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The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria: Powerpoint Lectures For
The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria: Powerpoint Lectures For
Figure 18.1
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
0.5 m
Viruses
Are smaller and simpler still
Virus
Bacterium
Animal
cell
Figure 18.2
0.25 m
Figure 18.3
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Structure of Viruses
Viruses
Are very small infectious particles consisting of
nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and, in
some cases, a membranous envelope
Viral Genomes
Viral genomes may consist of
Double- or single-stranded DNA
Double- or single-stranded RNA
RNA
Capsomere
DNA
Glycoprotein
7090 nm (diameter)
18 250 mm
20 nm
50 nm
Capsid
RNA
Glycoprotein
80200 nm (diameter)
Figure 18.4c
50 nm
(c) Influenza viruses
Tail
sheath
DNA
Tail
fiber
80 225 nm
Figure 18.4d
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
50 nm
(d) Bacteriophage T4
DNA
Capsid
VIRUS
Transcription
Replication
HOST CELL
Viral DNA
mRNA
Viral DNA
Capsid
proteins
Self-assembly of
new
virus particles and
their exit from cell
Figure 18.5
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Phage assembly
Head
Tails
Tail fibers
Temperate phages
Are capable of using both the lytic and
lysogenic cycles of reproduction
Bacterial
chromosome
Lytic cycle
The cell lyses, releasing phages.
Lysogenic cycle
Certain factors
determine whether
Lytic cycle
is induced
Figure 18.7
or
Lysogenic cycle
is entered
Prophage
Table 18.1
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Viral Envelopes
Many animal viruses
Have a membranous envelope
Capsid
RNA
Envelope (with
glycoproteins)
HOST CELL
Viral genome (RNA)
Template
5 Complementary RNA
strands also function as mRNA,
which is translated into both
capsid proteins (in the cytosol)
and glycoproteins for the viral
envelope (in the ER).
mRNA
Capsid
proteins
ER
Glycoproteins
Copy of
genome (RNA)
6 Vesicles transport
envelope glycoproteins to
the plasma membrane.
8 New virus
7 A capsid assembles
Figure 18.8
Viral envelope
Capsid
Reverse
transcriptase
Figure 18.9
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
RNA
(two identical
strands)
Membrane of
white blood cell
2 Reverse transcriptase
catalyzes the synthesis of a
DNA strand complementary
to the viral RNA.
HOST CELL
3 Reverse transcriptase
catalyzes the synthesis of
a second DNA strand
complementary to the first.
Reverse
transcriptase
Viral RNA
0.25 m
HIV entering a cell
RNA-DNA
hybrid
4 The double-stranded
DNA is incorporated
as a provirus into the
cells DNA.
DNA
NUCLEUS
Chromosomal
DNA
RNA genome
for the next
viral generation
Provirus
mRNA
Figure 18.10
8 Capsids are
assembled around
viral genomes and
reverse transcriptase
molecules.
Evolution of Viruses
Viruses do not really fit our definition of living
organisms
Since viruses can reproduce only within cells
They probably evolved after the first cells
appeared, perhaps packaged as fragments of
cellular nucleic acid
Vaccines
Are harmless derivatives of pathogenic
microbes that stimulate the immune system to
mount defenses against the actual pathogen
Can prevent certain viral illnesses
Emerging Viruses
Emerging viruses
Are those that appear suddenly or suddenly
come to the attention of medical scientists
(a) Young ballet students in Hong Kong (b) The SARS-causing agent is a coronavirus
like this one (colorized TEM), so named for the
wear face masks to protect themselves
corona of glycoprotein spikes protruding from
from the virus causing SARS.
the envelope.
Figure 18.11 A, B
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 18.12
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Prions
Are slow-acting, virtually indestructible
infectious proteins that cause brain diseases in
mammals
Propagate by converting normal proteins into
the prion version
Prion
Original
prion
Many prions
Normal
protein
New
prion
Figure 18.13
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Termination
of replication
Figure 18.14
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Researchers had two mutant strains, one that could make arginine but not
tryptophan (arg+ trp) and one that could make tryptophan but not arginine (arg trp+). Each
mutant strain and a mixture of both strains were grown in a liquid medium containing all the
required amino acids. Samples from each liquid culture were spread on plates containing a
solution of glucose and inorganic salts (minimal medium), solidified with agar.
Mixture
Mutant
strain
arg+ trp
Figure 18.15
Mutant
strain
arg trp+
RESULTS
Only the samples from the mixed culture, contained cells that gave rise to colonies on
minimal medium, which lacks amino acids.
Mixture
Mutant
strain
arg+ trp
Mutant
strain
arg trp+
No
colonies
(control)
CONCLUSION
Colonies
grew
No
colonies
(control)
Because only cells that can make both arginine and tryptophan (arg+ trp+ cells) can grow into
colonies on minimal medium, the lack of colonies on the two control plates showed that no further mutations had
occurred restoring this ability to cells of the mutant strains. Thus, each cell from the mixture that formed a colony on the
minimal medium must have acquired one or more genes from a cell of the other strain by genetic recombination.
