Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid

materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter

such as bone, DNA and various proteins)[1] in response to applied
mechanical strain. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting
from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein (),
which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (),
which stands for amber an ancient source of electric charge. [2]
Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect reflects electromechanical interactions that
exist in solid crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.[3] The
piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting
the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical
charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the
reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical
force resulting from an applied electrical field). For example, lead
zirconate titanate crystals will generate measurable piezoelectricity
when its static structure is deformed to about 0.1% of the original
dimension. Conversely, lead zirconate titanate crystals will change
about 0.1% of their static dimension when an external electric field is
applied to the material.
Piezoelectricity is found in useful applications such as the production
and detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic
frequency generation, microbalances, and ultra fine focusing of optical
assemblies. It is also the basis of a number of scientific instrumental
techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe microscopies
such as STM, AFM, MTA, SNOM, etc., and everyday uses such as acting
as the ignition source for cigarette lighters and push-start propane
barbecues.

History
Discovery and early research
The pyroelectric effect, where a material generates an electric
potential in response to a temperature change, was studied by Carl
Linnaeus and Franz Aepinus in the mid-18th century. Drawing on this
knowledge, both Ren Just Hay and Antoine Csar Becquerel posited
a relationship between mechanical stress and electric charge;
however, experiments by both proved inconclusive.
The first demonstration of the direct piezoelectric effect was in 1880 by
the brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie. They combined their

knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding of the underlying

crystal structures that gave rise to pyroelectricity to predict crystal
behavior, and demonstrated the effect using crystals of tourmaline,
quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt (sodium potassium
tartrate tetrahydrate). Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most
piezoelectricity.

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is greatly exaggerated)

The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect.
The converse effect was mathematically deduced from fundamental
thermodynamic principles by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.[4] The Curies
immediately confirmed the existence of the converse effect, and went
on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of electroelasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals.

Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the
occurrence of electric dipole moments in solids. The latter may either
be induced for ions on crystal lattice sites with asymmetric charge
surroundings (as in BaTiO3 and PZTs) or may directly be carried by
molecular groups (as in cane sugar). The dipole density or polarization
(dimensionality [Cm/m3] ) may easily be calculated for crystals by
summing up the dipole moments per volume of the crystallographic
unit cell.[5] As every dipole is a vector, the dipole density P is also a
vector or a directed quantity. Dipoles near each other tend to be
aligned in regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually
randomly oriented, but can be aligned during poling (not the same as
magnetic poling), a process by which a strong electric field is applied
across the material, usually at elevated temperatures.
Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the change of
polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be
caused by a re-configuration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by
re-orientation of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the

external stress. Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the

polarization strength, its direction or both, with the details depending
on 1. the orientation of P within the crystal, 2. crystal symmetry and 3.
the applied mechanical stress. The change in P appears as a variation
of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a variation of
the electrical field extending between the faces, since the units of
surface charge density and polarization are the same, C/m2] =
[Cm/m3]. However, piezoelectricity is not caused by a change in charge
density on the surface, but by dipole density in the bulk. For example,
a 1 cm3 cube of quartz with 2 kN (500 lbf) of correctly applied force can
produce a voltage of 12500 V.[6]
Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse
piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electrical field
creates mechanical deformation in the crystal.

Mathematical description
Piezoelectricity is the combined effect of the electrical behavior of the
material:
where D is the electric charge density displacement (electric
displacement), is permittivity and E is electric field strength, and
Hooke's Law:
where S is strain, s is compliance and T is stress.

Crystal classes

Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric potential. Shown
here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. In a piezoelectric device, mechanical stress, instead of an
externally applied voltage, causes the charge separation in the individual atoms of the material, .

Of the thirty-two crystal classes, twenty-one are non-centrosymmetric

(not having a centre of symmetry), and of these, twenty exhibit direct
piezoelectricity (the 21st is the cubic class 432). Ten of these represent
the polar crystal classes, which show a spontaneous polarization

without mechanical stress due to a non-vanishing electric dipole

moment associated with their unit cell, and which exhibit
pyroelectricity. If the dipole moment can be reversed by the
application of an electric field, the material is said to be ferroelectric.

Polar crystal classes: 1, 2, m, mm2, 4, 4 mm, 3, 3m, 6, 6 mm.

Piezoelectric crystal classes: 1, 2, m, 222, mm2, 4, 4, 422, 4 mm, 42m, 3, 32, 3m, 6, 6, 622, 6 mm,
62m, 23, 43m.

