~ )

Pergamon
PII: S0025-326X(96)00133--6

Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 290-297, 1997

((3 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
0025-326X/97 $17.00 + 0.00

Fluxes and Mass Balances of Nutrients

in a Semi-Intensive Shrimp Farm in
North-Western Mexico
F. PAEZ-OSUNA*, S. R. GUERRERO-GALV/~N*, A. C. RUIZ-FERNANDEZ* and R. ESPINOZA-ANGULOt
*Laboratorio de Quimica Marina, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia, Universidad Nacional Aut6norna de
Mdxico, Apdo. Postal 811, Mazatldn 82000, Sinaloa, Mdxico
tSociedad Cooperativa de Producci6n Pesquera Clementina S.C.L., Pto. Salina Cruz No. 13, Parque Ind. Bonfil,
Mazatldn, Sinaloa, MOxico

Fluxes of suspended solids, chlorophyll a and nutrients

(phosphorus, nitrate, nitrite and ammonia) were estimated
in a semi-intensive shrimp farm in north-west Mexico for
two consecutive cycles of production encompassing both
the dry and wet seasons. A mass balance model was
developed for nitrogen and phosphorus and fluxes
estimated included shrimp feed, fertilization, shrimp
stocked, harvest, macrofauna associated, water exchange,
filling and drainage. Of the total nitrogen and phosphorus
input to the ponds, 35.5% and 6.1% were recovered in
1822 kg ha -1 of shrimp harvested. Volatilization of
ammonia and adsorption by sediments of phosphorus
constituted 27.4% and 63.5%, respectively; the estimated
environmental losses of nitrogen and phosphorus per t of
shrimp produced were 28.6 kg and 4.6 kg, respectively.
Assuming that all the shrimp farms in Sinaloa (Mexico),
operate according to the model, the farms could represent
a load corresponding to the untreated sewage generated
by 56 200-192 750 and 43 500-149 170 people in terms of
nitrogen and phosphorus discharged annually. 1997
Elsevier Science Ltd
Keywords: nutrient; fluxes; mass balance; shrimp farms.

The development of large-scale shrimp farming is

relatively recent and has been largely stimulated by
the substantial and increasing demand from Japanese,
European and North American markets (Chua, 1992).
Over one million hectares of coastal lowlands have been
converted into shrimp farms worldwide, mainly in
China, Indonesia, Thailand, Ecuador, India, Vietnam,
Bangladesh, Philippines, Honduras, Colombia and
Mexico (Rosenberry, 1992). In Mexico, the state of
Sinaloa produced 8610 t of shrimp in 1994 in 149
shrimp farms (SEMARNP, 1995), of which approximately 70% (5670 ha pond area) were operated with
semi-intensive management.
290

The increase and development of shrimp farming has

generated considerable concern about the effects of
aquaculture pond effluents on the nearby aquatic
ecosystems and some studies addressing the problem
of aquaculture pond effluents have been carried out
(Ziemann et al., 1992; Hopkins et al., 1993; Briggs and
Funge-Smith, 1994). However, there are few specific
studies on the chemical fluxes and characteristics of
effluents in terms of mass balances for semi-intensive
shrimp farm facilities. Knowledge of these values is
essential for making planning decisions related to the
potential impacts that may result from shrimp farm
operations. This information also has biogeochemical
importance for the understanding of coastal environment processes influenced by organic and nutrient
inputs (Hall et al., 1990).
In a previous work (Guerrero-Galvfin, 1993),
seasonal and diurnal changes in water quality
parameters measured at one semi-intensive shrimp
farm in the north-west coast of Mexico, during twq
consecutive production cycles were reported. This
paper presents the estimated fluxes of suspended
solids, organic matter, chlorophyll a and nutrients
lost to the adjacent coastal ecosystem. Additionally, a
mass balance model for phosphorus and nitrogen was
developed for the dry season on a per-hectare basis
(1822kg shrimp harvested) for one semi-intensive
shrimp farm.
M a t e r i a l s and M e t h o d s
Study site
The shrimp farm is located on the Pacific coast of
Mexico (Southern Gulf of California) adjacent to the
Estero de Urias lagoon system, which empties into
Mazatlan Harbor. The Estero de Urias lagoon is a
saline vertically mixed water body (salinity range 25.838.4) with an average mixed tidal amplitude of 1.5 m

