Mehta and Belk (1991) observed that Asian-Indians have a fascination
with some things that are western and perhaps advertisers in India are
depicting in their advertisements western-cultural values that are perceived to be positive by the urban Indian population more often than advertisers in the U.S.
The value convenience (10.7%) appears more frequently in the
U.S. magazine advertisements than in the Indian magazine advertisements (7.6%), which is not surprising. American consumers do consider convenience to be an important product attribute that helps them
to make things in life easier for them since they are always faced with
the problem of paucity of time. It appears that even in India this value is
becoming important. The Indian middle class is growing and with two
family incomes rising, the consumers have the money to spend and are
looking for those products that offer convenience to their busy
life-style. The traditional Indian cultural values of Indian females staying home and looking after their husband, children, and in-laws have
given way to more of western culture where Indian women have found a
place outside their homes.

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61

The U.S. advertisements emphasize economy (4.9%) more than

the Indian advertisements (0.5%). This is surprising at first glance since
the U.S. is clearly the more affluent country. The reason for this difference may lie in the nature of products advertised. The products used,
such as airlines, cars, computers, hotels, are more likely to be used by
affluent people in India while these same products are in common use
by an average American.
A value frequently depicted in the U.S. magazine advertisement is
effectiveness which may be due to the fact that American consumers
want their product to be capable of performing as specified. In the U.S.,
marketers constantly remind their customers that if they are not satisfied with the product performance they can return the merchandise.
Very few countries have such a liberal merchandise return policy as we
find in the U.S.
The value health is seen to have a significantly higher frequency in
the U.S. advertisements; however, this frequency is small (2.3%) compared to other values and it is only (0.5%) in Indian advertisements. The
observed results are probably due to the fact that cigarettes were the
only health-related product of the five products used in the study. There
is much greater health consciousness and awareness in the U.S. in general and in particular with regard to cigarette smoking.
In both countries, leisure seems to be a frequently observed dominant cultural value, although it is higher in the U.S. (9.8%) than in the
Indian advertisements (7.4%). In India, magazine advertisements are
targeted to the upper and the middle class urban, well-educated Indians.
These groups have the discretionary income to spend on luxury items
that bring comfort and relaxation in their lives.
The value natural is one of the values depicted in Indian magazine
advertisements, which is interesting in terms of the religious beliefs that
this value tries to convey in the Hindu culture. Among the Hindus, extolling and worshipping the different elements of nature, such as wind,
sun, water, and animals, is part of their religious beliefs, and 82% of the
Indian population is Hindu (Heitzman and Worden 1996; The World
FactbookCIA 2001).
Patriotism, safety, and sex are three other values that have a
significant difference in their frequency of depiction in the U.S. and Indian magazine advertisements. However, all three of these also have a
relatively small observed frequency in advertisements in the two countries. The low frequencies of portrayal of these values imply a lack of
importance ascribed to these three values in advertisements of these
five products.

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STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

Observed Dominant Cultural Values Within Product Categories

The frequencies of the dominant cultural values conveyed in the U.S.
and the Indian advertisements were examined by product categories as
well (see Table 5).
For airlines, we find that the most common cultural values in the U.S.
magazine advertisements are convenience (25%), courtesy (14.1%),
effectiveness (10.9%), leisure (9.4%), and popularity (6.3%). In
the Indian magazine advertisements the values adventure (6.8%),
convenience (16.5%), leisure (11.7%), and natural (10.7%) are
most common. The values effectiveness and courtesy do not occur
frequently in Indian advertisements. This may be explained by the fact
that in India there is one major government owned domestic airline with
little competition. The values adventure, convenience, and leisure
emphasized in the Indian magazine advertisements are not surprising
since only the affluent urban Indians can afford to fly. The value natural seems to convey a harmony between naturewind and man-made
machine. This is the only value that is significantly different in its frequency of occurrence between the U.S. and Indian airline advertisements.
The cultural values common in both the countries for the car advertisements are adventure (U.S. = 13.3%, Indian = 9.2%), effectiveness (U.S. = 15.0%, Indian = 10.5%), quality (U.S. = 8.0%, Indian =
7.9%), and technology (U.S. = 11.5%, Indian = 18.4%). The differences in frequency of occurrence are statistically significant for five of
the values: adventure, economy, effectiveness, family, and
modernity. The value adventure occurs significantly more in the
U.S. car advertisements. In a developing country like India, possessing
a car is considered a status symbol, a luxury item amongst the affluent
Indians. It is generally used jointly by members of a family (nuclear or
extended family members). However, in the U.S. almost every adult
household member in a family has his/her own car. Another significant
difference in cultural values between the two countries can be seen in
the value of family (U.S. = 4.4%, Indian = 11.8%). Family ties are
more important in the eastern culture of India than in the western culture
of the U.S. The cultural value modernity is significantly more common in the U.S. car advertisements than in the Indian advertisements
(U.S. = 8.8%, Indian = 5.3%). This can be explained by the fact that in
the U.S. new models of cars are introduced every year, incorporating
state-of-the-art technologies that convey to consumers that America has
a leading edge in the world economy. In India car owners do not readily

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

63

TABLE 5. Dominant Cultural Values in U.S. and Indian Magazine Advertisements Within Product Categories
Product

Cultural
Value

Airline

Car

Cigarette

Computer

Hotel

Advertisements

Advertisements

Advertisements

Advertisements

Advertisements

U.S.

Adventure

Indian

U.S.

Indian

6.8%

13.3%*

9.2%*

Beauty
Collectivism

U.S.

Indian

U.S.

Indian

U.S.

Indian

1.9%

1.5%

13.7%** 39.7%**
1.1%

3.1%

Competition
Convenience 25.0%*

1.8%

2.1%

2.9%
4.4%

1.9%

1.0%

0.9%

3.8%

16.5%*

1.8%

5.3%

1.1%

9.6%

1.0%
7.7%

21.2%**

Courtesy

14.1%

3.9%

Economy

1.6%

1.0%

4.4%*

1.3%*

5.3%

9.6%

4.8%

Effectiveness

10.9%

5.8%

15.0%*

10.5%*

1.1%

3.8%* 13.5%*

6.7%

Enjoyment

3.1%

2.9%

2.7%

2.6%

9.5%

4.4%

11.8%

Family
Health

3.1%

Individualism

1.6%

Leisure

9.4%

Magic

1.0%

3.8%** 15.4%** 12.5%

1.9%
2.6%

0.9%

4.9%

1.5%

1.9%

3.8%

4.4%**

8.8%*

5.3%*

1.6%** 10.7%**

2.7%

2.6%

Neatness

3.1%

0.9%

3.8%

1.5%

2.9%

2.9%

16.3%

17.6%

13.7%

1.5%

15.4%**

23.5%

1.9%

3.8%**

1.0%*

5.9%

0.9%

1.9%

3.9%

0.9%

Popularity

6.3%

3.9%

1.8%

2.6%

1.1%

5.8%

3.8%

1.0%

Quality

3.1%

5.8%

8.0%

7.9%

3.2%

3.8%

5.8%

4.4%

3.8%

Respect for
Elderly

5.9%

2.9%

Safety

3.9%

1.8%

6.6%

1.9%

Sex

1.6%

3.9%

2.6%

12.6%

Social Status

3.1%

1.9%

2.7%

2.6%

2.1%

Technology

1.6%

1.9%

11.5%

18.4%

2.1%

3.5%

6.6%

Tradition

3.1%

3.9%

Uniqueness

1.6%

1.9%

Wealth

Youth

7.4%*

1.0%

1.6%

Work

2.9%

4.8%

Patriotism

Wisdom

13.2%

1.1%

Natural

Nurturance

4.2%
18.9%**

1.0%

Modernity

1.9%
1.9%** 11.5%**

2.7%
2.7%

11.7%

7.4%

4.4%**

1.0%

1.5%
1.0%

1.5%

1.9%

2.9%**

30.8%

23.1%

1.9%

1.9%

1.1%

1.9%

2.9%
5.9%
5.9%

1.1%
1.8%
4.4%

1.3%
4.2%

17.6%**

1.9%

1.1%

1.6%
1.0%

5.8%

1.9%
1.5%

1.9%

1.5%

7.4%

1.0%

1.5%

Note: (1) All % are column percentages. (2) Significance levels: (* < 0.1); (** < 0.05).