For polar crystals, for which P 0 holds without applying a mechanical

load, the piezoelectric effect manifests itself by changing the
magnitude or the direction of P or both. For the non-polar, but
piezoelectric crystals, on the other hand, a polarization P different from
zero is only elicited by applying a mechanical load. For them the stress
can be imagined to transform the material from a non-polar crystal
class (P =0) to a polar one [5], having P 0.

Materials
Many materials, both natural and man-made, exhibit piezoelectricity:

Naturally-occurring crystals

Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz

Cane sugar

Quartz

Rochelle salt

Man-made crystals

Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analogic crystal

Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analogic crystal

Lead-free piezoceramics
More recently, there is growing concern regarding the toxicity in leadcontaining devices driven by the result of restriction of hazardous
substances directive regulations. To address this concern, there has
been a resurgence in the compositional development of lead-free
piezoelectric materials.

Sodium potassium niobate (NaKNb). In 2004, a group of Japanese researchers led by Yasuyoshi
Saito discovered a sodium potassium niobate composition with properties close to those of PZT,
including a high TC.[14]

Bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is also a promising candidate for the replacement of lead-based ceramics.

Sodium niobate NaNbO3

So far, neither the environmental impact nor the stability of supplying

these substances have been confirmed.

Polymers

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): PVDF exhibits piezoelectricity several times

greater than quartz. Unlike ceramics, where the crystal structure of the material
creates the piezoelectric effect, in polymers the intertwined long-chain molecules
attract and repel each other when an electric field is applied.

Applications
Piezoelectric crystals are now used in numerous ways:

High voltage and power sources

Direct piezoelectricity of some substances like quartz, as mentioned
above, can generate potential differences of thousands of volts.

The best-known application is the electric cigarette lighter: pressing the button causes a springloaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, producing a sufficiently high voltage electric current
that flows across a small spark gap, thus heating and igniting the gas. The portable sparkers used
to light gas grills or stoves work the same way, and many types of gas burners now have built-in
piezo-based ignition systems.

A similar idea is being researched by DARPA in the United States in a project called Energy
Harvesting, which includes an attempt to power battlefield equipment by piezoelectric generators
embedded in soldiers' boots. However, these energy harvesting sources by association have an
impact on the body. DARPA's effort to harness 1-2 watts from continuous shoe impact while
walking were abandoned due to the impracticality and the discomfort from the additional energy
expended by a person wearing the shoes. Other energy harvesting ideas include harvesting the
energy from human movements in train stations or other public places. [15][16]

A piezoelectric transformer is a type of AC voltage multiplier. Unlike a conventional transformer,

which uses magnetic coupling between input and output, the piezoelectric transformer uses
acoustic coupling. An input voltage is applied across a short length of a bar of piezoceramic
material such as PZT, creating an alternating stress in the bar by the inverse piezoelectric effect
and causing the whole bar to vibrate. The vibration frequency is chosen to be the resonant
frequency of the block, typically in the 100 kilohertz to 1 megahertz range. A higher output
voltage is then generated across another section of the bar by the piezoelectric effect. Step-up
ratios of more than 1000:1 have been demonstrated. An extra feature of this transformer is that, by
operating it above its resonant frequency, it can be made to appear as an inductive load, which is
useful in circuits that require a controlled soft start.[17] These devices can be used in DC-AC
inverters to drive cold cathode fluorescent lamps. Piezo transformers are some of the most
compact high voltage sources.

Sensors

Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup

Many rocket-propelled grenades used piezoelectric fuze. For example: RPG-7[18]

Main article: Piezoelectric sensor

A piezo sensor attached to the body of an instrument is known as a

contact microphone.
Piezoelectric sensors especially are used with high frequency sound in
ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging and also industrial
nondestructive testing (NDT).
For many sensing techniques, the sensor can act as both a sensor and
an actuator often the term transducer is preferred when the device
acts in this dual capacity, but most piezo devices have this property of
reversibility whether it is used or not. Ultrasonic transducers, for
example, can inject ultrasound waves into the body, receive the
returned wave, and convert it to an electrical signal (a voltage). Most
medical ultrasound transducers are piezoelectric.
In addition to those mentioned above, various sensor applications
include:

Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of sonar waves.

Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. medical treatment, sonochemistry and
industrial processing).

Piezoelectric microbalances are used as very sensitive chemical and biological sensors.

Piezos are sometimes used in strain gauges.

Piezoelectric transducers are used in electronic drum pads to detect the impact of the drummer's
sticks.

Automotive engine management systems use piezoelectric transducers to detect detonation by

sampling the vibrations of the engine block and also to detect the precise moment of fuel injection
(needle lift sensors).