Volume 34/Number 5/May 1997

and water velocities of 0-0.50 cm s - l (P~ez-Osuna et

al., 1990).
Pond system

In 1990-1991 the farm had seven earthen ponds with

a total pond area of 45 ha. The farm has one intake
structure and a reservoir channel supplying the ponds
with water by gravity flow. Filling and exchange water
are pumped from the Estero Confites, which is a small
channel that communicates with the main lagoon
system (Fig. 1). Ponds drain through an effluent ditch
which carries water back to the adjacent lagoon body,
some distance from the intake pumps. Minimal shortcircuiting of discharge and pumped intake water is
thought to occur. During the present work water in
ponds was exchanged continuously at rates of 35% d a y - l ; however, during rainy seasons, the exchanges were higher (6-20%) depending on the
amount of precipitation.
Two ponds (1 and 5 in Fig. 1) were chosen for the
present study. Pond 1 has a mean depth of 0.8 m and an
area of 7.3 ha (58 400 m 3 in volume); pond 5, is 0.8 m
deep and 8.4 ha (67 200 m3). The pond management
team reported (pers. comm.) that the historic yields of
the ponds were different, with one pond producing

about 20% greater production than the other. Before

stocking, each pond was fertilized with 4.5 kg ha-1 of
triple superphosphate (46% P205) and 19.5 kg ha-1 of
urea (45% N) during the dry season, and 9 kg ha-1 of
triple superphosphate and 39.5 kg ha-~ of urea during
the rainy season. Postlarval (PL) Penaeus vannamei of
approximately 8-10mm in length (0.8-1.1 mg in
weight) were stocked into production ponds at a density
of 14 m -2 and 20 m -2 for the dry and rainy season,
respectively. Feed was supplied daily to the ponds from
a small boat. A total of 2.2 and 3.8 t h a - ~ of feed were
provided during the dry and rainy seasons, respectively.
The composition of feed was: dry matter 88.0%; lipids
8.0%; crude protein 35.0%. Production for ponds 1 and
5 during the dry season was 1856 and 1788 kg ha -1
crop - l , respectively; while during the rainy season it
was 2160 and 2089 kg ha -I crop - l , respectively. Feed
conversion ratios (dry wt feed added/wet wt of shrimp
produced) were 1.18-1.23 and 1.76-1.82 for the dry and
rainy seasons for ponds 1 and 5, respectively. The ponds
were filled and the grow-out cycle for the dry and rainy
season began on March 22 and August 18 (1991), and
the culture cycles lasted 95 and 165 days, respectively.
At harvest, ponds were drained and shrimps were
captured in a net bag placed over the outlet in the sluice-

j ... / ....

<~ Pacific

Ocean
r " m ' ~

3 krn

Fig. 1 Map of Estero de Urias lagoon system (Mazatlan Harbor,

Sinaloa, Mexico) showing location of study site. Numbers
indicate the shrimp ponds sampled.