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STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

trade up to newer and modern models because labor is cheap and things
can be fixed relatively inexpensively (Cateora 1999). A car is often
handed down from father to son.
In the case of cigarette advertisements, both the U.S. advertisements
and Indian advertisements depict similar dominant cultural values of
adventure (U.S. = 13.7%, Indian = 39.7%), enjoyment (U.S. =
9.5%, Indian = 7.4%), and natural (U.S. = 13.7%, Indian = 23.5%).
Significant differences in the cigarette advertisements of the two countries are observed in only two of the values: adventure and leisure.
In India, males are more likely to smoke and perhaps that explains the
adventure cultural value as more common in the Indian magazine advertisements than in the U.S. advertisements. Leisure is more commonly found in the U.S. advertisements for cigarettes. The cultural
value sex (U.S. = 12.6%, Indian = 0), is very dominant in the U.S. advertisement and not depicted in the Indian advertisements at all. In the
U.S. cigarette advertisements it is not uncommon to find sensual models, males and females holdings hands, and couples in intimate situations. In the eastern culture of India, such open display of intimacy
between opposite sexes is not socially acceptable.
Significant differences in the frequencies of the dominant cultural
values depicted in the U.S. and the Indian computer advertisements are
observed for courtesy, effectiveness, family, and modernity. In
addition relatively high and similar frequencies are observed for the
values convenience (U.S. = 9.6%, Indian = 7.7%), and technology
(U.S. = 30.8%, Indian = 23.1%). Although cultural values of economy (U.S. = 9.6%, Indian = 0), and modernity (U.S. = 15.4%, Indian =
3.8%) are commonly depicted in the U.S. advertisements, they are not as
frequently conveyed in Indian advertisements. Perhaps the American
consumers see computers as an affordable, time-saving product while
the consumers in developing countries like India perceive computers as
signifying values of a family possession (U.S. = 1.9%, Indian =
11.5%), and effectiveness (U.S. = 3.8%, Indian = 13.5%) as important. In the U.S. computers are upgraded every so often to reflect the advances of modern technology; however, frequent upgrading is not
feasible in a developing country like India.
From Table 5 it can be seen that in case of magazine advertisements
for hotels, the common values manifested in advertisements of both the
countries are courtesy (U.S. = 12.5%, Indian = 13.2%), and leisure
(U.S. = 16.3%, Indian = 17.6%). The significant differences are for the
values convenience (U.S. = 21.2%, Indian = 4.4%), modernity
(U.S. = 1.0%, Indian = 7.4%), and social status (U.S. = 2.9%, Indian =