Ultrasonic piezo sensors are used in the detection of acoustic emissions in acoustic emission
testing.

Crystal earpieces are sometimes used in old or low power radios

Frequency standard
The piezoelectrical properties of quartz are useful as standard of
frequency.

Quartz clocks employ a tuning fork made from quartz that uses a combination of both direct and
converse piezoelectricity to generate a regularly timed series of electrical pulses that is used to
mark time. The quartz crystal (like any elastic material) has a precisely defined natural frequency
(caused by its shape and size) at which it prefers to oscillate, and this is used to stabilize the
frequency of a periodic voltage applied to the crystal.

The same principle is critical in all radio transmitters and receivers, and in computers where it
creates a clock pulse. Both of these usually use a frequency multiplier to reach the megahertz and
gigahertz ranges.

Reduction of vibrations and noise

Different teams of researchers have been investigating ways to reduce
vibrations in materials by attaching piezo elements to the material.
When the material is bent by a vibration in one direction, the vibrationreduction system responds to the bend and sends electric power to the
piezo element to bend in the other direction. Future applications of this
technology are expected in cars and houses to reduce noise.
In a demonstration at the Material Vision Fair in Frankfurt in November
2005, a team from TU Darmstadt in Germany showed several panels
that were hit with a rubber mallet, and the panel with the piezo
element immediately stopped swinging.
Piezoelectric ceramic fiber technology is being used as an electronic
damping system on some HEAD tennis rackets.[20]
http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/electrical/articles/42183.aspx
What is Instrument Transformer ? :
3 What is Instrument Transformer ? A transformer that is used in conjunction with a measuring
instrument. It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation properties to
measure high ac current and voltage.
Importance of Instrument transformers :
4 Importance of Instrument transformers In dc circuits for current and voltage measurement
we use ammeters and voltmeters. For measurement of high current ,it is usual to use low
range ammeter with suitable shunt. For measurement of high voltage, low range voltmeter are
used with high resistance connected in series. But for measurement of high A.C. current and
voltage we cannot use these methods. We use specially constructed instrument transformers.

Types of instrument transformers :

5 Types of instrument transformers These instrument transformers are of two types:- Current
transformers Potential transformers
Current Transformers :
6 Current Transformers Current transformer normally known as c.t. is a step up transformer.
These are used with low range ammeter to measure current in high voltage alternating circuits
where it is not practical to connect instrument and meters directly to lines. This is step up
transformer because when we step up the, voltage increases and current decreases. The
current is step down in a known ratio called current ratio.
Construction of C.T. :
7 Construction of C.T. C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line whose current is to be measured. The secondary consist of large number of
turns of fine wire, is connected across the ammeter terminals.
Working :
8 Working If a current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100:5 then it step
up the voltage 20 times and step down the current 1/20 times of its actual value. If we know
the current ratio I1/I2 and the reading of a.c. ammeter, the current can be calculated. Current
= ratio ammeter reading
Importance of short ckt. :
9 Importance of short ckt. Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally
works short circuited. If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the
secondary winding must be short ckted with the help of short ckt switch s. If this is not done,
then due to high m.m.f. will set up high flux in the core and it will produces excessive core loss
which produce heat and high voltage across the secondary terminals Hence the secondary of
current transformer is never left open.
Slide 10:
10
Potential transformer :
11 Potential transformer A PT is a step down transformer having many primary turns but few
secondary turns. In step down the voltage decreases and current increases, thus voltage can
be easily measured by using low range voltmeter. The voltage is stepped down in known ratio
called voltage ratio.
Construction and working of P.T. :
12 Construction and working of P.T. Construction A potential transformer has many primary
windings but few number of secondary windings that makes it step down transformer.
Voltmeter is connected to secondary winding usually voltmeter of 150 v is suitable. Working
Primary terminals are connected across the line to which the voltage is to be measured. The
voltmeter gives the transformed value of voltage at secondary. The deflection of voltmeter
when divided by transformed ratio gives the actual voltage at primary. Line voltage =
deflection / trasf. Ratio Where transformation ratio = V2/V1
Precaution for P.T. :

13 Precaution for P.T. Since the secondary of p.t. is connected to relays, their ratings are
usually 40 to 100 Watts. For safety purpose the secondary should be completely insulated from
the high voltage primary and should be in addition grounded.
Types of P.T. :
14 Types of P.T. Some types of p.t. are Shell type Dry type Oil type
Slide 15:
15
Slide 16:
16 THANK YOU INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS