Morality Is Not Relative

James Rachels

James Rachels (1941-2003)

American philosopher
from Columbus, Georgia
Specialized in ethics and
animal rights.
Taught at several
universities, including a
26 year career at the
University of Alabama
Died of cancer in 2003

James Rachels: 1. How Different Cultures

Have Different Moral Codes
He doesnt dispute the fact that
different cultures have different
moral codes
Points to several examples
(Callations eating the bodies of
their dead fathers and the Greeks
who chose to burn bodies)
He provides the example of
Eskimos as an additional, indepth proof of differences from
our moral codes

James Rachels: 1. How Different Cultures

Have Different Moral Codes (Contd)
Eskimos
Wife sharing
Infanticide females were
often killed, as parents
pleased and without social
stigma
Elderly abandonment- left
out in the cold to die when
deemed too weak to face
harsh conditions

James Rachels: 1. How Different Cultures

Have Different Moral Codes (Contd)
We might want to call the
Eskimo way of life primitive
or backward
Anthropologists and
sociologists, however, are not
surprised by the Eskimos way
of life
If we assume that our ideas of
right and wrong will be shared
by all peoples at all times, we
are merely nave.

James Rachels: 2. Cultural Relativism

Some say that the idea of universal truths

in ethics are a myth. He examines the
different claims of CR
Claims of the Cultural Relativists:
1. Different societies have different moral
codes.
2. There is no objective standard that can be
used to judge one societal code better than
another.

James Rachels: 2. Cultural Relativism

(Contd)

Claims of the Cultural Relativists:

4. There is no universal truth in ethicsthat is,
there are no moral truths that hold for all peoples
at all times.
5. The moral code of a society determines what is
right within that society; that is, if the moral code
of a society says that a certain action is right, then
that action is right, at least within that society.
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the
conduct of other peoples. We should adopt an

James Rachels: 3. The Cultural Differences

Argument

The strategy of the C. Relativist is to argue from facts

about the differences between cultural outlooks to a
conclusion about the status of morality.
Example #1:

(1) The Greeks believed that it was

wrong to eat the dead, whereas the
Callations believed it was right to eat
the dead.
(2) Therefore, eating the dead is neither

James Rachels: 3. The Cultural Differences

Argument

Example #2:
(1) The Eskimos see nothing wrong with
infanticide, whereas Americans believe
infanticide is immoral.
(2) Therefore, infanticide is neither
objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is
merely a matter of opinion, which varies
from culture to culture.
Therefore we are invited to accept that

James Rachels: 3. The Cultural Differences

Argument

Rachels points out that while many

people accept this logic, it is not sound
as the conclusion does not follow the
premise.
Even if the premise is true, the
conclusion might still be false.
Premise concerns what people
believe (e.g. in some cultures people
believe one thing)

James Rachels: 3. The Cultural

Differences Argument

Simply because there exists a

disagreement, doesnt mean that
objective truths dont exist.
World is round, world is flat example:
Rachels asks whether disagreement on
this topic means that there is no
objective truth in geography? Of
course not!
There is no reason to think that if

James Rachels: 4. The Consequences

of Taking CR Seriously

1. We cannot critique other cultures

Nazi Germany
2. We must look to society to tell us
what is right and wrong
Apartheid of South Africa (racial
segregation)
3. Moral progress is called into
question
Women not considered persons,
unable to vote, have paying jobs, and

James Rachels: 5. Why There is Less

Disagreement Than It Seems

Consider a society where it is wrong to

eat cows.
The culture is poor and there is not
enough food, yet the cows are not to
be touched.
It appears that this society has very
different cultural values.
However, we have not asked why the
society doesnt eat cows. Suppose it is
because they believe that after death,
souls inhabit bodies of animals and

James Rachels: 5. Why There is Less

Disagreement Than It Seems

Consider a society where it is wrong

to eat cows.
The difference lies in our belief
systems, not in our values.
Rachels argues that we agree that we
shouldnt eat Grandma (same values)
but disagree about whether the cow is
Grandma (different beliefs).

James Rachels: 6. How All Cultures

Have Some Values in Common

1. Protection of Young
a. helpless b. group would
eventually die out c. any cultural group
that continues to exist must care for
its young
2. Truth Telling
would make communication
difficult, making society impossible.
Conclusion: There are some moral
rules that all societies will have in

James Rachels: 7. What Can Be

Learned From CR
1. Warns us of the danger of assuming that
all of our preferences are based on some
absolute rational standard.
Some practices are peculiar
2. Keeping an open mind
We can become hardened in our ways;
deeming some behaviours acceptable
and others unacceptable.
E.g. homosexuality is immoral Once
someone points out to us that this is a
prejudice attitude, we may ignore reasons
that support why homosexuality is not