291

Marine Pollution Bulletin

gate. The entire crop and subsamples of individual
shrimps were weighed to determine harvest size, mean
weights and survival rates. Further details about the
survival, growth rate, and harvest weights are presented
in Guerrero-Galv~n (1993).
Sampling and analytical methods
A water sampling regime was developed to estimate
the influence of farming activities (i.e. feeding rates, time
of culture), seasonal fluctuations, and to evaluate
diurnal fluctuations on the water quality. A Niskin
horizontal sampler was used to collect water samples in
the two ponds and the inlet water at intervals of 2 weeks
(sampling time was between the 0300 and 0500 h) and
twice weekly (between the 1500 and 1600 h) during the
dry and rainy seasons, respectively. Diurnal water
samples (24 h sampling periods) were collected every
2 h on specific days only during the dry season. On
culture day 36/37 and 78/79 from pond 1, and on
culture day 64/65 and 92/93, from pond 5 and the
Estero Confites at the pumping station.
Water samples were taken 20 cm below the water
surface close to the sluice gate of ponds 1 and 5 (stations
l a and 5a) and at the pumping station at Estero
Confites (station b). Each sample was divided into clean
containers as follows:
1. water filtered through Whatmann GF/C filters to
determine dissolved nutrients (phosphate, PO4-3, nitrate, N O 3 and nitrite, N O { ) and salinity;
2. four aliquots of 10 ml unfiltered water to analyse
ammonia were placed in glass-vials with 5 ml of phenolethanol (0.8%);
3. a 300-ml BOD glass bottle for dissolved oxygen
measurements;
4. two pre-ashed (500C) and weighed GF/C glass fibre
filters in glass dishes to measure suspended solids and
suspended organic matter; and
5. one filter GF/C in a black vial with methanol for
chlorophyll a analysis.
The equation used to determine the chlorophyll
pigment was that of SCOR/UNESCO as quoted in
Strickland and Parsons (1972). Excepting dissolved
oxygen which was measured in the field, all samples
were carried immediately in coolers to the laboratory
for analysis. In the 24 h sampling periods, the samples
were maintained on ice, and transported to the
laboratory, where they were stored refrigerated (4C)
until analysis conducted within 3 days of collection.
The following analyses were conducted using procedures outlined in Strickland and Parsons (1972):
dissolved oxygen (Winkler method), nitrite (diazotization method), nitrate (cadmium reduction followed by
diazotization), phosphate (phosphomolybdenum procedure), pH (potentiometer), and salinity (conductivity/
salinometer). Total ammonia was determined by the
phenate technique (Solorzano, 1969) and chlorophyll a
was extracted in methanol and determined spectrophotometrically (Holm-Hansen and Riemann, 1978).
292

Total suspended solids and organic solids were

estimated gravimetrically (APHA, 1989). The precision
of the different determinations, expressed as coefficient
of variation, was estimated to be: dissolved oxygen
2.3%, nitrite 3% at 1.2 gM, nitrate+nitrite 9/'0 at
6.0 gM, phosphate 3% at 5.5 gM, salinity 0.5%, and
total ammonia 9% at 20 gM.
Nitrogen and phosphorus content in shrimp and shrimp
feed
Whole shrimp nitrogen and phosphorus contents
were determined following the methods described by
Pfiez-Osuna et al. (1993) and Pfiez-Osuna et al. (1991),
respectively. The nitrogen concentration in shrimp feed
was assumed to be 5.6% (35% protein) according to the
manufacturer specifications and phosphorus concentration was determined by the procedure described by
Pfiez-Osuna et al. (1991). For phosphorus analysis, a
fish homogenate MA-B-3/TM reference material
(IAEA, 1988) was used to check the accuracy of the
methodology.

Results
Data analysis
In order to avoid extremely atypical values that
could affect test results, water quality data were
screened for outliers before the statistical analysis,
using Box and Whisker plot, an algorithmic procedure
described by Tukey (1977) and Ott (1988). Extreme
values were defined as the data points that lie 1.5 times
outside the interquartile range of their nearest quartile
(Ignatiades et al., 1992). Table 1 presents the statistics
summary of data after the exclusion of outliers (less
than 5% of the total data). In the case of atypical
values, these were substituted by the value of the nearest
quartile. Since the measurements of dissolved oxygen
were of poor reproducibility during the rainy season,
data for this period were omitted. Seasonal and diurnal
variations, and the differences among values were
discussed and reported in a previous work (GuerreroGalvfin, 1993).
Estimation of the chemical fluxes
Eight water quality parameters were studied by
determining the chemical flux of each discharge over
the production during the dry and rainy seasons. The
following considerations and assumptions were used to
calculate the chemical fluxes:
Method (a) involved linearly interpolating biweekly
or semiweekly water quality data to create an estimate
of daily values. Daily concentrations were multiplied by
daily flows to determinate the total mass of each
parameter in discharge water. The mass of each
parameter which entered ponds from the adjacent
lagoon (Estero de Urias) through water exchange
(estimated from inlet water sampling data) was
subtracted from the daily discharge. Finally, daily

