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As Biology Revision Guide
As Biology Revision Guide
As Biology Revision Guide
Treatment of CVD
Blood clotting is a vital defence mechanism for the body. If you suffer a cut or graze,
then clotting can:
minimise blood loss
help prevent the entry of pathogens
provide a framework for repair.
But, if a clot occurs inside a blood vessel it can be very dangerous, blocking blood ow
and sometimes leading to the death of tissues.
Clot formation is stimulated when there is damage to a blood vessel. Damage
exposes collagen fi bres to which platelets (small cells with no nucleus formed
when a precursor cell fragments) attach. The platelets release a clotting factor called
thromboplastin. In the presence of calcium ions and vitamin K, thromboplastin
converts inactive prothrombin into active thrombin. This in turn converts the soluble
fi brinogen into insoluble fi brin, which forms a network of fi bres, trapping cells and
debris to make a clot.
Atherosclerosis
damage to
endothelial lining of
artery (e.g. by smoking,
high blood pressure)
raised blood
pressure
Athero (artery) sclerosis (hardening)
the plaque makes the wall become
less elastic and narrows the artery.
Mode of action
Risks/side effects
diuretics
(antihypertensive)
beta blockers
(antihypertensive)
ACE inhibitors
(antihypertensive)
statins
anticoagulants, e.g.
warfarin
platelet inhibitory
drugs, e.g. aspirin,
clopidogrel
build-up of calcium
salts and fi bres leading
to plaque formation
narrowing of
artery
CVD
stroke
blood supply
to part of
the brain
is cut off
angina
narrowing
of coronary
blood
vessels
heart attack
blockage of
coronary
vessels
Thinking Task
Q1 Use the outline flowchart
below to summarise the
clotting process by substituting
the correct terms from the
description on page 12.
A
Q1 List the factors which must be present in order for a blood clot to form.
Q2 Even if all the blood clotting chemicals you have listed in Q1 were present,
this would not allow a clot to form. What else is needed, apart from a
range of chemicals?
B
C
D
E
F
G
clot
The various types of cardiovascular disease (CVD), all caused as a result of atherosclerosis.
12
Topic 1.indd 12-13
13
9/7/09 11:07:09
Experiment
2 bacteria transferred
to medium
containing 14N
1 bacteria cultured
in medium
15
containing N
Protein synthesis
The genetic code in DNA is in the nucleus, but the proteins formed using the code are
made in the cytoplasm. So the DNA code is copied, making a molecule of messenger
RNA in a process called transcription. The mRNA passes into the cytoplasm through
nuclear pores and is used to make a polypeptide in a process called translation.
nucleus
first replication
2 bacteria transferred
to medium
14
containing N
1 bacteria cultured
in medium
15
containing N
transcription
mRNA
second replication
mRNA
Results
expected
results for
each theory
less dense
Meselson
and Stahls experiment.
Conclusion
conservative
model
During replication the two strands of DNA unwind and split apart. Free nucleotides
line up along each strand, observing the complementary base pairing rules (page 34).
The enzyme DNA polymerase bonds the nucleotides together as a phosphodiester
bond forms between each deoxyribose and adjacent phosphate group. Hydrogen
bonding links the two strands together.
expected
results for
each theory
M
:
<
G
G
ribonucleotides
T
A
A
<
+=G:gn\e^hmb]^liZbkni
pbmama^bk\hfie^f^gmZkr[Zl^l'
=G:iherf^kZl^ebgdl
Z]cZ\^gmgn\e^hmb]^l'
<
<
A
G
*Ar]kh`^g[hg]l[^mp^^gma^[Zl^l
[k^Zd%Zeehpbg`ma^=G:mh ngsbi '
Thinking Task
<
<
What is translation?
G
M
mRNA
forming
C
G
<
Q1
Q2
,Mphb]^gmb\Ze]Zn`am^k
lmkZg]lZk^\k^Zm^]'
DNA replication.
template
(antisense)
strand
<
dispersive
model
T
A
<
During transcription the DNA unwinds and hydrogen bonds between base pairs split
to separate the two strands. Only one strand is used in the formation of mRNA the
template (antisense) strand. The unused strand is called the sense strand.
sense
strand
second replication
semiconservative
model
Ribonucleotides are paired with their complement on the template strand: uracil pairs
with adenine instead of thymine. The ribonucleotides are then joined up by RNA
polymerase to form a strand of mRNA.
dispersive
model
more dense
first replication
protein
cytoplasm
semiconservative
model
tRNAamino acid
translation
conservative
model
DNA
Conclusion
Experiment
36
37
9/7/09 11:17:32
Some single-celled organisms and all multicellular organisms such as humans are made
up of eukaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell always contains:
The Golgi apparatus and rER are involved in the making and movement of proteins through the cell. The
arrows show the direction of transport. The proteins leave the cell by exocytosis, when the vesicles fuse with
the cell surface membrane.