Transformation
Transformation
Is the alteration of a bacterial cells genotype
and phenotype by the uptake of naked, foreign
DNA from the surrounding environment
Transduction
In the process known as transduction
Phages carry bacterial genes from one host
cell to another
Phage DNA
A+ B+
A+ B+
Donor
cell
3 A bacterial DNA fragment (in this case a fragment with
Crossing
over
A+
A B
Recipient
cell
Figure 18.16
A+ B
Recombinant cell
Figure 18.17
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Sex pilus
1 m
F Plasmid
Bacterial chromosome
F+ cell
F+ cell
Mating
bridge
F cell
Bacterial
chromosome
F+ cell
3 DNA replication occurs in 4
both donor and recipient
cells, using the single
parental strands of the
F plasmid as templates
to synthesize complementary
strands.
Figure 18.18a
F+ cell
1
Hfr cell
A+
F factor
B+
C+
D+
C+
B+
D+
D+ C+
A+
B+
A+
D+ C+
B+
A+
A+
F cell
3
C
A
B+
D
B+
A+
C
A
A+
Temporary
partial
diploid
7
C D
A+
Figure 18.18b
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
B
A+
B+
B+
C
A
C
A
Recombinant F
bacterium
Insertion Sequences
An insertion sequence contains a single gene
for transposase
An enzyme that catalyzes movement of the
insertion sequence from one site to another
within the genome
Insertion sequence
3
A T C C G G T
A C C G G A T
TAG G C CA
TG G C C TA
Transposase gene
Inverted
Inverted
repeat
repeat
(a) Insertion sequences, the simplest transposable elements in bacteria, contain a single gene that
encodes transposase, which catalyzes movement within the genome. The inverted repeats are
backward, upside-down versions of each other; only a portion is shown. The inverted repeat
sequence varies from one type of insertion sequence to another.
Figure 18.19a
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Transposons
Bacterial transposons
Also move about within the bacterial genome
Have additional genes, such as those for
antibiotic resistance
Transposon
Insertion
sequence
Antibiotic
resistance gene
Insertion
sequence
Inverted repeats
Transposase gene
(b) Transposons contain one or more genes in addition to the transposase gene. In the transposon
shown here, a gene for resistance to an antibiotic is located between twin insertion sequences.
The gene for antibiotic resistance is carried along as part of the transposon when the transposon
is inserted at a new site in the genome.
Figure 18.19b
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Feedback
inhibition
Enzyme 1 Gene 1
Enzyme 2 Gene 2
Regulation
of gene
expression
Enzyme 3 Gene 3
Enzyme 4 Gene 4
Enzyme 5 Gene 5
Tryptophan
Figure 18.20a, b
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
An operon
Is usually turned on
Can be switched off by a protein called a
repressor
DNA
Promoter
Genes of operon
trpD
trpC
trpE
trpR
trpB
trpA
Operator
Regulatory
gene
mRNA
5
RNA
polymerase
Start codon
Stop codon
mRNA 5
E
Protein
Inactive
repressor
(a) Tryptophan absent, repressor inactive, operon on. RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA at the
promoter and transcribes the operons genes.
Figure 18.21a
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
DNA
No RNA made
mRNA
Protein
Active
repressor
Tryptophan
(corepressor)
(b) Tryptophan present, repressor active, operon off. As tryptophan
accumulates, it inhibits its own production by activating the repressor protein.
Figure 18.21b
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
In an inducible operon
Binding of an inducer to an innately inactive
repressor inactivates the repressor and turns
on transcription
DNA
Operator
lacl
lacZ
3
mRNA
Protein
No
RNA
made
RNA
polymerase
Active
repressor
(a) Lactose absent, repressor active, operon off. The lac repressor is innately active, and in
the absence of lactose it switches off the operon by binding to the operator.
Figure 18.22a
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
lac operon
DNA
lacl
lacz
3
mRNA
lacA
RNA
polymerase
mRNA 5'
5
mRNA
-Galactosidase
Protein
Allolactose
(inducer)
lacY
Permease
Transacetylase
Inactive
repressor
(b) Lactose present, repressor inactive, operon on. Allolactose, an isomer of lactose, derepresses
the operon by inactivating the repressor. In this way, the enzymes for lactose utilization are induced.
Figure 18.22b
Inducible enzymes
Usually function in catabolic pathways
Repressible enzymes
Usually function in anabolic pathways
lacl
lacZ
CAP-binding site
cAMP
Inactive
CAP
RNA
Operator
polymerase
can bind
Active
and transcribe
CAP
Inactive lac
repressor
(a) Lactose present, glucose scarce (cAMP level high): abundant lac mRNA synthesized.
If glucose is scarce, the high level of cAMP activates CAP, and the lac operon produces
Figure 18.23a
large amounts of mRNA for the lactose pathway.
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
lacl
lacZ
CAP-binding site
Operator
RNA
polymerase
cant bind
Inactive
CAP
Inactive lac
repressor
(b) Lactose present, glucose present (cAMP level low): little lac mRNA synthesized.
When glucose is present, cAMP is scarce, and CAP is unable to stimulate transcription.
Figure 18.23b