Volume 34/Number 5/May 1997

TABLE 1
Water quality of inlet and outlet water for two ponds in a semi-intensive shrimp farm in north-west coast of Mexico, 1991-1992. Outlet water data
for dry season are from ponds ! and 5; for rainy season outlet water data are only from pond 1. Mean value4-standard deviation; sample size are in
parentheses.
Dry season
Parameter

Inlet

Salinity
Nitrite (IxM)
Nitrate (~tM)
Ammonium (I~M)
Phosphate (~tM)
Total suspended solids (mg I - l ) i
Organic suspended solids (mg 1- )
Dissolved oxygen (ttM)
Chlorophyll a (mg 1-1)

41.74-0.9 (26)
0.44-0.1 (14)
0.44-0.2 (14)
17.54-7.0 (14)
1.44-0.3 (14)
74.04-22.0 (14)
8.74-3.9 (14)
98.04-160.0 (14)
1.65:1.0 (14)

TABLE 2
Stages of the grow-out cycle during the dry season in a semi-intensive
shrimp farm in north-west Mexico.
Stage

Duration (days)

Initial

0-36

Pond filled, fertilized and

stocked. Feed 0-20 kg ha-1
d a y - 1. Water exchange regime, 4%

37-70

Feed 20-30 kg h a - i d a y - i. Water

exchange regime, 4%

71-95 (or more)

Harvest. Feed 25-35 kg ha -1

d a y - i. Water exchange regime, 6%

Intermediate
Final

Remarks

discharge values for each parameter were added for

each season and converted to kg ha-~ crop-i.
s Method (b) involved use of diurnal water quality data
during three stages of the culture period (Table 2): (i)
the initial stage, was characterized by relatively low
concentrations for most of the measured water quality
parameters. These conditions were assumed to prevail
from the first to the fifth week of the grow-out cycle;
therefore, the diurnal data of day 36 were used to
calculate these fluxes in this period; (ii) in the
intermediate stage, an intermediate concentration

Rainy season
Outlet

Inlet

Outlet

48.34-0.6 (26)
0.74-0.3 (44)
0.54-1.1 (44)
11.54-7.0 (44)
1.7+i.1 (44)
94.04-27.0 (44)
17.84-7.2 (44)
104.04-83.0 (44)
10.04-8.0 (44)

27.74-12.0 (38)
1.24-2.2 (40)
13.24-4.8 (40)
12.44-9.9 (40)
2.54-2.4 (40)
48.04-18.0 (40)
4.14-1.6 (40)
-3.64-4.1 (40)

29.44-7.5 (33)
0.34-0.3 (46)
0.54-0.8 (46)
16.74-15.1 (46)
0.84-0.6 (46)
67.04-23.0 (46)
13.84-6.8 (46)
-27.6+i7.4 (46)

represented by the diurnal data of day 64 was used to

calculate the corresponding fluxes from the 6th to the
10th week; (iii) in the final stage, conditions from the
1 lth to the 13th week of the culture cycle were assumed
to prevail, and represented by the diurnal variation data
of day 92. The data obtained from day 93 and day 161
for the dry and rainy season, respectively, were assumed
to be typical of pond drainage values, and after their
inclusion, the fluxes of nutrients, solids (total and
organic), chlorophyll a, and dissolved oxygen were
calculated considering each parameter in the water used
to fill ponds initially (Table 3). Further details on the
calculations are available from the authors on request.