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

65

17.6%). For American consumers, hotels offer convenience, but in a developing country like India going to hotels is expensive and as such it
reflects the wealth and the social status of users.
Summing Up
Our results show that there are both similarities as well as differences
in cultural values manifested in the U.S. and the Indian magazine advertisements both across and within the selected product categories. Considering all the advertisements of the five product categories together,
there appears to be a commonality of the dominant values frequently
portrayed in magazine advertisements of both countries although statistically significant differences in their frequency of occurrence are present for several observed values (a case for standardization). When the
observed dominant values are compared by product categories, we find
differences among the advertisements for the different product categories (a case for adaptation). These findings support the findings of
Cheng and Schweitzers (1996) study that the cultural values shown in
the television commercials of the U.S. and China were dependent on
product categories advertised in China. Thus based on the findings of
this study, we cannot say that a complete standardization approach can
be used successfully by multinational corporations in India. Nor can we
make a case that complete adaptation is desirable. Marketers need to
consider both approaches in their international advertising strategies.
Suggestions for Future Research
The findings of the present study cannot be generalized for the entire
Indian subcontinent because while there are relatively large markets in
the urban areas of India, where the middle-class is growing, the majority of the Indian population lives in rural communities. There are significant cultural and socio-economic differences between Indian rural and
urban populations. In rural India, due to a high illiteracy rate and poor
economic conditions, there is a lack of availability of print media. In
these areas, billboards, cinema, television, and other outdoor advertising are popularly used. Hence, future research could consider the cultural values depicted in these media and the product categories
advertised in them. In a developing country like India where a majority
of the people living in rural areas are economically backward, the
non-durable and durable products considered in this present study may
not be widely advertised. However, the gap between the rural and urban

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STRATEGIC GLOBAL MARKETING: ISSUES AND TRENDS

populations is closing in this regard. A survey of The New Consumer

Classes by a leading trade journal, Business Today, provided some interesting insights. It found that due to access to TV in rural areas, rural
consumers tastes were converging with those of urban needs, which in
turn was creating a new demand for certain products. In addition, due to
increased migration to cities and industrial townships, rural consumers
were being exposed to products offered in urban areas. While urban areas are trying to catch up with the West, rural India is catching on to urban India in its own way (Rufus 1997). Future studies could use coders
from other urban areas of India and undertake content analysis of the
same product categories appearing in the same magazines to give a
comprehensive perspective of the cultural values conveyed in Indian
magazine advertisements and then compare them with the U.S. magazine advertisements. The present study could also be replicated using
other pairs of countries.
CONCLUSION
Literature review indicates that in India the middle-class is growing
and this population has enough disposable income to buy durable and
non-durable goods produced by western multinationals actively operating in India (e.g., Chakrvarti 1997; Fuhrman and Schuman 1994; Jain
2001; Ranjan 1997). A survey of U.S. manufacturers has shown that
95% of respondents with operations in India plan on expanding, and
none said they would leave the country. This is because of the cheap,
qualified labor and the massive market available in India (The Economist, February 17, 1997). Print media in the English language has widespread use in India (Frith and Sengupta 1991; Heitzman and Worden
1996; Turner 2000). Hence, India presents an opportunity for international marketers who need to evaluate the extent of standardization
and/or adaptation in their advertising strategies.
The results of this study support the arguments of researchers who
have taken a middle-of-the-road approach in the standardization versus adaptation debate of international advertising messages. Those researchers contend that some degree of advertising standardizing is
possible and even desirable. However, they also maintain that an international advertiser must take into account product characteristics, consumer characteristics, and environmental factors before deciding the
extent and nature of standardization in international advertising messages (e.g., Harvey 1991; Jain 1989; Lin 1993). The findings of the

Durriya H. Z. Khairullah and Zahid Y. Khrairullah

67

present study imply that depending upon how the product is perceived
and used in the host countries, there are certain cultural values associated with those products that could have universal appeals. In such
cases, international marketers could reap the rewards of standardization. These rewards are cost savings, greater control over content, consistent brand image, and simplified planning (Tansey et al. 1990). Since
there are differences also present, they need to be taken into account as
appropriate. In doing so, international marketers show respect and sensitivity to the cultural values of their host countries. These considerations when incorporated in international advertising campaigns will
help marketers successfully sell their products in international markets.
Schiller (1989) is of the opinion that by trying to treat the world as a homogeneous market multinational marketers are in fact imposing their
own culture, which may be offensive to the cultural values of the host
countries. Furthermore, cultural values are shaped and based on a countrys environmental factors such as the state of the economic development of the country, availability of media, and religious values. The
decision regarding how much to standardize or adapt is therefore complex. The U.S. multinational advertisers should assess their advertising
campaigns in each country in terms of target market, cultural and environmental factors, and the nature of their products.
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