The modifi ed protein is placed into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus. Some may be
exported out of the cell, such as extracellular enzymes, e.g. amylase and protease.
One way to investigate protein traffi cking is to use radioactive amino acids.
centrioles
mphaheehp\rebg]^kl
ZkkZg`^]Zmkb`am&Zg`e^l
mh^Z\ahma^k
A tissue was soaked in a solution of radioactive amino acids for a short period
of time and then transferred to a solution with non-radioactive amino acids.
lysosome
^g\ehl^][rZlbg`e^f^f[kZg^
\hgmZbgbg`]b`^lmbo^^gsrf^l
B
mitochondria
lnkkhng]^][rZ]hn[e^f^f[kZg^!^go^ehi^"
bgg^kf^f[kZg^_he]^]bgmh_bg`^k&ebd^
ikhc^\mbhgl\Zee^]\kblmZ^!lbg`neZk%\kblmZ"
\^gmkZeZk^Z\hgmZbglZc^eer\Zee^]ma^fZmkbq
_ehZmbg`bgma^fZmkbqZk^3
ribosomes
=G:!ZlZehhi"
Golgi apparatus
Zl^kb^lh_lbg`e^%\nko^]lZ\l
^g\ehl^][rZf^f[kZg^
^Z\alZ\bllfZee^kmaZgma^
ik^obhnlhg^
fZgro^lb\e^l\enlm^kZkhng]
ma^@he`bZiiZkZmnl
10 min
45 min
vesicles
60
rER
80
10
Golgi apparatus
10
80
30
total radioactivity
90
95
95
(a) The vesicles containing radioactivity can either come from rER or the Golgi
apparatus. Using evidence from the table, suggest whether these vesicles
come from rER or the Golgi apparatus.
52
Topic 3.indd 52-53
53
9/7/09 11:24:07
Cellular organisation
Multicellular organisms are organisms made up of many cells. These cells are not
random throughout the body but are organised. There are four levels of organisation
as shown below. Plant and animal examples are given.
glycogen granules,
lipid droplets
small
ribosomes
flagellum*
cells
tissues
organs
systems
cell wall
plasmids*
photosynthetic
membranes*
Feature
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic
Animal cell
Plant cell
present
present
absent
membrane-bound organelles
absent
present
present
DNA found as
a loop
separate strands
separate strands
slime capsule
sometimes present
never present
never present
agella
absent
cell wall
present (bacterial)
absent
present (cellulose)
small
medium
large
epidermal cell
spongy cell
Thinking Task
Q1 G
ive three structural differences between a typical prokaryotic
cell and a human liver cell.
Q2 G
ive one similarity between the structure of a nucleus and a
mitochondrion.
Q3 Describe how you could distinguish rER from Golgi apparatus.
Q4 List four membrane-bound organelles found in an animal cell.
guard cell
image
size
true
size
magnification
NB: To work out magnifi cation using the pyramid, use image size true size.
Thinking Task
Q1 Make a table to compare a
tissue and an organ.
54
Topic 3.indd 54-55
55
9/7/09 11:24:21
Endemism
1 m2 quadrat number
Species
Endemism describes the situation where a species is found in only one particular area.
The ring-tailed lemur is restricted to the island of Madagascar and so is considered to
be endemic to Madagascar.
Most scientists accepted that all life was either prokaryotic (cells
without a true nucleus) or eukaryotic (cells with a true nucleus).
The scientists are checking that the evidence is accurate and correct,
that the conclusions drawn are sensible and that the methods used
are appropriate.
Answers
D
Frequency of occurrence
0
A
70
Topic 4.indd 70-71
Thinking Task
Species
Q1 In a large population of
organisms, eight different
alleles were found for one gene.
However, when only half of the
population was sampled, six
different alleles were found
for the same gene. Suggest
two possible reasons for the
absence of the two alleles.
71
9/7/09 11:33:40