Discussion
Chemical fluxes
The amount of water used to produce a crop in
ponds, varied depending on the culture cycle duration,
production and the water exchange rate; in the dry
season (3-5% daily water exchange rate) 9.0 (pond 1)
and 17.3 m 3 (pond 5) of water were discharged per kilogram of whole shrimp, while for the rainy season (620% daily water exchange rate) 11.5 (pond 1) and

TABLE 3
Total estimated amounts per hectare of material incorporated, discharged and net loading via water on a semi-intensive shrimp farm (pond 1) during
dry (1991) and rainy (1991/1992) seasons. Values were calculated considering punctual measurements (method (a), see text).
Dry season

Total suspended solids (kg)

Organic suspended solids (kg)
Chlorophyll a (g)
Dissolved oxygen (kg)
P-PO4 (g)
N-NO2 (g)
N-NO3 (g)
N-NH4 (g)

Rainy season

Inlet

Outlet

Net

Inlet

Outlet

Net

2958
441
142
193
2886
133
178
12971

4549
640
409
98
995
198
541
9996

1591
199
267
--95
-1891
65
363
-2975

2796
323
202
-3527
595
6137
12058

3686
704
1234
-1569
320
365
12709

890
381
1032
--1958
-275
- 5772
651

293

Marine Pollution Bulletin

21.6 m 3 (pond 5) of water were discharged per kilogram
of whole shrimp. These values fall considerably below
the estimated world-wide range of 39-199 m 3
water kg -1 shrimp (Hopkins and Villal6n, 1992).
The chemical fluxes estimated for the parameters
considered were different between the two seasons
(Table 3). The rainy season values (inlet and outlet)
were generally higher than those for the dry season, due
to a longer culture cycle during the rainy (165 days)
than the dry (95 days) season. Additionally, other
factors such as rain falls and intensity of solar radiation,
could account for observed differences between seasons.
In this comparison it is important to consider that the
sampling schedule was not the same for both cycles.
During the dry season, sample collections were made at
dawn (0300-0500 h), whereas in the rainy season, they
were made in the afternoon (1500-1600 h). In this type
of shrimp (Guerrero-Galv~in, 1993) and fish pond (e.g.
Tucker and Boyd, 1985; K r o m et al., 1985; Erez et al.,
1990), diurnal variation strongly affects dissolved
oxygen, ammonia and chlorophyll a. The net flux of
nitrite, nitrate and total ammonia were inconsistent. In
the rainy season nitrite and nitrate seems to drop in the
ponds (negative fluxes), whereas in the dry season a
contrary tendency is noted (Table 3). For ammonia, the
reverse was observed; possibly due to the seasonal
influence or simply due to the effect of the different
sampling schedule.
Chemical fluxes in the dry season calculated using
diurnal data (method b, Table 4) were considerably
different from those calculated using biweekly data
(method a, Table 3). In fact, in the case of phosphorus

TABLE 4

Total estimated amounts per hectare of material incorporated,

discharged and net loading via water on a semi-intensiveshrimp farm,
during dry season (1991). Values were calculated consideringdiurnal
variations and the stages of the culture cycle(method (b), see text).

Total suspended solids (kg)

Organic suspended solids (kg)
Chlorophyll a (g)
Dissolved oxygen (kg)
P-PO4 (g)
N-NO 2 (g)
N-NO3 (g)
N-NH4 (g)

Inlet

Outlet

Net

2303
261
47
78
1467
179
176
8519

3605
730
407
163
1987
436
322
5274

1302
469
360
85
520
257
146
-3245

and dissolved oxygen, the sign of the net flux differed

between methods. This indicates the importance of
diurnal fluctuations (24 h sampling period) of these
parameters which should be considered in the estimation of chemical fluxes.
Net fluxes calculated in this study are much less than
those reported for intensive shrimp ponds in South
Carolina, USA (Hopkins et al., 1993) and, in addition,
during the dry season, semi-intensive shrimp ponds
appear to consume ammonia (negative net flux). For
total suspended solids, the semi-intensive ponds
operated with a mean water exchange of 3-5% d a y - l ,
had a net flux between 890 and 1590 kg h a - t c r o p - i .
For intensive ponds, operated with a water exchange of
0-25%, the net flux was of 5554 and 11 289 kg ha -1
crop - l . The reactive phosphate values determined in
the present study are also several times less than those
reported by Hopkins et al. (1993), (38.6 kg ha - l for
ponds stocked 44 PL m -2 and operating with a daily
water exchange of 25%). However, the feed rates were
7-15tha-tcrop-~,
as opposed to 2 . 2 - 3 . 8 t h a - I
crop-~ in the present study.
M a s s balances
Using the strategy proposed by Tucker and Boyd
(1985) a first mass balance for the fate of nutrients in
feed added to shrimp ponds was developed based on
estimates of feed conversion, the amount of feed
added, the dry weight concentration of nitrogen and
phosphorus and the moisture content, of feed and
shrimp. Since shrimp composition was 31% dry
matter, 8.9% nitrogen and 0.3% phosphorus
(Table 5), about 46.7% and 7.4% of the nitrogen
and phosphorus respectively, originally contained in
the feed, was removed from the pond when shrimp
were harvested. The remaining was lost to the water
as decomposition or excretory products and eventually
incorporated in natural cycles.
A mass balance model was developed for nitrogen
and phosphorus using diurnal data calculated with
method b, and mass balance data from Table 5 (Figs 2
and 3). Input data included the amount of feed
supplied, number of shrimp stocked, fertilization,
reactive and organic suspended phosphate, inorganic
nitrogen species (ammonia + nitrite + nitrate) and
organic suspended nitrogen of inlet water during filling
and in effluent during water exchange, and at harvest

TABLE 5

Balance for nitrogen and phosphorus in a semi-intensiveshrimp culture pond, used to grow 1822 kg shrimp ha-J at a feed conversionratio of 1.2.
Shrimp: 31% dry matter, 8.9% N, 0.3% P; feed: 88% dry matter, 5.6% N, 1.2% P. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents are on a dry wt basis.
Removed in shrimp
in feed
(kg)

(kg)

(% in feed)

Lost to water
(kg)

107.7
23. !

50.3
1.7

46.7
7.4

57.4
21.4

Added

Nitrogen
Phosphorus
294

Volume 34/Number 5/May 1997

Shdmp food
107.7 kg N
(76.0 %)

Shrimp
stocked
<0.1 kg N

(<o.1%)

Fertilization~
8.8 kg N
(6.2 %)

Inlet water
25.3 Kg N
(17.8 %)

Ammonia
volatilization
38.8 kg N
(27.4 %)

i--

,',

7,

~I

Shrimp
harvest
50.3 kg N
(35.5 %)

Macrofauna
associated
0.6 kg N

~ \

(o.40,o

~~
_j

j ~

r--~_ Sediment
Lz-'-> accumulation(?)

Outlet water
52,1 kg N
(36.7 %)

External food

Fig. 2 Nitrogen mass balance per 1 ha of pond (1822 kg shrimp

harvested) in the semi-intensiveshrimp farmfor the dry season

(water exchange, 3-5%). Unquantified arrows represent
processes that may constitute possible sources of error in the
mass balance (see text). Percentages are % of total nitrogen
input to pond.

Shrimp food
23.1 kg P
(83.4 %)

Shrimp
stocked
<0.1 kg P
(<0.4 %)
Fertilization
0.9 kg P
(3.2 %)
~

Inlet water
3.7 kg P
(13.4 %)
External food

Shrimp
harvest
1.7kg P
(6.1%)

Macrofauna
associated
<0.1 kgP
(~/0.4 %)

' ~

Sediment
accumulation
17.6 kg P
(63.5 %)
-

Outlet water
8.4 kg P
(30.3 %)

,,

Fig. 3 Phosphorus mass balance per 1 ha (1822 kg shrimp harvested)

in the semi-intensive shrimp farm for the dry season (water
exchange, 3--5%). Unquantified arrows represent processes that

may constitutepossible sources of error in the mass balance

(see text). Percentages are % of total phosphorus input to
pond.
nitrogen and phosphorus associated with the shrimp
produced. Nitrogen exported by ammonia volatilization
and nitrogen or phosphorus adsorbed by sediments
were calculated by difference.
In addition to nitrogen lost from the system with
discharged phytoplankton, there is significant organic
nitrogen in the form of suspended microbial/detrital

complexes. In this model, the amount of nitrogen and

phosphorus in the particulate material was calculated
using the measurements of organic suspended solids
(Table 4) and considering the Redfield ratio of 106:16: I
for C:N:P. This ratio was used to estimate the input and
output of suspended nitrogen and phosphorus during
water exchange, filling and draining.
295

Marine Pollution Bulletin

Processes other than those described in the mass
balances (Figs 2 and 3) might add or remove nitrogen
and phosphorus from the shrimp pond. Plankton and
detrital material are transported with the water pumped
from the lagoon system to the ponds and may act as
external food for the shrimp. Detrital aggregates,
microalgae, copepods, amphipods, polychaetes and
molluscs, which grow and come with water exchanges,
have been considered an important part of the diet of
shrimp cultured in semi-intensive ponds (Chong and
Sasekumar, 1981; Gleason and Wellington, 1988).
However, this is probably a minor source of nitrogen
and phosphorus in the mass balances, because of the
relatively small fluxes of phytoplanktonic biomass (as
chlorophyll a, see Tables 3 and 4) in comparison to the
supply of shrimp feed and the plankton and detrital
material generated in situ in the pond water. In situ
production of natural food was stimulated mainly from
the input of nitrogen and phosphorus, via fertilization,
feed and inlet water. N-fixation by blue-green algae was
not taken into account by the model, and the significance of this contribution is unknown.
Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from the ponds
also could have occurred through grazing of other small
organisms that entered the pond by passing through the
pond filters at the gates (300 lam) as larval stages. These
organisms might have grown and competed for space
and food with the shrimp. During 1993/1994 at the
same shrimp farm utilized for the present study, the
abundance and diversity of macrofauna (fishes and
decapod crustaceans) were determined during two
seasons (Hendrickx et al., 1996). Biomass totalled
about 115 kg of fresh weight (0.3-0.9% of shrimp
harvest). Fish represented 90--94% of this total fresh
weight. Dominance reflected the importance of two fish
species Pomadasys macracanthus and Cynoscion xanthulus. The blue crab Callinectes arcuatus was the only
decapod crustacean harvested. In the preparation of the
mass balance, the fluxes of nitrogen and phosphorus
associated with macrofauna were calculated considering
the corresponding fresh weight (4.0 kg h a - b as fish
biomass. A composition of 25% dry matter, 8%
nitrogen (dry wt), and 1.5% phosphorus (dry wt) was
assumed (Tucker and Boyd, 1985).
The calculated net loading of suspended organic
matter is 469 kg ha -1 of pond water, approximately
21.3% of the shrimp feed supplied. The largest source of
nitrogen (76.0%) and phosphorus (83.4%) is the result
of applied feed. Shrimp harvesting accounted for only
35.5% and 6.1% of the total nitrogen and phosphorus
input into the ponds. Outlet water removed significant
quantities of nitrogen (36.7%) and phosphorus (30.3%).
Denitrification, ammonia volatilization and organic
nitrogen and phosphorus were not directly evaluated
in this study but, because 27.4% of the nitrogen was
unaccounted for it was assumed to be lost through these
pathways. Similarly, it was deduced that 63.5% of the
phosphorus was associated with the pond bottom
296

sediments and suspended organic matter. The processes

of denitrification, ammonia volatilization, and phosphorus adsorption by sediments, serve to moderate and
regulate their concentrations in the water column
(Tucker and Boyd, 1985). Hopkins et al. (1993) could
not account for 13-46% of nitrogen input in intensive
shrimp ponds and explained this loss through denitrification and atmospheric diffusion of un-ionized
ammonia. Boyd (1985) reported that 57% of nitrogen
inputs in freshwater catfish ponds were lost through
denitrification and ammonia diffusion and that 56% of
the phosphorus was lost through uptake by sediments.
Briggs and Funge-Smith (1994) reported that 31% of
nitrogen and 84% of the phosphorus were retained in
the sediments of intensive marine shrimp ponds in
Thailand. Comparable percentages reveal that rates of
denitrification and ammonia diffusion are comparable
between hypersaline (average salinity of 47.2-48.3),
marine shrimp and freshwater ponds.
Environmental and biogeochemical implications
The environmental load per hectare of shrimp pond
during the growing season was calculated using the
diurnal data (method b): 257 g of N-nitrite, 146 g of Nnitrate, 520 g of P-phosphate, 469 kg of suspended
organic matter, 360 g of chlorophyll a and 85 kg of
dissolved oxygen. Considering the loss of dissolved
oxygen and its known equation for the oxidation of
organic material (Stumm and Morgan, 1981), it can be
calculated that since 85 kg of dissolved oxygen was lost,
68.3 kg of organic material was oxidized. Therefore the
net discharge of suspended organic material was
adjusted to 400.7 kg.
The total effluent loss of phosphorus in ponds
(defined as the phosphorus input with feed, fertilizer,
inlet water and stocked animals and losses from
removal of shrimp at harvest and pond sediment
accumulation) for each tonne of product harvested is
variable, depending on the culture system and the
species involved. For each tonne of channel catfish
produced in quasi-static ponds an amount of 1.5 kg of
phosphorus is lost (estimated from Boyd, 1985 and
Tucker and Boyd, 1985). To produce one tonne of
shrimp (P. vannamei) in semi-intensive ponds 4.6 kg of
phosphorus was estimated to be lost to the environment
in the present study. In cage farms, phosphorus loss
estimates range from 9.4 kg (Ackefors and Eneli, 1990)
to 19.6-22.4 kg (Holby and Hall, 1991) per tonne offish
produced.
The total effluent loss of nitrogen in ponds (defined as
the nitrogen input with feed, fertilizer, inlet water and
stocked animals minus nitrogen removal with harvest,
macrofauna associated and pond volatilization) for each
tonne of shrimp produced in semi-intensive ponds was
estimated to be in the order of 28.6 kg. This value is
intermediate between the 12 kg t - t deduced from
Tucker and Boyd (1985) for catfish and 78 kg t -I
reported by Ackefors and Enell (1990) for cage culture.

Volume 34/Number 5/May 1997

Similarly, differences in accumulated phosphorus in

sediments among the three different culture systems
were 63.5 and 56% in the shrimp and catfish ponds
(Tucker and Boyd, 1985), respectively. In cage culture,
where more studies have been conducted (e.g. Ackefors
and Enell, 1990; Holby and Hall, 1991 and cites herein),
the values determined ranged from 38 to 66% (values
are in percentage of total phosphorus input to pond or
cage).
The mean discharge of phosphorus and suspended
solids from sewage works, calculated in terms of grams
per person per day, can be used to express the mass flow
of aquaculture farm effluents in population equivalents
(Pillay, 1992). Using the population equivalents of
nitrogen and phosphorus given by Bergheim and
Selmer-Olsen (1978) and assuming that all the shrimp
farms in Sinaloa state (Mexico) operate as described
here, the 8102 ha or 8610 t of production (SEMARNP,
1995), for shrimp farms in Sinaloa represent a load
corresponding to the untreated sewage generated by
56 200 to 192 750 and 43 500 to 149 170 people in terms
of nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively, discharged
per year. This has important implications for shrimp
pond management which should aim to reduce effluent
impact on adjacent waters, and to determine the fate
and mechanisms of assimilation of these nutrients.
The authors thank H. Boj6rquez Leyva and A. Nfifiez-Pastrn for his
assistance in the field and the laboratory and J. Ruelas-Inzunza for the
English revision. We are grateful to S. Hopkins for critically reviewing
and providing helpful comments on the manuscript. This work was
supported by a research grant from the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y
Tecnologia (CONACYT) through the project 0625-N9110.

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